25983	----	Transcriber's Note: A couple of unusual spellings in the "ads" have been left as printed. * * * * * FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. _STATE OF NEW YORK_ _Department of Public Instruction_ _SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE_ _Albany_ December 26, 1896. [Illustration: (seal)] _Stenographic Letter_ Dictated by __________ W. E. Watt, President &c., Fisher Building, 277 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. My dear Sir: Please accept my thanks for a copy of the first publication of "Birds." Please enter my name as a regular subscriber. It is one of the most beautiful and interesting publications yet attempted in this direction. It has other attractions in addition to its beauty, and it must win its way to popular favor. Wishing the handsome little magazine abundant prosperity, I remain Yours very respectfully, [signature] State Superintendent. * * * * * Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville Ry. 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Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. +----------------------------+ | #A. REED & SONS PIANOS.# | +----------------------------+ Manufactured under patents granted by the governments of the United States, England, Germany, France and Canada. #A New and Scientific Method of Piano Construction# FREE SOUNDING BOARD, VIBRATION BAR, STRINGS RESTING ON ALUMINUM WHEELS, ANTI-MOISTURE PIN BLOCK, LATERAL PEDALS #Grand Diploma and Medal of Honor# Awarded at Columbian World's Exposition, 1893 Only American Piano receiving mention in the Official Report to the German Government #A. REED & SONS# No. 5 Adams Street ... CHICAGO Illustrated Catalogues ... containing full explanation Mailed Free. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. NOW READY. #THE STORY OF THE BIRDS.# By JAMES NEWTON BASKETT. Edited by Dr. W. T. Harris, U. S. Com'r of Education. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I.--A Bird's Forefathers. II.--How did the Birds First Fly, Perhaps? III.--A Bird's Fore Leg. IV.--Why did the Birds put on Soft Raiment? V.--The Cut of a Bird's Frock. VI.--About a Bird's Underwear. VII.--A Bird's Outer Wrap. VIII.--A Bird's New Suit. IX.--"Putting on Paint and Frills" among the Birds. X.--Color Calls among the Birds. XI.--War and Weapons among the Birds. XII.--Antics and Odor among the Birds. XIII.--The Meaning of Music among Birds. XIV.--Freaks of Bachelors and Benedicts in Feathers. XV.--Step-Parents among Birds. XVI.--Why did Birds begin to Incubate? XVII.--Why do the Birds Build So. XVIII.--Fastidious Nesting Habits of a few Birds. XIX.--What Mean the Markings and Shapes of Bird's Eggs? XX.--Why Two Kinds of Nestlings? XXI.--How Some Baby Birds are Fed. XXII.--How Some Grown-Up Birds get a Living. XXIII.--Tools and Tasks among the Birds. XXIV.--How a Bird Goes to Bed. XXV.--A Little Talk on Bird's Toes. XXVI.--The Way of a Bird in the Air. XXVII.--How and Why do Birds Travel? XXVIII.--What a Bird knows about Geography and Arithmetic. XXIX.--Profit and Loss in the Birds. XXX.--A Bird's Modern Kinsfolk. XXXI.--An Introduction to the Bird. XXXII.--Acquaintance with the Bird. 1 vol. 12mo. Cloth, 65 cents, postpaid. D. APPLETON & CO., New York, Boston, Chicago. Chicago Office, 243 Wabash Ave. #The Best is the Cheapest# #CROWN FOUNTAIN PENS# #CROWN GOLD PENS# Received Highest Awards at World's Fair, Chicago, 1893 [Illustration] ALL SIZES AND STYLES EVERY PEN GUARANTEED #CROWN PEN CO., Manufacturers# 78 State Street, CHICAGO, ILL. ALL MAKES OF FOUNTAIN AND GOLD PENS REPAIRED. THE #_Racycle_# NARROW TREAD Has so many good points of superiority that in justice to yourself you should investigate before you purchase any other wheel. The only mechanically correct wheel on earth. [Illustration] #Miami Cycle Co.,# [Illustration] MIDDLETOWN, OHIO. CHICAGO BRANCH: S. W. Cor. Wabash Ave. and Congess St.... Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. #Harvey Medical College# CO-EDUCATIONAL. [Illustration] 167-169-171 South Clark Street CHICAGO. Lectures every week day evening. Clinics all day. Four years graded course. Special three months summer course. For further information address FRANCES DICKINSON, M. D., Secy. The "OLD Reliable" House of #"ANDREWS"# FURNISHES Everything for Schools Rugby School Desks, Teachers' Desks and Chairs, Blackboards, Erasers, Dustless Crayons, Globes, Maps, Charts, Apparatus, etc., etc. #The Jones Model of the Earth# shows the reliefs of the land surface and ocean bed, 20 inches diameter. Used by the Royal Geographical Society, Cornell University. Normal, and other schools of various forms and grades. #The Deep Sea Globe.# This new 12 in. globe shows all that is seen on the common globe, but in addition the varying depths of the ocean bed, by color shading, also 500 soundings by figures. #The A. H. Andrews Co.# CHICAGO. (Next Auditorium) 300 WABASH AVE. Also Manufactures Office, Church and Bank Furniture. #Attend the Best.# #Chicago Business College# #Wabash and Randolph St.# (S. W. Corner.) New elegant building. Finer apartments than any other Commercial School in the United States. #SUMMER TERM for public schools pupils opens July 5. Two months $10.00.# #SPECIAL BUSINESS or SHORTHAND COURSE for teachers opens July 5. 2 mos. $15.00.# Send for Catalogue. GONDRING & VIRDEN, Prin. #F. Nussbaumer & Sons# #TAXIDERMISTS,# 18 S. Desplaines St., CHICAGO. Birds, Animals, Etc., Stuffed to Order and for Sale Specialties in this line put up in most Artistic manner at Low Prices Supplies for Schools, Colleges, and Museums #PREPARE FOR A GOOD POSITION# #by studying Architecture, Engineering, Electricity, Drafting, Mathematics, Shorthand, Typewriting, English, Penmanship, Bookkeeping, Business, Telegraphy, Plumbing.# Best teachers. Thorough individual instruction. Rates lower than any other school. Instruction also by mail in any desired study. Steam engineering a specialty. Call or address, INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 151 Throop St., Chicago. [Illustration: TRIAL FREE.] #FREE BABY CARRIAGE# Catalogue. Cut this out and send with your name and address, and we will mail you FREE our new Mammoth Catalogue of Baby Carriages, illustrating 100 different styles from $2.75. Carriages sent on 10 days Free trial. Buy direct and save dealers' profits. #OXFORD MDSE. CO., 300 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO.# [Illustration] #MY WIFE Can Not See How You Do It For the Money.# #$9.00# Buy the Oxford Improved SINGER Sewing Machine, with a complete set of attachments and guaranteed for 10 years. Shipped anywhere on 30 days' trial. No money required in advance. 75,000 now in use. World's Fair Medal awarded. Buy from factory, save dealers' and agents' profit. Write to-day for our Large Free Catalogue. #OXFORD MDSE. CO., 842 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO.# #New Occasions# #A Magazine of Social Progress.# EDITED BY FREDERICK UPHAM ADAMS. Sixty-four large pages devoted to live topics of popular interest, not one dull paragraph. Editorials, stories, short articles, letters, news items, poetry, humor, puzzles--in short a magazine that will delight every one who believes in human rights and majority rule. Sample copy 10 cents. Address #CHARLES H. KERR & COMPANY,# 56 Fifth Ave., Chicago. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. * * * * * #BIRDS# ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY #A MONTHLY SERIAL# DESIGNED TO PROMOTE #KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE# "With cheerful hop from perch to spray, They sport along the meads; In social bliss together stray, Where love or fancy leads. Through spring's gay scenes each happy pair Their fluttering joys pursue; Its various charms and produce share, Forever kind and true." CHICAGO, U. S. A. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 1896 * * * * * PREFACE. It has become a universal custom to obtain and preserve the likenesses of one's friends. Photographs are the most popular form of these likenesses, as they give the true exterior outlines and appearance, (except coloring) of the subjects. But how much more popular and useful does photography become, when it can be used as a means of securing plates from which to print photographs in a regular printing press, and, what is more astonishing and delightful, to produce the REAL COLORS of nature as shown in the subject, no matter how brilliant or varied. We quote from the December number of the Ladies' Home Journal: "_An excellent_ suggestion was recently made by the Department of Agriculture at Washington that the public schools of the country shall have a new holiday, to be known as Bird Day. Three cities have already adopted the suggestion, and it is likely that others will quickly follow. Of course, Bird Day will differ from its successful predecessor, Arbor Day. We can plant trees but not birds. It is suggested that Bird Day take the form of bird exhibitions, of bird exercises, of bird studies--any form of entertainment, in fact, which will bring children closer to their little brethren of the air, and in more intelligent sympathy with their life and ways. There is a wonderful story in bird life, and but few of our children know it. Few of our elders do, for that matter. A whole day of a year can well and profitably be given over to the birds. Than such study, nothing can be more interesting. The cultivation of an intimate acquaintanceship with our feathered friends is a source of genuine pleasure. We are under greater obligations to the birds than we dream of. Without them the world would be more barren than we imagine. Consequently, we have some duties which we owe them. What these duties are only a few of us know or have ever taken the trouble to find out. Our children should not be allowed to grow to maturity without this knowledge. The more they know of the birds the better men and women they will be. We can hardly encourage such studies too much." Of all animated nature, birds are the most beautiful in coloring, most graceful in form and action, swiftest in motion and most perfect emblems of freedom. They are withal, very intelligent and have many remarkable traits, so that their habits and characteristics make a delightful study for all lovers of nature. In view of the facts, we feel that we are doing a useful work for the young, and one that will be appreciated by progressive parents, in placing within the easy possession of children in the homes these beautiful photographs of birds. The text is prepared with the view of giving the children as clear an idea as possible, of haunts, habits, characteristics and such other information as will lead them to love the birds and delight in their study and acquaintance. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING * * * * * #BIRDS.# ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. ====================================================================== VOL. 1. MAY, 1897. No. 5. ====================================================================== NESTING TIME. "There swims no goose so gray, but soon or late, She takes some honest gander for a mate;" There live no birds, however bright or plain, But rear a brood to take their place again. --C. C. M. Quite the jolliest season of the year, with the birds, is when they begin to require a home, either as a shelter from the weather, a defence against their enemies, or a place to rear and protect their young. May is not the only month in which they build their nests, some of our favorites, indeed, waiting till June, and even July; but as it is the time of the year when a general awakening to life and activity is felt in all nature, and the early migrants have come back, not to re-visit, but to re-establish their temporarily deserted homes, we naturally fix upon the first real spring month as the one in which their little hearts are filled with titillations of joy and anticipation. In May, when the trees have put on their fullest dress of green, and the little nests are hidden from all curious eyes, if we could look quite through the waving branches and rustling leaves, we should behold the little mothers sitting upon their tiny eggs in patient happiness, or feeding their young broods, not yet able to flutter away; while in the leafy month of June, when Nature is perfect in mature beauty, the young may everywhere be seen gracefully imitating the parent birds, whose sole purpose in life seems to be the fulfillment of the admonition to care well for one's own. There can hardly be a higher pleasure than to watch the nest-building of birds. See the Wren looking for a convenient cavity in ivy-covered walls, under eaves, or among the thickly growing branches of fir trees, the tiny creature singing with cheerful voice all day long. Observe the Woodpecker tunneling his nest in the limb of a lofty tree, his pickax-like beak finding no difficulty in making its way through the decayed wood, the sound of his pounding, however, accompanied by his shrill whistle, echoing through the grove. But the nest of the Jay: Who can find it? Although a constant prowler about the nests of other birds, he is so wary and secretive that his little home is usually found only by accident. And the Swallow: "He is the bird of return," Michelet prettily says of him. If you will only treat him kindly, says Ruskin, year after year, he comes back to the same niche, and to the same hearth, for his nest. To the same niche! Think of this a little, as if you heard of it for the first time. But nesting-time with the birds is one of sentiment as well as of industry The amount of affectation in lovemaking they are capable of is simply ludicrous. The British Sparrow which, like the poor, we have with us always, is a much more interesting bird in this and other respects than we commonly give him credit for. It is because we see him every day, at the back door, under the eaves, in the street, in the parks, that we are indifferent to him. Were he of brighter plumage, brilliant as the Bobolink or the Oriole, he would be a welcome, though a perpetual, guest, and we would not, perhaps, seek legislative action for his extermination. If he did not drive away Bluebirds, whose nesting-time and nesting-place are quite the same as his own, we might not discourage his nesting proclivity, although we cannot help recognizing his cheerful chirp with generous crumbs when the snow has covered all the earth and left him desolate. C. C. MARBLE. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF WOMEN. EXTRACT FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON DRESS, BY ITS CHAIRMAN, MRS. FRANK JOHNSON. BIRDS, WINGS AND FEATHERS EMPLOYED AS GARNITURE. From the school-room there should certainly emanate a sentiment which would discourage forever the slaughter of birds for ornament. The use of birds and their plumage is as inartistic as it is cruel and barbarous. THE HALO. "One London dealer in birds received, when the fashion was at its height, a single consignment of thirty-two thousand dead humming birds, and another received at one time, thirty thousand aquatic birds and three hundred thousand pairs of wings." Think what a price to pay, Faces so bright and gay, Just for a hat! Flowers unvisited, mornings unsung, Sea-ranges bare of the wings that o'erswung-- Bared just for that! Think of the others, too, Others and _mothers_, too, Bright-Eyes in hat! Hear you no mother-groan floating in air, Hear you no little moan--birdling's despair-- Somewhere for that? Caught 'mid some mother-work, Torn by a hunter Turk, Just for your hat! Plenty of mother-heart yet in the world: All the more wings to tear, carefully twirled! _Women want_ that? Oh, but the shame of it, Oh, but the blame of it, Price of a hat! Just for a jauntiness brightening the street! This is your halo--O faces so sweet-- _Death_, and for that!--W. C. GANNETT. * * * * * [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. SCREECH OWL.] THE MOTTLED OR "SCREECH" OWL. "Night wanderer," as this species of Owl has been appropriately called, appears to be peculiar to America. They are quite scarce in the south, but above the Falls of the Ohio they increase in number, and are numerous in Virginia, Maryland, and all the eastern districts. Its flight, like that of all the owl family, is smooth and noiseless. He may be sometimes seen above the topmost branches of the highest trees in pursuit of large beetles, and at other times he sails low and swiftly over the fields or through the woods, in search of small birds, field mice, moles, or wood rats, on which he chiefly subsists. The Screech Owl's nest is built in the bottom of a hollow trunk of a tree, from six to forty feet from the ground. A few grasses and feathers are put together and four or five eggs are laid, of nearly globular form and pure white color. This species is a native of the northern regions, arriving here about the beginning of cold weather and frequenting the uplands and mountain districts in preference to the lower parts of the country. In the daytime the Screech Owl sits with his eyelids half closed, or slowly and alternately opening and shutting, as if suffering from the glare of day; but no sooner is the sun set than his whole appearance changes; he becomes lively and animated, his full and globular eyes shine like those of a cat, and he often lowers his head like a cock when preparing to fight, moving it from side to side, and also vertically, as if watching you sharply. In flying, it shifts from place to place "with the silence of a spirit," the plumage of its wings being so extremely fine and soft as to occasion little or no vibration of the air. The Owl swallows its food hastily, in large mouthfuls. When the retreat of a Screech Owl, generally a hollow tree or an evergreen in a retired situation, is discovered by the Blue Jay and some other birds, an alarm is instantly raised, and the feathered neighbors soon collect and by insults and noisy demonstration compel his owlship to seek a lodging elsewhere. It is surmised that this may account for the circumstance of sometimes finding them abroad during the day on fences and other exposed places. Both red and gray young are often found in the same nest, while the parents may be both red or both gray, the male red and the female gray, or vice versa. The vast numbers of mice, beetles, and vermin which they destroy render the owl a public benefactor, much as he has been spoken against for gratifying his appetite for small birds. It would be as reasonable to criticise men for indulging in the finer foods provided for us by the Creator. They have been everywhere hunted down without mercy or justice. During the night the Screech Owl utters a very peculiar wailing cry, not unlike the whining of a puppy, intermingled with gutteral notes. The doleful sounds are in great contrast with the lively and excited air of the bird as he utters them. The hooting sound, so fruitful of "shudders" in childhood, haunts the memory of many an adult whose earlier years, like those of the writer, were passed amidst rural scenery. THE SCREECH OWL. I wouldn't let them put my picture last in the book as they did my cousin's picture in March "BIRDS." I told them I would screech if they did. You don't see me as often as you do the Blue-bird, Robin, Thrush and most other birds, but it is because you don't look for me. Like all other owls I keep quiet during the day, but when night comes on, then my day begins. I would just as soon do as the other birds--be busy during the day and sleep during the night--but really I can't. The sun is too bright for my eyes and at night I can see very well. You must have your folks tell you why this is. I like to make my nest in a hollow orchard tree, or in a thick evergreen. Sometimes I make it in a hay loft. Boys and girls who live in the country know what a hay loft is. People who know me like to have me around, for I catch a good many mice, and rats that kill small chickens. All night long I fly about so quietly that you could not hear me. I search woods, fields, meadows, orchards, and even around houses and barns to get food for my baby owls and their mamma. Baby owls are queer children. They never get enough to eat, it seems. They are quiet all day, but just as soon as the sun sets and twilight gathers, you should see what a wide awake family a nest full of hungry little screech owls can be. Did you ever hear your mamma say when she couldn't get baby to sleep at night, that he is like a little owl? You know now what she means. I think I hear my little folks calling for me so I'll be off. Good night to you, and good morning for me. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. ORCHARD ORIOLE. 4/5 Life-size.] THE ORCHARD ORIOLE. The Orchard Oriole is here. Why has he come? To cheer, to cheer--C. C. M. The Orchard Oriole has a general range throughout the United States, spending the winter in Central America. It breeds only in the eastern and central parts of the United States. In Florida it is a summer resident, and is found in greatest abundance in the states bordering the Mississippi Valley. This Oriole appears on our southern border about the first of April, moving leisurely northward to its breeding grounds for a month or six weeks, according to the season, the males preceding the females several days. Though a fine bird, and attractive in his manners and attire, he is not so interesting or brilliant as his cousin, the Baltimore Oriole. He is restless and impulsive, but of a pleasant disposition, on good terms with his neighbors, and somewhat shy and difficult to observe closely, as he conceals himself in the densest foliage while at rest, or flies quickly about from twig to twig in search of insects, which, during the summer months, are his exclusive diet. The favorite haunts of this very agreeable songster, as his name implies, are orchards, and when the apple and pear trees are in bloom, and the trees begin to put out their leaves, his notes have an ecstatic character quite the reverse of the mournful lament of the Baltimore species. Some writers speak of his song as confused, but others say this attribute does not apply to his tones, the musician detecting anything but confusion in the rapidity and distinctness of his gushing notes. These may be too quick for the listener to follow, but there is harmony in them. In the Central States hardly an orchard or a garden of any size can be found without these birds. They prefer to build their nests in apple trees. The nest is different, but quite as curiously made as that of the Baltimore. It is suspended from a small twig, often at the very extremity of the branches. The outer part of the nest is usually formed of long, tough grass, woven through with as much neatness and in as intricate a manner as if sewed with a needle. The nests are round, open at the top, about four inches broad and three deep. It is admitted that few birds do more good and less harm than our Orchard Oriole, especially to the fruit grower. Most of his food consists of small beetles, plant lice, flies, hairless caterpillars, cabbage worms, grasshoppers, rose bugs, and larvæ of all kinds, while the few berries it may help itself to during the short time they last are many times paid for by the great number of insect pests destroyed, making it worthy the fullest protection. The Orchard Oriole is very social, especially with the king bird. Most of his time is spent in trees. His flight is easy, swift, and graceful. The female lays from four to six eggs, one each day. She alone sits on the eggs, the male feeding her at intervals. Both parents are devoted to their young. The fall migration begins in the latter part of July or the beginning of August, comparatively few remaining till September. THE MARSH HAWK. One of the most widely distributed birds of North America is the Marsh Hawk, according to Wilson, breeding from the fur regions around Hudson's Bay to Texas, and from Nova Scotia to Oregon and California. Excepting in the Southern portion of the United States, it is abundant everywhere. It makes its appearance in the fur countries about the opening of the rivers, and leaves about the beginning of November. Small birds, mice, fish, worms, and even snakes, constitute its food, without much discrimination. It is very expert in catching small green lizards, animals that can easily evade the quickest vision. It is very slow on the wing, flies very low, and in a manner different from all others of the hawk family. Flying near the surface of the water, just above the weeds and canes, the Marsh Hawk rounds its untiring circles hour after hour, darting after small birds as they rise from cover. Their never ending flight, graceful as it is, becomes monotonous to the watcher. Pressed by hunger, they attack even wild ducks. In New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, where it sweeps over the low lands, sailing near the earth, in search of a kind of mouse very common in such situations, it is chiefly known as the Mouse Hawk. In the southern rice fields it is useful in preventing to some extent the ravages of the swarms of Bobolinks. It has been stated that one Marsh Hawk was considered by planters equal to several negroes for alarming the rice birds. This Hawk when feeding is readily approached. The birds nest in low lands near the sea shore, in the barrens, and on the clear table-lands of the Alleghanies, and once a nest was found in a high covered pine barrens of Florida. The Marsh Hawks always keep together after pairing, working jointly in building the nest, in sitting upon the eggs, and in feeding the young. The nest is clumsily made of hay, occasionally lined with feathers, pine needles, and small twigs. It is built on the ground, and contains from three to five eggs of a bluish white color, usually more or less marked with purplish brown blotches. Early May is their breeding time. It will be observed that even the Hawk, rapacious as he undoubtedly is, is a useful bird. Sent for the purpose of keeping the small birds in bounds, he performs his task well, though it may seem to man harsh and tyranical. The Marsh Hawk is an ornament to our rural scenery, and a pleasing sight as he darts silently past in the shadows of falling night. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. MARSH HAWK.] CHICKADEE. Bird of the Merry Heart. Here is a picture of a bird that is always merry. He is a bold, saucy little fellow, too, but we all love him for it. Don't you think he looks some like the Canada Jay that you saw in April "BIRDS?" I think most of you must have seen him, for he stays with us all the year, summer and winter. If you ever heard him, you surely noticed how plainly he tells you his name. Listen--"Chick-a-dee-dee; Chick-a-dee; Hear, hear me"--That's what he says as he hops about from twig to twig in search of insects' eggs and other bits for food. No matter how bitter the wind or how deep the snow, he is always around--the same jolly, careless little fellow, chirping and twittering his notes of good cheer. Like the Yellow Warblers on page 169, Chickadees like best to make their home in an old stump or hole in a tree--not very high from the ground. Sometimes they dig for themselves a new hole, but this is only when they cannot find one that suits them. The Chickadee is also called Black-capped Titmouse. If you look at his picture you will see his black cap. You'll have to ask someone why he is called Titmouse. I think Chickadee is the prettier name, don't you? If you want to get well acquainted with this saucy little bird, you want to watch for him next winter, when most of the birds have gone south. Throw him crumbs of bread and he will soon be so tame as to come right up to the door step. THE SCISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER. Flycatchers are all interesting, and many of them are beautiful, but the Scissor-tailed species of Texas is especially attractive. They are also known as the Swallow-tailed Flycatcher, and more frequently as the "Texan Bird of Paradise." It is a common summer resident throughout the greater portion of that state and the Indian Territory, and its breeding range extends northward into Southern Kansas. Occasionally it is found in southwestern Missouri, western Arkansas, and Illinois. It is accidental in the New England states, the Northwest Territory, and Canada. It arrives about the middle of March and returns to its winter home in Central America in October. Some of the birds remain in the vicinity of Galveston throughout the year, moving about in small flocks. There is no denying that the gracefulness of the Scissor-tailed Flycatcher should well entitle him to the admiration of bird-lovers, and he is certain to be noticed wherever he goes. The long outer tail feathers he can open and close at will. His appearance is most pleasing to the eye when fluttering slowly from tree to tree on the rather open prairie, uttering his twittering notes, "Spee-spee." When chasing each other in play or anger these birds have a harsh note like "Thish-thish," not altogether agreeable. Extensive timber land is shunned by this Flycatcher, as it prefers more open country, though it is often seen in the edges of woods. It is not often seen on the ground, where its movements are rather awkward. Its amiability and social disposition are observed in the fact that several pairs will breed close to each other in perfect harmony. Birds smaller than itself are rarely molested by it, but it boldly attacks birds of prey. It is a restless bird, constantly on the lookout for passing insects, nearly all of which are caught on the wing and carried to a perch to be eaten. It eats moths, butterflies, beetles, grasshoppers, locusts, cotton worms, and, to some extent, berries. Its usefulness cannot be doubted. According to Major Bendire, these charming creatures seem to be steadily increasing in numbers, being far more common in many parts of Texas, where they are a matter of pride with the people, than they were twenty years ago. The Scissor-tails begin housekeeping some time after their arrival from Central America, courting and love making occupying much time before the nest is built. They are not hard to please in the selection of a suitable nesting place, almost any tree standing alone being selected rather than a secluded situation. The nest is bulky, commonly resting on an exposed limb, and is made of any material that may be at hand. They nest in oaks, mesquite, honey locust, mulberry, pecan, and magnolia trees, as well as in small thorny shrubs, from five to forty feet from the ground. Rarely molested they become quite tame. Two broods are often raised. The eggs are usually five. They are hatched by the female in twelve days, while the male protects the nest from suspicious intruders. The young are fed entirely on insects and are able to leave the nest in two weeks. The eggs are clear white, with markings of brown, purple, and lavender spots and blotches. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SCISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER.] THE BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE. "Chic-chickadee dee!" I saucily say; My heart it is sound, my throat it is gay! Every one that I meet I merrily greet With a chickadee dee, chickadee dee! To cheer and to cherish, on roadside and street, My cap was made jaunty, my note was made sweet. Chickadeedee, Chickadeedee! No bird of the winter so merry and free; Yet sad is my heart, though my song one of glee, For my mate ne'er shall hear my chickadeedee. I "chickadeedee" in forest and glade, "Day, day, day!" to the sweet country maid; From autumn to spring time I utter my song Of chickadeedee all the day long! The silence of winter my note breaks in twain, And I "chickadeedee" in sunshine and rain. Chickadeedee Chickadeedee! No bird of the winter so merry and free; Yet sad is my heart, though my song one of glee, For my mate ne'er shall hear my chickadeedee.--C. C. M. A saucy little bird, so active and familiar, the Black-Capped Chickadee, is also recognized as the Black Capped Titmouse, Eastern Chickadee, and Northern Chickadee. He is found in the southern half of the eastern United States, north to or beyond forty degrees, west to eastern Texas and Indian Territory. The favorite resorts of the Chickadee are timbered districts, especially in the bottom lands, and where there are red bud trees, in the soft wood of which it excavates with ease a hollow for its nest. It is often wise enough, however, to select a cavity already made, as the deserted hole of the Downy Woodpecker, a knot hole, or a hollow fence rail. In the winter season it is very familiar, and is seen about door yards and orchards, even in towns, gleaning its food from the kitchen remnants, where the table cloth is shaken, and wherever it may chance to find a kindly hospitality. In an article on "Birds as Protectors of Orchards," Mr. E. H. Forbush says of the Chickadee: "There is no bird that compares with it in destroying the female canker-worm moths and their eggs." He calculated that one Chickadee in one day would destroy 5,550 eggs, and in the twenty-five days in which the canker-worm moths run or crawl up the trees 138,750 eggs. Mr. Forbush attracted Chickadees to one orchard by feeding them in winter, and he says that in the following summer it was noticed that while trees in neighboring orchards were seriously damaged by canker-worms, and to a less degree by tent caterpillars, those in the orchard which had been frequented by the Chickadee during the winter and spring were not seriously infested, and that comparatively few of the worms and caterpillars were to be found there. His conclusion is that birds that eat eggs of insects are of the greatest value to the farmer, as they feed almost entirely on injurious insects and their eggs, and are present all winter, where other birds are absent. The tiny nest of the Chickadee is made of all sorts of soft materials, such as wool, fur, feathers, and hair placed in holes in stumps of trees. Six to eight eggs are laid, which are white, thickly sprinkled with warm brown. Mrs. Osgood Wright tells a pretty incident of the Chickadees, thus: "In the winter of 1891-2, when the cold was severe, the snow deep, and the tree trunks often covered with ice, the Chickadees repaired in flocks daily to the kennel of our old dog Colin and fed from his dish, hopping over his back and calling Chickadee, dee, dee, in his face, a proceeding that he never in the least resented, but seemed rather to enjoy it." PROTHONOTARY YELLOW WARBLERS. Quite a long name for such small birds--don't you think so? You will have to get your teacher to repeat it several times, I fear, before you learn it. These little yellow warblers are just as happy as the pair of wrens I showed you in April "BIRDS." In fact, I suspect they are even happier, for their nest has been made and the eggs laid. What do you think of their house? Sometimes they find an old hole in a stump, one that a woodpecker has left, perhaps, and there build a nest. This year they have found a very pretty place to begin their housekeeping. What kind of tree is it? I thought I would show only the part of the tree that makes their home. I just believe some boy or girl who loves birds made those holes for them. Don't you think so? They have an upstairs and a down stairs, it seems. Like the Wrens I wrote about last month, they prefer to live in swampy land and along rivers. They nearly always find a hole in a decayed willow tree for their nest--low down. This isn't a willow tree, though. Whenever I show you a pair of birds, always pick out the father and the mother bird. You will usually find that one has more color than the other. Which one is it? Maybe you know why this is. If you don't I am sure your teacher can tell you. Don't you remember in the Bobolink family how differently Mr. and Mrs. Bobolink were dressed? I think most of you will agree with me when I say this is one of the prettiest pictures you ever saw. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. CHICKADEE. Life-size.] [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. PROTHONOTARY WARBLER.] THE PROTHONOTARY, OR GOLDEN SWAMP WARBLER. The Golden Swamp Warbler is one of the very handsomest of American birds, being noted for the pureness and mellowness of its plumage. Baird notes that the habits of this beautiful and interesting warbler were formerly little known, its geographical distribution being somewhat irregular and over a narrow range. It is found in the West Indies and Central America as a migrant, and in the southern region of the United States. Further west the range widens, and it appears as far north as Kansas, Central Illinois, and Missouri. Its favorite resorts are creeks and lagoons overshadowed by large trees, as well as the borders of sheets of water and the interiors of forests. It returns early in March to the Southern states, but to Kentucky not before the last of April, leaving in October. A single brood only is raised in a season. A very pretty nest is sometimes built within a Woodpecker's hole in a stump of a tree, not more than three feet high. Where this occurs the nest is not shaped round, but is made to conform to the irregular cavity of the stump. This cavity is deepest at one end, and the nest is closely packed with dried leaves, broken bits of grasses, stems, mosses, decayed wood, and other material, the upper part interwoven with fine roots, varying in size, but all strong, wiry, and slender, and lined with hair. Other nests have been discovered which were circular in shape. In one instance the nest was built in a brace hole in a mill, where the birds could be watched closely as they carried in the materials. They were not alarmed by the presence of the observer but seemed quite tame. So far from being noisy and vociferous, Mr. Ridgway describes it as one of the most silent of all the warblers, while Mr. W. Brewster maintains that in restlessness few birds equal this species. Not a nook or corner of his domain but is repeatedly visited during the day. "Now he sings a few times from the top of some tall willow that leans out over the stream, sitting motionless among the marsh foliage, fully aware, perhaps, of the protection afforded by his harmonizing tints. The next moment he descends to the cool shadows beneath, where dark, coffee-colored waters, the overflow of a pond or river, stretch back among the trees. Here he loves to hop about the floating drift-wood, wet by the lapping of pulsating wavelets, now following up some long, inclining, half submerged log, peeping into every crevice and occasionally dragging forth from its concealment a spider or small beetle, turning alternately its bright yellow breast and olive back towards the light; now jetting his beautiful tail, or quivering his wings tremulously, he darts off into some thicket in response to a call from his mate; or, flying to a neighboring tree trunk, clings for a moment against the mossy hole to pipe his little strain, or look up the exact whereabouts of some suspected insect prize." THE INDIGO BUNTING. The Indigo Bunting's arrival at its summer home is usually in the early part of May, where it remains until about the middle of September. It is numerous in the eastern and middle states, inhabiting the continent and seacoast islands from Mexico, where they winter, to Nova Scotia. It is one of the very smallest of our birds, and also one of the most attractive. Its favorite haunts are gardens, fields of deep clover, the borders of woods, and roadsides, where, like the Woodpecker, it is frequently seen perched on the fences. It is extremely active and neat in its manners and an untiring singer, morning, noon, and night his rapid chanting being heard, sometimes loud and sometimes hardly audible, as if he were becoming quite exhausted by his musical efforts. He mounts the highest tops of a large tree and sings for half an hour together. The song is not one uninterrupted strain, but a repetition of short notes, "commencing loud, and rapid, and full, and by almost imperceptible gradations for six or eight seconds until they seem hardly articulated, as if the little minstrel were unable to stop, and, after a short pause, beginning again as before." Baskett says that in cases of serenade and wooing he may mount the tip sprays of tall trees as he sings and abandon all else to melody till the engrossing business is over. The Indigo Bird sings with equal animation whether it be May or August, the vertical sun of the dog days having no diminishing effect upon his enthusiasm. It is well known that in certain lights his plumage appears of a rich sky blue, varying to a tint of vivid verdigris green, so that the bird, flitting from one place to another, appears to undergo an entire change of color. The Indigo Bunting fixes his nest in a low bush, long rank grass, grain, or clover, suspended by two twigs, flax being the material used, lined with fine dry grass. It had been known, however, to build in the hollow of an apple tree. The eggs, generally five, are bluish or pure white. The same nest is often occupied season after season. One which had been used for five successive summers, was repaired each year with the same material, matting that the birds had evidently taken from the covering of grape vines. The nest was very neatly and thoroughly lined with hair. The Indigo feeds upon the ground, his food consisting mainly of the seed of small grasses and herbs. The male while moulting assumes very nearly the color of the female, a dull brown, the rich plumage not returning for two or three months. Mrs. Osgood Wright says of this tiny creature: "Like all the bright-hued birds he is beset by enemies both of earth and sky, but his sparrow instinct, which has a love for mother earth, bids him build near the ground. The dangers of the nesting-time fall mostly to his share, for his dull brown mate is easily overlooked as an insignificant sparrow. Nature always gives a plain coat to the wives of these gayly dressed cavaliers, for her primal thought is the safety of the home and its young life." [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. INDIGO BIRD. Life-size.] THE NIGHT HAWK. The range of the Night Hawk, also known as "Bull-bat," "Mosquito Hawk," "Will o' the Wisp," "Pisk," "Piramidig," and sometimes erroneously as "Whip-poor-will," being frequently mistaken for that bird, is an extensive one. It is only a summer visitor throughout the United States and Canada, generally arriving from its winter haunts in the Bahamas, or Central and South America in the latter part of April, reaching the more northern parts about a month later, and leaving the latter again in large straggling flocks about the end of August, moving leisurely southward and disappearing gradually along our southern border about the latter part of October. Major Bendire says its migrations are very extended and cover the greater part of the American continent. The Night Hawk, in making its home, prefers a well timbered country. Its common name is somewhat of a misnomer, as it is not nocturnal in its habits. It is not an uncommon sight to see numbers of these birds on the wing on bright sunny days, but it does most of its hunting in cloudy weather, and in the early morning and evening, returning to rest soon after dark. On bright moonlight nights it flies later, and its calls are sometimes heard as late as eleven o'clock. "This species is one of the most graceful birds on the wing, and its aerial evolutions are truly wonderful; one moment it may be seen soaring through space without any apparent movement of its pinions, and again its swift flight is accompanied by a good deal of rapid flapping of the wings, like that of Falcons, and this is more or less varied by numerous twistings and turnings. While constantly darting here and there in pursuit of its prey," says a traveler, "I have seen one of these birds shoot almost perpendicularly upward after an insect, with the swiftness of an arrow. The Night Hawk's tail appears to assist it greatly in these sudden zigzag changes, being partly expanded during most of its complicated movements." Night Hawks are sociable birds, especially on the wing, and seem to enjoy each other's company. Their squeaking call note, sounding like "Speek-speek," is repeated at intervals. These aerial evolutions are principally confined to the mating season. On the ground the movements of this Hawk are slow, unsteady, and more or less laborious. Its food consists mainly of insects, such as flies and mosquitos, small beetles, grasshoppers, and the small night-flying moths, all of which are caught on the wing. A useful bird, it deserves the fullest protection. The favorite haunts of the Night Hawk are the edges of forests and clearings, burnt tracts, meadow lands along river bottoms, and cultivated fields, as well as the flat mansard roofs in many of our larger cities, to which it is attracted by the large amount of food found there, especially about electric lights. During the heat of the day the Night Hawk may be seen resting on limbs of trees, fence rails, the flat surface of lichen-covered rock, on stone walls, old logs, chimney tops, and on railroad tracks. It is very rare to find it on the ground. The nesting-time is June and July. No nest is made, but two eggs are deposited on the bare ground, frequently in very exposed situations, or in slight depressions on flat rocks, between rows of corn, and the like. Only one brood is raised. The birds sit alternately for about sixteen days. There is endless variation in the marking of the eggs, and it is considered one of the most difficult to describe satisfactorily. THE NIGHT HAWK. As you will see from my name, I am a bird of the night. Daytime is not at all pleasing to me because of its brightness and noise. I like the cool, dark evenings when the insects fly around the house-tops. They are my food and it needs a quick bird to catch them. If you will notice my flight, you will see it is swift and graceful. When hunting insects we go in a crowd. It is seldom that people see us because of the darkness. Often we stay near a stream of water, for the fog which rises in the night hides us from the insects on which we feed. None of us sing well--we have only a few doleful notes which frighten people who do not understand our habits. In the daytime we seek the darkest part of the woods, and perch lengthwise on the branches of trees, just as our cousins the Whippoorwills do. We could perch crosswise just as well. Can you think why we do not? If there be no woods near, we just roost upon the ground. Our plumage is a mottled brown--the same color of the bark on which we rest. Our eggs are laid on the ground, for we do not care to build nests. There are only two of them, dull white with grayish brown marks on them. Sometimes we lay our eggs on flat roofs in cities, and stay there during the day, but we prefer the country where there is good pasture land. I think my cousin Whippoorwill is to talk to you next month. People think we are very much alike. You can judge for yourself when you see his picture. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. NIGHT HAWK. 3/5 Life-size.] THE WOOD THRUSH. "With what a clear And ravishing sweetness sang the plaintive Thrush; I love to hear his delicate rich voice, Chanting through all the gloomy day, when loud Amid the trees is dropping the big rain, And gray mists wrap the hill; foraye the sweeter His song is when the day is sad and dark." So many common names has the Wood Thrush that he would seem to be quite well known to every one. Some call him the Bell Thrush, others Bell Bird, others again Wood Robin, and the French Canadians, who love his delicious song, Greve des Bois and Merle Taune. In spite of all this, however, and although a common species throughout the temperate portions of eastern North America, the Wood Thrush can hardly be said to be a well-known bird in the same sense as the Robin, the Catbird, or other more familiar species; "but to every inhabitant of rural districts his song, at least, is known, since it is of such a character that no one with the slightest appreciation of harmony can fail to be impressed by it." Some writers maintain that the Wood Thrush has a song of a richer and more melodious tone than that of any other American bird; and that, did it possess continuity, would be incomparable. Damp woodlands and shaded dells are favorite haunts of this Thrush, but on some occasions he will take up his residence in parks within large cities. He is not a shy bird, yet it is not often that he ventures far from the wild wood of his preference. The nest is commonly built upon a horizontal branch of a low tree, from six to ten--rarely much more--feet from the ground. The eggs are from three to five in number, of a uniform greenish color; thus, like the nest, resembling those of the Robin, except that they are smaller. In spite of the fact that his name indicates his preference for the woods, we have seen this Thrush, in parks and gardens, his brown back and spotted breast making him unmistakable as he hops over the grass for a few yards, and pauses to detect the movement of a worm, seizing it vigorously a moment after. He eats ripening fruits, especially strawberries and gooseberries, but no bird can or does destroy so many snails, and he is much less an enemy than a friend of the gardener. It would be well if our park commissioners would plant an occasional fruit tree--cherry, apple, and the like--in the public parks, protecting them from the ravages of every one except the birds, for whose sole benefit they should be set aside. The trees would also serve a double purpose of ornament and use, and the youth who grow up in the city, and rarely ever see an orchard, would become familiar with the appearance of fruit trees. The birds would annually increase in numbers, as they would not only be attracted to the parks thereby, but they would build their nests and rear their young under far more favorable conditions than now exist. The criticism that birds are too largely destroyed by hunters should be supplemented by the complaint that they are also allowed to perish for want of food, especially in seasons of unusual scarcity or severity. Food should be scattered through the parks at proper times, nesting boxes provided--not a few, but many--and then The happy mother of every brood Will twitter notes of gratitude. THE WOOD THRUSH. The Bird of Solitude. Of all the Thrushes this one is probably the most beautiful. I think the picture shows it. Look at his mottled neck and breast. Notice his large bright eye. Those who have studied birds think he is the most intelligent of them all. He is the largest of the Thrushes and has more color in his plumage. All who have heard him agree that he is one of the sweetest singers among birds. Unlike the Robin, Catbird, or Brown Thrush, he enjoys being heard and not seen. His sweetest song may be heard in the cool of the morning or evening. It is then that his rich notes, sounding like a flute, are heard from the deep wood. The weather does not affect his song. Rain or shine, wet or dry, he sings, and sings, and sings. During the light of day the Wood Thrush likes to stay in the cool shade of the woods. Along toward evening, after sunset, when other birds are settling themselves for the night, out of the wood you will hear his evening song. It begins with a strain that sounds like, "Come with me," and by the time he finishes you are in love with his song. The Wood Thrush is very quiet in his habits. So different from the noisy, restless Catbird. The only time that he is noisy is when his young are in danger. Then he is as active as any of them. A Wood Thrush's nest is very much like a Robin's. It is made of leaves, rootlets and fine twigs woven together with an inner wall of mud, and lined with fine rootlets. The eggs, three to five, are much like the Robin's. Compare the picture of the Wood Thrush with that of the Robin or Brown Thrush and see which you think is the prettiest. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. WOOD THRUSH. Life-size.] THE AMERICAN CATBIRD. The Catbird derives his name from a fancied resemblance of some of his notes to the mew of the domestic cat. He is a native of America, and is one of the most familiarly known of our famous songsters. He is a true thrush, and is one of the most affectionate of our birds. Wilson has well described his nature, as follows: "In passing through the woods in summer I have sometimes amused myself with imitating the violent chirping or clucking of young birds, in order to observe what different species were round me; for such sounds at such a season in the woods are no less alarming to the feathered tenants of the bushes than the cry of fire or murder in the street is to the inhabitants of a large city. On such occasion of alarm and consternation, the Catbird is first to make his appearance, not single but sometimes half a dozen at a time, flying from different quarters to the spot. At this time those who are disposed to play on his feelings may almost throw him into a fit, his emotion and agitation are so great at what he supposes to be the distressful cries of his young. He hurries backward and forward, with hanging wings, open mouth, calling out louder and faster, and actually screaming with distress, until he appears hoarse with his exertions. He attempts no offensive means, but he wails, he implores, in the most pathetic terms with which nature has supplied him, and with an agony of feeling which is truly affecting. At any other season the most perfect imitations have no effect whatever on him." The Catbird is a courageous little creature, and in defense of its young it is so bold that it will contrive to drive away any snake that may approach its nest, snakes being its special aversion. His voice is mellow and rich, and is a compound of many of the gentle trills and sweet undulations of our various woodland choristers, delivered with apparent caution, and with all the attention and softness necessary to enable the performer to please the ear of his mate. Each cadence passes on without faltering and you are sure to recognize the song he so sweetly imitates. While they are are all good singers, occasionally there is one which excels all his neighbors, as is frequently the case among canaries. The Catbird builds in syringa bushes, and other shrubs. In New England he is best known as a garden bird. Mabel Osgood Wright, in "Birdcraft," says: "I have found it nesting in all sorts of places, from an alder bush, overhanging a lonely brook, to a scrub apple in an open field, never in deep woods, and it is only in its garden home, and in the hedging bushes of an adjoining field, that it develops its best qualities--'lets itself out,' so to speak. The Catbirds in the garden are so tame that they will frequently perch on the edge of the hammock in which I am sitting, and when I move they only hop away a few feet with a little flutter. The male is undoubtedly a mocker, when he so desires, but he has an individual and most delightful song, filled with unexpected turns and buoyant melody." THE CATBIRD. What do you think of this nest of eggs? What do you suppose Mrs. Catbird's thoughts are as she looks at them so tenderly? Don't you think she was very kind to let me take the nest out of the hedge where I found it, so you could see the pretty greenish blue eggs? I shall place it back where I got it. Catbirds usually build their nests in hedges, briars, or bushes, so they are never very high from the ground. Did you ever hear the Catbird sing? He is one of the sweetest singers and his song is something like his cousin's, the Brown Thrush, only not so loud. He can imitate the songs of other birds and the sounds of many animals. He can _mew_ like a cat, and it is for this reason that he is called "Catbird." His sweetest song, though, is soft and mellow and is sung at just such times as this--when thinking of the nest, the eggs, or the young. The Catbird is a good neighbor among birds. If any other bird is in trouble of any sort, he will do all he can to relieve it. He will even feed and care for little birds whose parents have left them. Don't you think he ought to have a prettier name? Now remember, the Catbird is a Thrush. I want you to keep track of all the Thrushes as they appear in "BIRDS." I shall try to show you a Thrush each month. Next month you shall see the sweetest singer of American birds. He, too, is a Thrush. I wonder if you know what bird I mean. Ask your mamma to buy you a book called "Bird Ways." It was written by a lady who spent years watching and studying birds. She tells so many cute things about the Catbird. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. CATBIRD. 3/5 Life-size. 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Our "Bird" Wheel is one of the best on the market--as neat and attractive as "Birds." We shall be glad to quote a special price for teachers or clubs. We can furnish any article or book as premium for subscriptions for "Birds." Address, #_Nature Study Publishing Co. Chicago, Ill._# #Nature Study Publishing Company.# The Nature Study Publishing Company is a corporation of educators and business men organized to furnish correct reproductions of the colors and forms of nature to families, schools, and scientists. Having secured the services of artists who have succeeded in photographing and reproducing objects in their natural colors, by a process whose principles are well known but in which many of the details are held secret, we obtained a charter from the Secretary of State in November, 1896, and began at once the preparation of photographic color plates for a series of pictures of birds. 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30511	----	BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. II. SEPTEMBER NO. 3 ================================ BIRD SONG. How songs are made Is a mystery, Which studied for years Still baffles me. --R. H. STODDARD. "Some birds are poets and sing all summer," says Thoreau. "They are the true singers. Any man can write verses in the love season. We are most interested in those birds that sing for the love of music, and not of their mates; who meditate their strains and amuse themselves with singing; the birds whose strains are of deeper sentiment." Thoreau does not mention by name any of the poet-birds to which he alludes, but we think our selections for the present month include some of them. The most beautiful specimen of all, which is as rich in color and "sun-sparkle" as the most polished gem to which he owes his name, the Ruby-throated Humming Bird, cannot sing at all, uttering only a shrill mouse-like squeak. The humming sound made by his wings is far more agreeable than his voice, for "when the mild gold stars flower out" it announces his presence. Then "A dim shape quivers about Some sweet rich heart of a rose." He hovers over all the flowers that possess the peculiar sweetness that he loves--the blossoms of the honeysuckle, the red, the white, and the yellow roses, and the morning glory. The red clover is as sweet to him as to the honey bee, and a pair of them may often be seen hovering over the blossoms for a moment, and then disappearing with the quickness of a flash of light, soon to return to the same spot and repeat the performance. _Squeak, squeak!_ is probably their call note. Something of the poet is the Yellow Warbler, though his song is not quite as long as an epic. He repeats it a little too often, perhaps, but there is such a pervading cheerfulness about it that we will not quarrel with the author. _Sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet-sweeter-sweeter!_ is his frequent contribution to the volume of nature, and all the while he is darting about the trees, "carrying sun-glints on his back wherever he goes." His song is appropriate to every season, but it is in the spring, when we hear it first, that it is doubly welcome to the ear. The grateful heart asks with Bourdillon: "What tidings hath the Warbler heard That bids him leave the lands of summer For woods and fields where April yields Bleak welcome to the blithe newcomer?" The Mourning Dove may be called the poet of melancholy, for its song is, to us, without one element of cheerfulness. Hopeless despair is in every note, and, as the bird undoubtedly does have cheerful moods, as indicated by its actions, its song must be appreciated only by its mate. _Coo-o, coo-o!_ suddenly thrown upon the air and resounding near and far is something hardly to be extolled, we should think, and yet the beautiful and graceful Dove possesses so many pretty ways that every one is attracted to it, and the tender affection of the mated pair is so manifest, and their constancy so conspicuous, that the name has become a symbol of domestic concord. The Cuckoo must utter his note in order to be recognized, for few that are learned in bird lore can discriminate him save from his notes. He proclaims himself by calling forth his own name, so that it is impossible to make a mistake about him. Well, his note is an agreeable one and has made him famous. As he loses his song in the summer months, he is inclined to make good use of it when he finds it again. English boys are so skillful in imitating the Cuckoo's song, which they do to an exasperating extent, that the bird himself may often wish for that of the Nightingale, which is inimitable. But the Cuckoo's song, monotonous as it is, is decidedly to be preferred to that of the female House Wren, with its _Chit-chit-chit-chit_, when suspicious or in anger. The male, however, is a real poet, let us say--and sings a merry roulade, sudden, abruptly ended, and frequently repeated. He sings, apparently, for the love of music, and is as merry and gay when his mate is absent as when she is at his side, proving that his singing is not solely for her benefit. So good an authority as Dr. Coues vouches for the exquisite vocalization of the Ruby-crowned Kinglet. Have you ever heard a wire vibrating? Such is the call note of the Ruby, thin and metallic. But his song has a fullness, a variety, and a melody, which, being often heard in the spring migration, make this feathered beauty additionally attractive. Many of the fine songsters are not brilliantly attired, but this fellow has a combination of attractions to commend him as worthy of the bird student's careful attention. Of the Hermit Thrush, whose song is celebrated, we will say only, "Read everything you can find about him." He will not be discovered easily, for even Olive Thorne Miller, who is presumed to know all about birds, tells of her pursuit of the Hermit in northern New York, where it was said to be abundant, and finding, when she looked for him, that he had always "been there" and was gone. But one day in August she saw the bird and heard the song and exclaimed: "This only was lacking--this crowns my summer." The Song Sparrow can sing too, and the Phoebe, beloved of man, and the White-breasted Nuthatch, a little. They do not require the long-seeking of the Hermit Thrush, whose very name implies that he prefers to flock by himself, but can be seen in our parks throughout the season. But the Sparrow loves the companionship of man, and has often been a solace to him. It is stated by the biographer of Kant, the great metaphysician, that at the age of eighty he had become indifferent to much that was passing around him in which he had formerly taken great interest. The flowers showed their beautious hues to him in vain; his weary vision gave little heed to their loveliness; their perfume came unheeded to the sense which before had inhaled it with eagerness. The coming on of spring, which he had been accustomed to hail with delight, now gave him no joy save that it brought back a little Sparrow, which came annually and made its home in a tree that stood by his window. Year after year, as one generation went the way of all the earth, another would return to its birth-place to reward the tender care of their benefactor by singing to him their pleasant songs. And he longed for their return in the spring with "an eagerness and intensity of expectation." How many provisions nature has for keeping us simple-hearted and child-like! The Song Sparrow is one of them. --C. C. MARBLE. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SUMMER YELLOW-BIRD. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE YELLOW WARBLER. In a recent article Angus Gaines describes so delightfully some of the characteristics of the Yellow Warbler, or Summer Yellow-bird, sometimes called the Wild Canary, that we are tempted to make use of part of it. "Back and forth across the garden the little yellow birds were flitting, dodging through currant and gooseberry bushes, hiding in the lilacs, swaying for an instant on swinging sprays of grape vines, and then flashing out across the garden beds like yellow sunbeams. They were lithe, slender, dainty little creatures, and were so quick in their movements that I could not recognize them at first, but when one of them hopped down before me, lifted a fallen leaf and dragged a cutworm from beneath it, and, turning his head, gave me a sidewise glance with his victim still struggling in his beak, I knew him. His gay coat was yellow without the black cap, wings, and tail which show in such marked contrast to the bright canary hue of that other yellow bird, the Gold-finch. "Small and delicate as these birds are, they had been on a long journey to the southward to spend the winter, and now on the first of May, they had returned to their old home to find the land at its fairest--all blossoms, buds, balmy air, sunshine, and melody. As they flitted about in their restless way, they sang the soft, low, warbling trills, which gave them their name of Yellow Warbler." Mrs. Wright says these beautiful birds come like whirling leaves, half autumn yellow, half green of spring, the colors blending as in the outer petals of grass-grown daffodils. "Lovable, cheerful little spirits, darting about the trees, exclaiming at each morsel that they glean. Carrying sun glints on their backs wherever they go, they should make the gloomiest misanthrope feel the season's charm. They are so sociable and confiding, feeling as much at home in the trees by the house as in seclusion." The Yellow-bird builds in bushes, and the nest is a wonderful example of bird architecture. Milkweed, lint and its strips of fine bark are glued to twigs, and form the exterior of the nest. Its inner lining is made of the silky down on dandelion-balls woven together with horse-hair. In this dainty nest are laid four or five creamy white eggs, speckled with lilac tints and red-browns. The unwelcome egg of the Cow-bird is often found in the Yellow-bird's nest, but this Warbler builds a floor over the egg, repeating the expedient, if the Cow-bird continues her mischief, until sometimes a third story is erected. A pair of Summer Yellow-birds, we are told, had built their nest in a wild rose bush, and were rearing their family in a wilderness of fragrant blossoms whose tinted petals dropped upon the dainty nest, or settled upon the back of the brooding mother. The birds, however, did not stay "to have their pictures taken," but their nest may be seen among the roses. The Yellow Warbler's song is _Sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet-sweet-sweeter-sweeter_: seven times repeated. THE HERMIT THRUSH. In John Burroughs' "Birds and Poets" this master singer is described as the most melodious of our songsters, with the exception of the Wood Thrush, a bird whose strains, more than any other's, express harmony and serenity, and he complains that no merited poetic monument has yet been reared to it. But there can be no good reason for complaining of the absence of appreciative prose concerning the Hermit. One writer says: "How pleasantly his notes greet the ear amid the shrieking of the wind and the driving snow, or when in a calm and lucid interval of genial weather we hear him sing, if possible, more richly than before. His song reminds us of a coming season when the now dreary landscape will be clothed in a blooming garb befitting the vernal year--of the song of the Blackbird and Lark, and hosts of other tuneful throats which usher in that lovely season. Should you disturb him when singing he usually drops down and awaits your departure, though sometimes he merely retires to a neighboring tree and warbles as sweetly as before." In "Birdcraft" Mrs. Wright tells us, better than any one else, the story of the Hermit. She says: "This spring, the first week in May, when standing at the window about six o'clock in the morning, I heard an unusual note, and listened, thinking it at first a Wood Thrush and then a Thrasher, but soon finding that it was neither of these I opened the window softly and looked among the near by shrubs, with my glass. The wonderful melody ascended gradually in the scale as it progressed, now trilling, now legato, the most perfect, exalted, unrestrained, yet withal, finished bird song that I ever heard. At the first note I caught sight of the singer perching among the lower sprays of a dogwood tree. I could see him perfectly: it was the Hermit Thrush. In a moment he began again. I have never heard the Nightingale, but those who have say that it is the surroundings and its continuous night singing that make it even the equal of our Hermit; for, while the Nightingales sing in numbers in the moonlit groves, the Hermit tunes his lute sometimes in inaccessible solitudes, and there is something immaterial and immortal about the song." The Hermit Thrush is comparatively common in the northeast, and in Pennsylvania it is, with the exception of the Robin, the commonest of the Thrushes. In the eastern, as in many of the middle states, it is only a migrant. It is usually regarded as a shy bird. It is a species of more general distribution than any of the small Thrushes, being found entirely across the continent and north to the Arctic regions. It is not quite the same bird, however, in all parts of its range, the Rocky Mountain region being occupied by a larger, grayer race, while on the Pacific coast a dwarf race takes its place. It is known in parts of New England as the "Ground Swamp Robin," and in other localities as "Swamp Angel." True lovers of nature find a certain spiritual satisfaction in the song of this bird. "In the evening twilight of a June day," says one of these, "when all nature seemed resting in quiet, the liquid, melting, lingering notes of the solitary bird would steal out upon the air and move us strangely. What was the feeling it awoke in our hearts? Was it sorrow or joy, fear or hope, memory or expectation? And while we listened, we thought the meaning of it all was coming; it was trembling on the air, and in an instant it would reach us. Then it faded, it was gone, and we could not even remember what it had been." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. HERMIT THRUSH. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE HERMIT THRUSH. I am sorry, children, that I cannot give you a specimen of my song as an introduction to the short story of my life. One writer about my family says it is like this: "O spheral, spheral! O holy, holy! O clear away, clear away! O clear up, clear up!" as if I were talking to the weather. May be my notes do sound something like that, but I prefer you should hear me sing when I am alone in the woods, and other birds are silent. It is ever being said of me that I am as fine a singer as the English Nightingale. I wish I could hear this rival of mine, and while I have no doubt his voice is a sweet one, and I am not too vain of my own, I should like to "compare notes" with him. Why do not some of you children ask your parents to invite a few pairs of Nightingales to come and settle here? They would like our climate, and would, I am sure, be welcomed by all the birds with a warmth not accorded the English Sparrow, who has taken possession and, in spite of my love for secret hiding places, will not let even me alone. When you are older, children, you can read all about me in another part of BIRDS. I will merely tell you here that I live with you only from May to October, coming and going away in company with the other Thrushes, though I keep pretty well to myself while here, and while building my nest and bringing up my little ones I hide myself from the face of man, although I do not fear his presence. That is why I am called the Hermit. If you wish to know in what way I am unlike my cousin Thrushes in appearance, turn to pages 84 and 182, Vol. 1, of BIRDS. There you will see their pictures. I am one of the smallest of the family, too. Some call me "the brown bird with the rusty tail," and other names have been fitted to me, as Ground Gleaner, Tree Trapper, and Seed Sower. But I do not like nicknames, and am just plain, HERMIT THRUSH. THE SONG SPARROW. Glimmers gay the leafless thicket Close beside my garden gate, Where, so light, from post to wicket, Hops the Sparrow, blithe, sedate; Who, with meekly folded wing, Comes to sun himself and sing. It was there, perhaps, last year, That his little house he built; For he seemed to perk and peer And to twitter, too, and tilt The bare branches in between, With a fond, familiar mien. --GEORGE PARSONS LATHROP. We do not think it at all amiss to say that this darling among song birds can be heard singing nearly everywhere the whole year round, although he is supposed to come in March and leave us in November. We have heard him in February, when his little feet made tracks in the newly fallen snow, singing as cheerily as in April, May, and June, when he is supposed to be in ecstacy. Even in August, when the heat of the dog-days and his moulting time drive him to leafy seclusion, his liquid notes may be listened for with certainty, while "all through October they sound clearly above the rustling leaves, and some morning he comes to the dogwood by the arbor and announces the first frost in a song that is more direct than that in which he told of spring. While the chestnuts fall from their velvet nests, he is singing in the hedge; but when the brush heaps burn away to fragrant smoke in November, they veil his song a little, but it still continues." While the Song Sparrow nests in the extreme northern part of Illinois, it is known in the more southern portions only as a winter resident. This is somewhat remarkable, it is thought, since along the Atlantic coast it is one of the most abundant summer residents throughout Maryland and Virginia, in the same latitudes as southern Illinois, where it is a winter sojourner, abundant, but very retiring, inhabiting almost solely the bushy swamps in the bottom lands, and unknown as a song bird. This is regarded as a remarkable instance of variation in habits with locality, since in the Atlantic states it breeds abundantly, and is besides one of the most familiar of the native birds. The location of the Song Sparrow's nest is variable; sometimes on the ground, or in a low bush, but usually in as secluded a place as its instinct of preservation enables it to find. A favorite spot is a deep shaded ravine through which a rivulet ripples, where the solitude is disturbed only by the notes of his song, made more sweet and clear by the prevailing silence. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SONG SPARROW. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE SONG SPARROW. DEAR YOUNG READERS: I fancy many of the little folks who are readers of BIRDS are among my acquaintances. Though I have never spoken to you, I have seen your eyes brighten when my limpid little song has been borne to you by a passing breeze which made known my presence. Once I saw a pale, worn face turn to look at me from a window, a smile of pleasure lighting it up. And I too was pleased to think that I had given some one a moment's happiness. I have seen bird lovers (for we have lovers, and many of them) pause on the highway and listen to my pretty notes, which I know as well as any one have a cheerful and patient sound, and which all the world likes, for to be cheered and encouraged along the pathway of life is like a pleasant medicine to my weary and discouraged fellow citizens. For you must know I am a citizen, as my friend Dr. Coues calls me, and all my relatives. He and Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright have written a book about us called "Citizen Bird," and in it they have supported us in all our rights, which even you children are beginning to admit we have. You are kinder to us than you used to be. Some of you come quickly to our rescue from untaught and thoughtless boys who, we think, if they were made to know how sensitive we are to suffering and wrong, would turn to be our friends and protectors instead. One dear boy I remember well (and he is considered a hero by the Song Sparrows) saved a nest of our birdies from a cruel school boy robber. Why should not all strong boys become our champions? Many of them have great, honest, sympathetic hearts in their bosoms, and, if we can only enlist them in our favor, they can give us a peace and protection which for years we have been sighing. Yes, sighing, because our hearts, though little, are none the less susceptible to all the asperities--the terrible asperities of human nature. Papa will tell you what I mean: you would not understand bird language. Did you ever see my nest? I build it near the ground, and sometimes, when kind friends prepare a little box for me, I occupy it. My song is quite varied, but you will always recognize me by my call note, _Chek! Chek! Chek!_ Some people say they hear me repeat "Maids, maids, maids, hang on your teakettle," but I think this is only fancy, for I can sing a real song, admired, I am sure, by all who love SONG SPARROW. THE CUCKOO. Our first introduction to the Cuckoo was by means of the apparition which issued hourly from a little German clock, such as are frequently found in country inns. This particular clock had but one dial hand, and the exact time of day could not be determined by it until the appearance of the Cuckoo, who, in a squeaking voice, seemed to announce that it was just one hour later or earlier, as the case might be, than at his last appearance. We were puzzled, and remember fancying that a sun dial, in clear weather, would be far more satisfactory as a time piece. "Coo-coo," the image repeated, and then retired until the hour hand should summon him once more. To very few people, not students of birds, is the Cuckoo really known. Its evanescent voice is often recognized, but being a solitary wanderer even ornithologists have yet to learn much of its life history. In their habits the American and European Cuckoos are so similar that whatever of poetry and sentiment has been written of them is applicable alike to either. A delightful account of the species may be found in Dixon's Bird Life, a book of refreshing and original observation. "The Cuckoo is found in the verdant woods, in the coppice, and even on the lonely moors. He flits from one stunted tree to another and utters his notes in company with the wild song of the Ring Ousel and the harsh calls of the Grouse and Plover. Though his notes are monotonous, still no one gives them this appellation. No! this little wanderer is held too dear by us all as the harbinger of spring for aught but praise to be bestowed on his mellow notes, which, though full and soft, are powerful, and may on a calm morning, before the everyday hum of human toil begins, be heard a mile away, over wood, field, and lake. Toward the summer solstice his notes are on the wane, and when he gives them forth we often hear him utter them as if laboring under great difficulty, and resembling the syllables, "_Coo-coo-coo-coo_"." On one occasion Dixon says he heard a Cuckoo calling in treble notes, _Cuck oo-oo, cuck-oo-oo_, inexpressibly soft and beautiful, notably the latter one. He at first supposed an echo was the cause of these strange notes, the bird being then half a mile away, but he satisfied himself that this was not the case, as the bird came and alighted on a noble oak a few yards from him and repeated the notes. The Cuckoo utters his notes as he flies, but only, as a rule, when a few yards from the place on which he intends alighting. The opinion is held by some observers that Nature has not intended the Cuckoo to build a nest, but influences it to lay its eggs in the nests of other birds, and intrust its young to the care of those species best adapted to bring them to maturity. But the American species does build a nest, and rears its young, though Audubon gives it a bad character, saying: "It robs smaller birds of their eggs." It does not deserve the censure it has received, however, and it is useful in many ways. Its hatred of the worm is intense, destroying many more than it can eat. So thoroughly does it do its work, that orchards, which three years ago, were almost leafless, the trunks even being covered by slippery webbing, are again yielding a good crop. In September and October the Cuckoo is silent and suddenly disappears. "He seldom sees the lovely tints of autumn, and never hears the wintry storm-winds' voice, for, impelled by a resistless impulse, he wings his way afar over mountain, stream, and sea, to a land where northern blasts are not felt, and where a summer sun is shining in a cloudless sky." [Illustration: From col. O. E. Pagin. YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897 Chicago.] THE RUBY-THROATED HUMMING BIRD. Is it a gem, half bird, Or is it a bird, half gem? --EDGAR FAWCETT. Of all animated beings this is the most elegant in form and the most brilliant in colors, says the great naturalist Buffon. The stones and metals polished by our arts are not comparable to this jewel of Nature. She has it least in size of the order of birds, _maxime miranda in minimis_. Her masterpiece is the Humming bird, and upon it she has heaped all the gifts which the other birds may only share. Lightness, rapidity, nimbleness, grace, and rich apparel all belong to this little favorite. The emerald, the ruby, and the topaz gleam upon its dress. It never soils them with the dust of earth, and its aerial life scarcely touches the turf an instant. Always in the air, flying from flower to flower, it has their freshness as well as their brightness. It lives upon their nectar, and dwells only in the climates where they perennially bloom. All kinds of Humming birds are found in the hottest countries of the New World. They are quite numerous and seem to be confined between the two tropics, for those which penetrate the temperate zones in summer stay there only a short time. They seem to follow the sun in its advance and retreat; and to fly on the zephyr wing after an eternal spring. The smaller species of the Humming birds are less in size than the great fly wasp, and more slender than the drone. Their beak is a fine needle and their tongue a slender thread. Their little black eyes are like two shining points, and the feathers of their wings so delicate that they seem transparent. Their short feet, which they use very little, are so tiny one can scarcely see them. They rarely alight during the day. They have a swift continual humming flight. The movement of their wings is so rapid that when pausing in the air, the bird seems quite motionless. One sees him stop before a blossom, then dart like a flash to another, visiting all, plunging his tongue into their hearts, flattening them with his wings, never settling anywhere, but neglecting none. He hastens his inconstancies only to pursue his loves more eagerly and to multiply his innocent joys. For this light lover of flowers lives at their expense without ever blighting them. He only pumps their honey, and for this alone his tongue seems designed. The vivacity of these small birds is only equaled by their courage, or rather their audacity. Sometimes they may be seen furiously chasing birds twenty times their size, fastening upon their bodies, letting themselves be carried along in their flight, while they peck fiercely until their tiny rage is satisfied. Sometimes they fight each other vigorously. Impatience seems their very essence. If they approach a blossom and find it faded, they mark their spite by a hasty rending of the petals. Their only voice is a weak cry of _Screp, screp_, frequent and repeated, which they utter in the woods from dawn until at the first rays of the sun they all take flight and scatter over the country. The Ruby-throat is the only native Humming bird of eastern North America, where it is a common summer resident from May to October, breeding from Florida to Labrador. The nest is a circle an inch and a half in diameter, made of fern wood, plant down, and so forth, shingled with lichens to match the color of the branch on which it rests. Its only note is a shrill, mouse-like squeak. THE HOUSE WREN. All the children, it seems to me, are familiar with the habits of Johnny and Jenny Wren; and many of them, especially such as have had some experience with country life, could themselves tell a story of these mites of birds. Mr. F. Saunders tells one: "Perhaps you may think the Wren is so small a bird he cannot sing much of a song, but he can. The way we first began to notice him was by seeing our pet cat jumping about the yard, dodging first one way and then another, then darting up a tree; looking surprised, and disappointingly jumping down again. "Pussy had found a new play-mate, for the little Wren evidently thought it great fun to fly down just in front of her and dart away before she could reach him, leading her from one spot to another, hovering above her head, chattering to her all the time, and at last flying up far out of her reach. This he repeated day after day, for some time, seeming to enjoy the fun of disappointing her so nicely and easily. But after a while the little fellow thought he would like a play-mate nearer his own size, and went off to find one. But he came back all alone, and perched himself on the very tip-top of a lightning-rod on a high barn at the back of the yard; and there he would sing his sweet little trilling song, hour after hour, hardly stopping long enough to find food for his meals. We wondered that he did not grow tired of it. For about a week we watched him closely, and one day I came running into the house to tell the rest of the family with surprise and delight that our little Wren knew what he was about, for with his winning song he had called a mate to him. He led her to the tree where he had played with pussy, and they began building a nest; but pussy watched then as well as we, and meant to have her revenge upon him yet, so she sprang into the tree, tore the nest to pieces, and tried to catch Jenny. The birds rebuilt their nest three times, and finally we came to their rescue and placed a box in a safe place under the eaves of the house, and Mr. Wren with his keen, shrewd eyes, soon saw and appropriated it. There they stayed and raised a pretty family of birdies; and I hope he taught them, as he did me, a lesson in perseverance I'll never forget." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. RUBY-THROATED HUMMING BIRDS. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. HOUSE WREN. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE RUBY-THROATED HUMMING BIRD. DEAR YOUNG FOLKS: I fancy you think I cannot stop long enough to tell you a story, even about myself. It is true, I am always busy with the flowers, drinking their honey with my long bill, as you must be busy with your books, if you would learn what they teach. I always select for my food the sweetest flowers that grow in the garden. Do you think you would be vain if you had my beautiful colors to wear? Of course, you would not, but so many of my brothers and sisters have been destroyed to adorn the bonnets and headdresses of the thoughtless that the children cannot be too early taught to love us too well to do us harm. Have you ever seen a ruby? It is one of the most valued of gems. It is the color of my throat, and from its rare and brilliant beauty I get a part of my name. The ruby is worn by great ladies and, with the emerald and topaz, whose bright colors I also wear, is much esteemed as an ornament. If you will come into the garden in the late afternoon, between six and seven o'clock, when I am taking my supper, and when the sun is beginning to close his great eye, you will see his rays shoot sidewise and show all the splendor of my plumage. You will see me, too, if your eyes are sharp enough, draw up my tiny claws, pause in front of a rose, and remain seemingly motionless. But listen, and you will hear the reason for my name--a tense humming sound. Some call me a Hummer indeed. I spend only half the year in the garden, coming in May and saying farewell in October. After my mate and I are gone you may find our nest. But your eyes will be sharp indeed if they detect it when the leaves are on the trees, it is so small and blends with the branches. We use fern-wool and soft down to build it, and shingle it with lichens to match the branch it nests upon. You should see the tiny eggs of pure white. But we, our nest and our eggs, are so dainty and delicate that they should never be touched. We are only to be looked at and admired. Farewell. Look for me when you go a-Maying. RUBY. THE HOUSE WREN. "It was a merry time When Jenny Wren was young, When prettily she looked, And sweetly, too, she sung." "In looking over an old memorandum book the other day," says Col. S. T. Walker, of Florida, "I came across the following notes concerning the nesting of the House Wren. I was sick at the time, and watched the whole proceeding, from the laying of the first stick to the conclusion. The nest was placed in one of the pigeonholes of my desk, and the birds effected an entrance to the room through sundry cracks in the log cabin." Nest begun April 15th. Nest completed and first egg laid April 27th. Last egg laid May 3rd. Began sitting May 4th. Hatching completed May 18th. Young began to fly May 27th. Young left the nest June 1st. Total time occupied 47 days. Such is the usual time required for bringing forth a brood of this species of Wren, which is the best known of the family. In the Atlantic states it is more numerous than in the far west, where wooded localities are its chosen haunts, and where it is equally at home in the cottonwoods of the river valleys, and on the aspens just below the timber line on lofty mountains. Mrs. Osgood Wright says very quaintly that the House Wren is a bird who has allowed the word _male_ to be obliterated from its _social_ constitution at least: that we always speak of Jenny Wren: always refer to the Wren as _she_ as we do of a ship. That it is Johnny Wren who sings and disports himself generally, but it is Jenny, who, by dint of much scolding and fussing, keeps herself well to the front. She chooses the building-site and settles all the little domestic details. If Johnny does not like her choice, he may go away and stay away; she will remain where she has taken up her abode and make a second matrimonial venture. The House Wren's song is a merry one, sudden, abruptly ended, and frequently repeated. It is heard from the middle of April to October, and upon the bird's arrival it at once sets about preparing its nest, a loose heap of sticks with a soft lining, in holes, boxes, and the like. From six to ten tiny, cream-colored eggs are laid, so thickly spotted with brown that the whole egg is tinged. The House Wren is not only one of our most interesting and familiar neighbors, but it is useful as an exterminator of insects, upon which it feeds. Frequently it seizes small butterflies when on the wing. We have in mind a sick child whose convalescence was hastened and cheered by the near-by presence of the merry House Wren, which sings its sweet little trilling song, hour after hour, hardly stopping long enough to find food for its meals. [Illustration: From col. J. G. Parker. Jr. PHOEBE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE PHOEBE. Oft the Phoebe's cheery notes Wake the laboring swain; "Come, come!" say the merry throats, "Morn is here again." Phoebe, Phoebe! let them sing for aye, Calling him to labor at the break of day. --C. C. M. Nearly everywhere in the United States we find this cheerful bird, known as Pewee, Barn Pewee, Bridge Pewee, or Phoebe, or Pewit Flycatcher. "It is one of that charming coterie of the feathered tribe who cheer the abode of man with their presence." There are few farmyards without a pair of Pewees, who do the farmer much service by lessening the number of flies about the barn, and by calling him to his work in the morning by their cheery notes. Dr. Brewer says that this species is attracted both to the vicinity of water and to the neighborhood of dwellings, probably for the same reason--the abundance of insects in either situation. They are a familiar, confiding, and gentle bird, attached to localities, and returning to them year after year. Their nests are found in sheltered situations, as under a bridge, a projecting rock, in the porches of houses, etc. They have been known to build on a small shelf in the porch of a dwelling, against the wall of a railroad station, within reach of the passengers, and under a projecting window-sill, in full view of the family, entirely unmoved by the presence of the latter at meal time. Like all the flycatcher family the Phoebe takes its food mostly flying. Mrs. Wright says that the Pewee in his primitive state haunts dim woods and running water, and that when domesticated he is a great bather, and may be seen in the half-light dashing in and out of the water as he makes trips to and from the nest. After the young are hatched both old and young disport themselves about the water until moulting time. She advises: "Do not let the Phoebes build under the hoods of your windows, for their spongy nests harbor innumerable bird-lice, and under such circumstances your fly-screens will become infested and the house invaded." In its native woods the nest is of moss, mud, and grass placed on a rock, near and over running water; but in the vicinity of settlements and villages it is built on a horizontal bridge beam, or on timber supporting a porch or shed. The eggs are pure white, somewhat spotted. The notes, to some ears, are _Phoebe, phoebe, pewit, phoebe!_ to others, of somewhat duller sense of hearing, perhaps, _Pewee, pewee, pewee!_ We confess to a fancy that the latter is the better imitation. THE RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET. Baskett says that the Kinglets come at a certain early spring date before the leaves are fully expanded, and flutter upward, while they take something from beneath the budding leaf or twig. It is a peculiar motion, which with their restless ways, olive-green color, and small size, readily distinguishes them. It is rare that one is still. "But the ruby-crowned sometimes favors me with a song, and as it is a little long, he usually is quiet till done. It is one of the sweetest little lullaby-like strains. One day I saw him in the rose bush just near voluntarily expand the plumage of his crown and show the brilliant golden-ruby feathers beneath. Usually they are mostly concealed. It was a rare treat, and visible to me only because of my rather exalted view. He generally reserves this display for his mate, but he was here among some Snow-birds and Tree Sparrows, and seemed to be trying to make these plain folks envious of the pretty feathers in his hat." These wonderfully dainty little birds are of great value to the farmer and the fruit grower, doing good work among all classes of fruit trees by killing grubs and larvae. In spite of their value in this respect, they have been, in common with many other attractive birds, recklessly killed for millinery purposes. It is curious to see these busy wanderers, who are always cheery and sociable, come prying and peering about the fruit trees, examining every little nook of possible concealment with the greatest interest. They do not stay long after November, and return again in April. The nest of this Kinglet is rarely seen. It is of matted hair, feathers, moss, etc., bulky, round, and partly hanging. Until recently the eggs were unknown. They are of a dirty cream-white, deepening at larger end to form a ring, some specimens being spotted. Mr. Nehrling, who has heard this Kinglet sing in central Wisconsin and northern Illinois, speaks of the "power, purity, and volume of the notes, their faultless modulation and long continuance," and Dr. Elliott Coues says of it: "The Kinglet's exquisite vocalization defies description." Dr. Brewer says that its song is clear, resonant, and high, a prolonged series, varying from the lowest tones to the highest, and terminating with the latter. It may be heard at quite a distance, and in some respects bears more resemblance to the song of the English Sky-lark than to that of the Canary, to which Mr. Audubon compares it. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE MOURNING DOVE. DEAR YOUNG BIRD LOVERS: Most every person thinks that, while my actions are very pretty and attractive, and speak much in my favor, I can only really say, _Coo-o, Coo-o_, which they also think does not mean anything at all. Well, I just thought I would undeceive them by writing you a letter. Many grown up people fancy that we birds cannot express ourselves because we don't know very much. Of course, there is a good reason why they have this poor opinion of us. They are so busy with their own private concerns that they forget that there are little creatures like ourselves in the world who, if they would take a little time to become acquainted with them, would fill their few hours of leisure with a sweeter recreation than they find in many of their chosen outings. A great English poet, whose writings you will read when you get older, said you should look through Nature up to Nature's God. What did he mean? I think he had us birds in his mind, for it is through a study of our habits, more perhaps than that of the voiceless trees or the dumb four-footed creatures that roam the fields, that your hearts are opened to see and admire real beauty. We birds are the true teachers of faith, hope, and charity,--faith, because we trust one another; hope, because, even when our mother Nature seems unkind, sending the drifting snow and the bitter blasts of winter, we sing a song of summer time; and charity, because we are never fault finders. I believe, without knowing it, I have been telling you about myself and my mate. We Doves are very sincere, and every one says we are constant. If you live in the country, children, you must often hear our voices. We are so tender and fond of each other that we are looked upon as models for children, and even grown-up folks. My mate does not build a very nice nest--only uses a few sticks to keep the eggs from falling out--but she is a good mother and nurses the little ones very tenderly. Some people are so kind that they build for us a dove cote, supply us with wheat and corn, and make our lives as free from care and danger as they can. Come and see us some day, and then you can tell whether my picture is a good one. The artist thinks it is and he certainly took lots of pains with it. Now, if you will be kind to all birds, you will find me, in name only, MOURNING DOVE. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. MOURNING DOVE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] HOW THE BIRDS SECURED THEIR RIGHTS. Deuteronomy xxxii 6-7.--"If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way, in any tree, or on the ground, young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the young. But thou shalt in anywise let the dam go, that it may be well with thee, and that thou may prolong thy days." It is said that the following petition was instrumental in securing the adoption in Massachusetts of a law prohibiting the wearing of song and insectivorous birds on women's hats. It is stated that the interesting document was prepared by United States Senator Hoar. The foregoing verse of Scripture might have been quoted by the petitioning birds to strengthen their position before the lawmakers: "TO THE GREAT AND GENERAL COURT OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS: We, the song birds of Massachusetts and their playfellows, make this our humble petition. We know more about you than you think we do. We know how good you are. We have hopped about the roofs and looked in at the windows of the houses you have built for poor and sick and hungry people, and little lame and deaf and blind children. We have built our nests in the trees and sung many a song as we flew about the gardens and parks you have made so beautiful for your children, especially your poor children, to play in. Every year we fly a great way over the country, keeping all the time where the sun is bright and warm. And we know that whenever you do anything the other people all over this great land between the seas and the great lakes find it out, and pretty soon will try to do the same. We know. We know. "We are Americans just the same as you are. Some of us, like some of you, came across the great sea. But most of the birds like us have lived here a long while; and the birds like us welcomed your fathers when they came here many, many years ago. Our fathers and mothers have always done their best to please your fathers and mothers. "Now we have a sad story to tell you. Thoughtless or bad people are trying to destroy us. They kill us because our feathers are beautiful. Even pretty and sweet girls, who we should think would be our best friends, kill our brothers and children so that they may wear our plumage on their hats. Sometimes people kill us for mere wantonness. Cruel boys destroy our nests and steal our eggs and our young ones. People with guns and snares lie in wait to kill us; as if the place for a bird were not in the sky, alive, but in a shop window or in a glass case. If this goes on much longer all our song birds will be gone. Already we are told in some other countries that used to be full of birds they are now almost gone. Even the Nightingales are being killed in Italy. "Now we humbly pray that you will stop all this and will save us from this sad fate. You have already made a law that no one shall kill a harmless song bird or destroy our nests or our eggs. Will you please make another one that no one shall wear our feathers, so that no one shall kill us to get them? We want them all ourselves. Your pretty girls are pretty enough without them. We are told that it is as easy for you to do it as for a blackbird to whistle. "If you will, we know how to pay you a hundred times over. We will teach your children to keep themselves clean and neat. We will show them how to live together in peace and love and to agree as we do in our nests. We will build pretty houses which you will like to see. We will play about your garden and flowerbeds--ourselves like flowers on wings--without any cost to you. We will destroy the wicked insects and worms that spoil your cherries and currants and plums and apples and roses. We will give you our best songs, and make the spring more beautiful and the summer sweeter to you. Every June morning when you go out into the field, Oriole and Bluebird and Blackbird and Bobolink will fly after you, and make the day more delightful to you. And when you go home tired after sundown Vesper Sparrow will tell you how grateful we are. When you sit down on your porch after dark, Fifebird and Hermit Thrush and Wood Thrush will sing to you; and even Whip-poor-will will cheer you up a little. We know where we are safe. In a little while all the birds will come to live in Massachusetts again, and everybody who loves music will like to make a summer home with you." The singers are: Brown Thrasher, King Bird, Robert o'Lincoln, Swallow, Vesper Sparrow, Cedar Bird, Hermit Thrush, Cow-bird, Robin Redbreast, Martin, Song Sparrow, Veery, Scarlet Tanager, Vireo, Summer Redbird, Oriole, Blue Heron, Blackbird, Humming Bird, Fifebird, Yellow-bird, Wren, Whip-poor-will, Linnet, Water Wagtail, Pewee, Woodpecker, Phoebe, Pigeon Woodpecker, Yoke Bird, Indigo Bird, Lark, Yellow Throat, Sandpiper, Wilson's Thrush, Chewink. Chickadee, THE CAPTIVE'S ESCAPE. I saw such a sorrowful sight, my dears, Such a sad and sorrowful sight, As I lingered under the swaying vines, In the silvery morning light. The skies were so blue and the day was so fair With beautiful things untold, You would think no sad and sorrowful thing Could enter its heart of gold. A fairy-like cage was hanging there, So gay with turret and dome. You'd be sure a birdie would gladly make Such a beautiful place its home. But a wee little yellow-bird sadly chirped As it fluttered to and fro; I know it was longing with all its heart To its wild-wood home to go. I heard a whir of swift-rushing wings, And an answering gladsome note; As close to its nestlings' prison bars, I saw the poor mother bird float. I saw her flutter and strive in vain To open the prison door. Then sadly cling with drooping wing As if all her hopes were o'er. But ere I could reach the prison house And let its sweet captive free, She was gone like a yellow flash of light, To her home in a distant tree. "Poor birdie," I thought, "you shall surely go, When mamma comes back again;" For it hurt me so that so small a thing Should suffer so much of pain. And back in a moment she came again And close to her darling's side With a bitter-sweet drop of honey dew, Which she dropped in its mouth so wide. Then away, with a strange wild mournful note Of sorrow, which seemed to say "Goodbye, my darling, my birdie dear, Goodbye for many a day." A quick wild flutter of tiny wings, A faint low chirp of pain, A throb of the little aching heart And birdie was free again. Oh sorrowful anguished mother-heart, 'Twas all that she could do, She had set it free from a captive's life In the only way she knew. Poor little birdie! it never will fly On tiny and tireless wing. Through the pearly blue of the summer sky, Or sing the sweet songs of spring. And I think, little dears, if you had seen The same sad sorrowful sight, You never would cage a free wild bird To suffer a captive's plight. --MARY MORRISON. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH. Nearly every one readily recognizes this species as it runs up and down and around the branches and trunks of trees in search of insect food, now and then uttering its curious _Quauk, quauk, quauk_. The White-breasted Nuthatch is often improperly called "Sapsucker," a name commonly applied to the Downy Woodpecker and others. It is a common breeding bird and usually begins nesting early in April, and two broods are frequently reared in a season. For its nesting place it usually selects the decayed trunk of a tree or stub, ranging all the way from two to sixty feet above the ground. The entrance may be a knot hole, a small opening, or a small round hole with a larger cavity at the end of it. Often the old excavation of the Downy Woodpecker is made use of. Chicken feathers, hair, and a few dry leaves loosely thrown together compose the nest. This Nuthatch is abundant throughout the State of Illinois, and is a permanent resident everywhere except perhaps of the extreme northern counties. It seems to migrate in spring and return in autumn, but, in reality, as is well known, only retreats to the woodlands to breed, emerging again when the food supply grows scant in the autumn. The Nuthatches associate familiarly with the Kinglets and Titmice, and often travel with them. Though regarded as shy birds they are not really so. Their habits of restlessness render them difficult of examination. "Tree-mice" is the local name given them by the farmers, and would be very appropriate could they sometimes remain as motionless as that diminutive animal. Careful observation has disclosed that the Nuthatches do not suck the sap from trees, but that they knock off bits of decayed or loose bark with the beak to obtain the grubs or larvae beneath. They are beneficial to vegetation. Ignorance is responsible for the misapplied names given to many of our well disposed and useful birds, and it would be well if teachers were to discourage the use of inappropriate names and familiarize the children with those recognized by the best authorities. Referring to the Nuthatches Mr. Baskett says: "They are little bluish gray birds, with white undervests--sometimes a little soiled. Their tails are ridiculously short, and never touch the tree; neither does the body, unless they are suddenly affrighted, when they crouch and look, with their beaks extended, much like a knot with a broken twig on it. I have sometimes put the bird into this attitude by clapping my hands loudly near the window. It is an impulse that seems to come to the bird before flight, especially if the head should be downward. His arrival is sudden, and seems often to be distinguished by turning a somersault before alighting, head downward, on the tree trunk, as if he had changed his mind so suddenly about alighting that it unbalanced him. "I once saw two Nuthatches at what I then supposed was a new habit. One spring day some gnats were engaged in their little crazy love waltzes in the air, forming small whirling clouds, and the birds left off bark-probing and began capturing insects on the wing. They were awkward about it with their short wings, and had to alight frequently to rest. I went out to them, and so absorbed were they that they allowed me to approach within a yard of a limb that they came to rest upon, where they would sit and pant till they caught their breath, when they went at it again. They seemed fairly to revel in a new diet and a new exercise." SUMMARY Page 83. #YELLOW WARBLER.#--_Dendroica æstiva._ Other names: "Summer Yellow-bird," "Wild Canary," "Yellow-poll Warbler." RANGE--The whole of North America; breeding throughout its range. In winter, the whole of middle America and northern South America. NEST--Built in an apple tree, cup-shaped, neat and compact, composed of plant fibres, bark, etc. EGGS--Four or five; greenish-white, spotted. * * * * * Page 88. #HERMIT THRUSH.#--_Turdus aonalaschkæ pallasii._ Other names: "Swamp Angel," "Ground Swamp Robin." RANGE--Eastern North America, breeding from northern United States northward; wintering from about latitude 40° to the Gulf coast. NEST--On the ground, in some low, secluded spot, beneath shelter of deep shrubbery. Bulky and loosely made of leaves, bark, grasses, mosses, lined with similar finer material. EGGS--Three or four; of greenish blue, unspotted. * * * * * Page 91. #SONG SPARROW.#--_Melospiza fasciata._ RANGE--Eastern United States and British Provinces, west to the Plains, breeding chiefly north of 40°, except east of the Alleghenies. NEST--On the ground, or in low bushes, of grasses, weeds, and leaves, lined with fine grass stems, roots, and, in some cases, hair. EGGS--Four to seven; varying in color from greenish or pinkish white to light bluish green, spotted with dark reddish brown. * * * * * Page 95. #YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.#--_Coccyzus americanus._ Other names: "Rain Crow," "Rain Dove," and "Chow-Chow." RANGE--Eastern North America to British Provinces, west to Great Plains, south in winter, West Indies and Costa Rica. NEST--In low tree or bush, of dried sticks, bark strips and catkins. EGGS--Two to four; of glaucous green which fades on exposure to the light. * * * * * Page 100. #RUBY-THROATED HUMMING BIRD.#--_Trochilus colubris._ RANGE--Eastern North America to the Plains north to the fur countries, and south in winter to Cuba and Veragua. NEST--A circle an inch and a half in diameter, made of fern wool, etc., shingled with lichens to match the color of the branch on which it is saddled. EGGS--Two; pure white, the size of soup beans. * * * * * Page 101. #HOUSE WREN.#--_Troglodytes aedon._ RANGE--Eastern United States and southern Canada, west to the Mississippi Valley; winters in southern portions. NEST--Miscellaneous rubbish, sticks, grasses, hay, and the like. EGGS--Usually seven; white, dotted with reddish brown. * * * * * Page 106. #PHOEBE.#--_Sayornis phoebe._ Other names: "Pewit," "Pewee." RANGE--Eastern North America; in winter south to Mexico and Cuba. NEST--Compactly and neatly made of mud and vegetable substances, with lining of grass and feathers. EGGS--Four or five; pure white, sometimes sparsely spotted with reddish brown dots at larger end. * * * * * Page 110. #RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET.#--_Regulus calendula._ RANGE--Entire North America, wintering in the South and in northern Central America. NEST--Very rare, only six known; of hair, feathers, moss, etc., bulky, globular, and partly pensile. EGGS--Five to nine; dull whitish or pale puffy, speckled. * * * * * Page 113. #MOURNING DOVE.#--_Zenaidura macrura._ Other names: "Carolina Dove," "Turtle Dove." RANGE--Whole of temperate North America, south to Panama and the West Indies. NEST--Rim of twigs sufficient to retain the eggs. EGGS--Usually two; white. * * * * * Page 118. #WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.#--_Sitta carolinensis._ Other name: "Sapsucker," improperly called. RANGE--Eastern United States and British Provinces. NEST--Decayed trunk of tree or stub, from two to six feet from ground, composed of chicken feathers, hair, and dry leaves. EGGS--Five to eight; white with a roseate tinge, speckled with reddish brown and a slight tinge of purple. 
30221	----	FROM: THE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. _STATE OF NEW YORK_ _Department of Public Instruction_ _SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE_ _Albany_ December 26, 1896. [Illustration: (seal)] _Stenographic Letter_ Dictated by __________ W. E. Watt, President &c., Fisher Building, 277 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. My dear Sir: Please accept my thanks for a copy of the first publication of "Birds." Please enter my name as a regular subscriber. It is one of the most beautiful and interesting publications yet attempted in this direction. It has other attractions in addition to its beauty, and it must win its way to popular favor. Wishing the handsome little magazine abundant prosperity, I remain Yours very respectfully, [signature] State Superintendent. * * * * * Vol. 1. No. 1. JANUARY, 1897. PRICE 15 CENTS: $1.50 A YEAR. ONCE A MONTH. BIRDS ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY [Illustration: NONPAREIL.] NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY OFFICE: FISHER BUILDING CHICAGO BIRDS ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY A MONTHLY SERIAL DESIGNED TO PROMOTE KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE "With cheerful hop from perch to spray, They sport along the meads; In social bliss together stray, Where love or fancy leads. Through spring's gay scenes each happy pair Their fluttering joys pursue; Its various charms and produce share, Forever kind and true." CHICAGO, U. S. A. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 1896 PREFACE. It has become a universal custom to obtain and preserve the likenesses of one's friends. Photographs are the most popular form of these likenesses, as they give the true exterior outlines and appearance, (except coloring) of the subjects. But how much more popular and useful does photography become, when it can be used as a means of securing plates from which to print photographs in a regular printing press, and, what is more astonishing and delightful, to produce the REAL COLORS of nature as shown in the subject, no matter how brilliant or varied. We quote from the December number of the Ladies' Home Journal: "_An excellent_ suggestion was recently made by the Department of Agriculture at Washington that the public schools of the country shall have a new holiday, to be known as Bird Day. Three cities have already adopted the suggestion, and it is likely that others will quickly follow. Of course, Bird Day will differ from its successful predecessor, Arbor Day. We can plant trees but not birds. It is suggested that Bird Day take the form of bird exhibitions, of bird exercises, of bird studies--any form of entertainment, in fact, which will bring children closer to their little brethren of the air, and in more intelligent sympathy with their life and ways. There is a wonderful story in bird life, and but few of our children know it. Few of our elders do, for that matter. A whole day of a year can well and profitably be given over to the birds. Than such study, nothing can be more interesting. The cultivation of an intimate acquaintanceship with our feathered friends is a source of genuine pleasure. We are under greater obligations to the birds than we dream of. Without them the world would be more barren than we imagine. Consequently, we have some duties which we owe them. What these duties are only a few of us know or have ever taken the trouble to find out. Our children should not be allowed to grow to maturity without this knowledge. The more they know of the birds the better men and women they will be. We can hardly encourage such studies too much." Of all animated nature, birds are the most beautiful in coloring, most graceful in form and action, swiftest in motion and most perfect emblems of freedom. They are withal, very intelligent and have many remarkable traits, so that their habits and characteristics make a delightful study for all lovers of nature. In view of the facts, we feel that we are doing a useful work for the young, and one that will be appreciated by progressive parents, in placing within the easy possession of children in the homes these beautiful photographs of birds. The text is prepared with the view of giving the children as clear an idea as possible, of haunts, habits, characteristics and such other information as will lead them to love the birds and delight in their study and acquaintance. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. Copyrighted, 1896. * * * * * [Illustration: NONPAREIL.] THE NONPAREIL. I am called the Nonpareil because there is no other bird equal to me. I have many names. Some call me the "Painted Finch" or "Painted Bunting." Others call me "The Pope," because I wear a purple hood. I live in a cage, eat seeds, and am very fond of flies and spiders. Sometimes they let me out of the cage and I fly about the room and catch flies. I like to catch them while they are flying. When I am tired I stop and sing. There is a vase of flowers in front of the mirror. I fly to this vase where I can see myself in the glass. Then I sing as loud as I can. They like to hear me sing. I take a bath every day and how I do make the water fly! I used to live in the woods where there were many birds like me. We built our nests in bushes, hedges, and low trees. How happy we were. My cage is pretty but I wish I could go back to my home in the woods. See page 15. "Sweet warblers of the sunny hours, Forever on the wing, I love thee as I love the flowers, The sunlight and the spring. They come like pleasant memories In summer's joyous time, And sing their gushing melodies, As I would sing a rhyme. In the green and quiet places, Where the golden sunlight falls, We sit with smiling faces To list their silver calls. And when their holy anthems Come pealing through the air, Our hearts leap forth to meet them With a blessing and a prayer. Amid the morning's fragrant dew, Amid the mists of even, They warble on as if they drew Their music down from heaven. How sweetly sounds each mellow note Beneath the moon's pale ray, When dying zephyrs rise and float Like lovers' sighs away!" THE RESPLENDENT TROGON. A Letter to Little Boys and Girls of the United States. Is it cold where you live, little boys and girls? It is not where I live. Don't you think my feathers grew in the bright sunshine? My home is way down where the big oceans almost meet. The sun is almost straight overhead every noon. I live in the woods, way back where the trees are tall and thick. I don't fly around much, but sit on a limb of a tree way up high. Don't you think my red breast looks pretty among the green leaves? When I see a fly or a berry I dart down after it. My long tail streams out behind like four ribbons. I wish you could see me. My tail never gets in the way. Wouldn't you like to have me sit on your shoulder, little boy? You see my tail would reach almost to the ground. If you went out into the street with me on your shoulder, I would call _whe-oo_, _whe-oo_, the way I do in the woods. All the little boys and girls playing near would look around and say, "What is that noise?" Then they would see you and me and run up fast and say, "Where did you get that bird?" The little girls would want to pull out my tail feathers to put around their hats. You would not let them, would you? I have a mate. I think she is very nice. Her tail is not so long as mine. Would you like to see her too? She lays eggs every year, and sits on them till little birds hatch out. They are just like us, but they have to grow and get dressed in the pretty feathers like ours. They look like little dumplings when they come out of the eggs. But they are all right. They get very hungry and we carry them lots of things to eat, so they can grow fast. Your friend, R. T. [Illustration: RESPLENDENT TROGON.] THE RESPLENDENT TROGON. Resplendent Trogons are natives of Central America. There are fifty kinds, and this is the largest. A systematic account of the superb tribe has been given by Mr. Gould, the only naturalist who has made himself fully acquainted with them. Of all birds there are few which excite so much admiration as the Resplendent Trogon. The skin is so singularly thin that it has been not inaptly compared to wet blotting paper, and the plumage has so light a hold upon the skin that when the bird is shot the feathers are plentifully struck from their sockets by its fall and the blows which it receives from the branches as it comes to the ground. Its eggs, of a pale bluish-green, were first procured by Mr. Robert Owen. Its chief home is in the mountains near Coban in Vera Paz, but it also inhabits forests in other parts of Guatemala at an elevation of from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. From Mr. Salvin's account of his shooting in Vera Paz we extract the following hunting story: "My companions are ahead and Filipe comes back to say that they have heard a quesal (Resplendent Trogon). Of course, being anxious to watch as well as to shoot one of these birds myself, I immediately hurry to the spot. I have not to wait long. A distant clattering noise indicates that the bird is on the wing. He settles--a splendid male--on the bough of a tree not seventy yards from where we are hidden. It sits almost motionless on its perch, the body remaining in the same position, the head only moving from side to side. The tail does not hang quite perpendicularly, the angle between the true tail and the vertical being perhaps as much as fifteen or twenty degrees. The tail is occasionally jerked open and closed again, and now and then slightly raised, causing the long tail coverts to vibrate gracefully. I have not seen all. A ripe fruit catches the quesal's eye and he darts from his perch, plucks the berry, and returns to his former position. This is done with a degree of elegance that defies description. A low whistle from Capriano calls the bird near, and a moment afterward it is in my hand--the first quesal I have seen and shot." The above anecdote is very beautiful and graphic, but we read the last sentence with pain. We wish to go on record with this our first number as being unreconciled to the _ruthless_ killing of the birds. He who said, not a sparrow "shall fall on the ground without your Father," did not intend such birds to be killed, but to beautify the earth. The cries of the quesal are various. They consist principally of a low note, _whe-oo_, _whe-oo_, which the bird repeats, whistling it softly at first, then gradually swelling it into a loud and not unmelodious cry. This is often succeeded by a long note, which begins low and after swelling dies away as it began. Other cries are harsh and discordant. The flight of the Trogon is rapid and straight. The long tail feathers, which never seem to be in the way, stream after him. The bird is never found except in forests of the loftiest trees, the lower branches of which, being high above the ground, seem to be its favorite resort. Its food consists principally of fruit, but occasionally a caterpillar is found in its stomach. THE MANDARIN DUCK. A Letter from China. Quack! Quack! I got in just in time. I came as fast as I could, as I was afraid of being whipped. You see I live in a boat with a great many other ducks. My master and his family live in the boat too. Isn't that a funny place to live in? We stay in all night. Waking up early in the morning, we cry Quack! Quack! until we wake the master. He gets up and opens the gate for us and out we tumble into the water. We are in such a hurry that we fall over each other. We swim about awhile and then we go to shore for breakfast. There are wet places near the shore where we find worms, grubs, and roots. When evening comes the master blows a whistle. Then we know it is time to come home. We start as soon as we hear it, and hurry, because the last duck in gets a whipping. It does not hurt much but we do not like it, so we all try to get home first. I have web feet, but I perch like other birds on the branches of the trees near the river. My feathers are beautiful in the sunlight. My wife always sits near me. Her dress is not like mine. It is brown and grey. From May to August I lose my bright feathers, then I put on a dress like my wife's. My master's family are Chinese, and they are very queer. They would not sell me for anything, as they would not like to have me leave China. Sometimes a pair of us are put in a gay cage and carried to a wedding. After the wedding we are given to the bride and groom. I hear the master's whistle again. He wants me to come in and go to bed. Quack! Quack! Good bye! [Illustration: MANDARIN DUCK.] THE MANDARIN DUCK. "A more magnificently clothed bird," says Wood, "than the male Chinese Mandarin Duck, can hardly be found, when in health and full nuptial plumage. They are natives of China and Japan, and are held in such high esteem by the Chinese that they can hardly be obtained at any price, the natives having a singular dislike to seeing the birds pass into the possession of Europeans." Though web-footed, the birds have the power of perching and it is a curious sight to watch them on the branches of trees overhanging the pond in which they live, the male and female being always close together, the one gorgeous in purple, green, white, and chestnut, and the other soberly appareled in brown and grey. This handsome plumage the male loses during four months of the year, from May to August, when he throws off his fine crest, his wing-fans, and all his brilliant colors, assuming the sober tinted dress of his mate. The Summer Duck of America bears a close resemblance to the Mandarin Duck, both in plumage and manners, and at certain times of the year is hardly to be distinguished from that bird. The foreign duck has been successfully reared in Zoological Gardens, some being hatched under the parent bird and others under a domestic hen, the latter hatching the eggs three days in advance of the former. "The Chinese," says Dr. Bennett, "highly esteem the Mandarin Duck, which exhibits, as they think, a most striking example of conjugal attachment and fidelity. A pair of them are frequently placed in a gaily decorated cage and carried in their marriage processions, to be presented to the bride and groom as worthy objects of emulation." "I could more easily," wrote a friend of Dr. Bennett's in China to whom he had expressed his desire for a pair of these birds, "send you two live Mandarins than a pair of Mandarin Ducks." Concerning their attachment and fidelity to one another, Dr. Bennett recites the following: "Mr. Beale's aviary at Maceo one day was broken open and the male bird stolen from the side of its mate. She refused to be comforted, and, retiring to the farthest part of the aviary, sat disconsolate, rarely partaking of food, and giving no attention to her soiled and rumpled plumage. In vain did another handsome drake endeavor to console her for her loss. After some time the stolen bird was found in the quarters of a miserable Chinaman, and at once restored to its mate. As soon as he recognized his abode he began to flap his wings and quack vehemently. She heard his voice and almost quacked to screaming with ecstasy, both expressing their joy by crossing necks and quacking in concert. The next morning he fell upon the unfortunate drake who had made consolatory advances to his mate, pecked out his eyes and so injured him that the poor fellow died in the course of a few days." According to Schrenck, this species appears in the countries watered by the Amoor about May, and departs again at the end of August; at this season it is always met with in small or large flocks, which are so extremely shy that they rarely come within gunshot. Whilst on the wing these parties crowd closely together in front, the birds in the rear occupying a comparatively free space. THE GOLDEN PHEASANT They call me the Golden Pheasant, because I have a golden crest. It is like a king's crown. Don't you think my dress is beautiful enough for a king? See the large ruff around my neck. I can raise and lower it as I please. I am a very large bird. I am fourteen inches tall and twenty-eight inches long. I can step right over your little robins and meadow larks and blue jays and not touch them. Sometimes people get some of our eggs and put them under an old hen. By and by little pheasants hatch out, and the hen is very good to them. She watches over them and feeds them, but they do not wish to stay with her; they like their wild life. If they are not well fed they will fly away. I have a wife. Her feathers are beginning to grow like mine. In a few years she will look as I do. We like to have our nests by a fallen tree. * * * The well-known Chinese Pheasant, which we have named the Golden Pheasant, as well as its more sober-colored cousin, the Silver Pheasant, has its home in Eastern Asia. China is pre-eminently the land of Pheasants; for, besides those just mentioned, several other species of the same family are found there. Japan comes next to China as a pheasant country and there are some in India. In China the Golden Pheasant is a great favorite, not only for its splendid plumage and elegant form, but for the excellence of its flesh, which is said to surpass even that of the common pheasant. It has been introduced into Europe, but is fitted only for the aviary. For purposes of the table it is not likely to come into general use, as there are great difficulties in the way of breeding it in sufficient numbers, and one feels a natural repugnance to the killing of so beautiful a bird for the sake of eating it. The magnificent colors belong only to the male, the female being reddish brown, spotted and marked with a darker hue. The tail of the female is short. The statement is made, however, that some hens kept for six years by Lady Essex gradually assumed an attire like that of the males. Fly-fishers highly esteem the crest and feathers on the back of the neck of the male, as many of the artificial baits owe their chief beauty to the Golden Pheasant. According to Latham, it is called by the Chinese Keuki, or Keukee, a word which means gold flower fowl. * * * "A merry welcome to thee, glittering bird! Lover of summer flowers and sunny things! A night hath passed since my young buds have heard The music of thy rainbow-colored wings-- Wings that flash spangles out where'er they quiver, Like sunlight rushing o'er a river." [Illustration: GOLDEN PHEASANT.] THE NONPAREIL. So full of fight is this little bird, that the bird trappers take advantage of his disposition to make him a prisoner. They place a decoy bird on a cage trap in the attitude of defense, and when it is discovered by the bird an attack at once follows, and the fighter soon finds himself caught. They are a great favorite for the cage, being preferred by many to the Canary. Whatever he may lack as a songster he more than makes up by his wonderful beauty. These birds are very easily tamed, the female, even in the wild state, being so gentle that she allows herself to be lifted from the nest. They are also called the _Painted Finch_ or _Painted Bunting_. They are found in our Southern States and Mexico. They are very numerous in the State of Louisiana and especially about the City of New Orleans, where they are greatly admired by the French inhabitants, who, true to their native instincts, admire anything with gay colors. As the first name indicates, he has no equal, perhaps, among the songsters for beauty of dress. On account of this purple hood, he is called by the French _Le Pape_, meaning The Pope. The bird makes its appearance in the Southern States the last of April and, during the breeding season, which lasts until July, two broods are raised. The nests are made of fine grass and rest in the crotches of twigs of the low bushes and hedges. The eggs have a dull or pearly-white ground and are marked with blotches and dots of purplish and reddish brown. It is very pleasing to watch the numerous changes which the feathers undergo before the male bird attains his full beauty of color. The young birds of both sexes during the first season are of a fine olive green color on the upper parts and a pale yellow below. The female undergoes no material change in color except becoming darker as she grows older. The male, on the contrary, is three seasons in obtaining his full variety of colors. In the second season the blue begins to show on his head and the red also makes its appearance in spots on the breast. The third year he attains his full beauty. Their favorite resorts are small thickets of low trees and bushes, and when singing they select the highest branches of the bush. They are passionately fond of flies and insects and also eat seeds and rice. Thousands of these birds are trapped for the cage, and sold annually to our northern people and also in Europe. They are comparatively cheap, even in our northern bird markets, as most of them are exchanged for our Canaries and imported birds that cannot be sent directly to the south on account of climatic conditions. Many a northern lady, while visiting the orange groves of Florida, becomes enchanted with the Nonpareil in his wild state, and some shrewd and wily negro, hearing her expressions of delight, easily procures one, and disposes of it to her at an extravagant price. THE AUSTRALIAN GRASS PARRAKEET. I am a Parrakeet. I belong to the Parrot family. A man bought me and brought me here. It is not warm here, as it was where I came from. I almost froze coming over here. I am not kept in a cage. I stay in the house and go about as I please. There is a Pussy Cat in the house. Sometimes I ride on her back. I like that. I used to live in the grass lands. It was very warm there. I ran among the thick grass blades, and sat on the stems and ate seeds. I had a wife then. Her feathers were almost like mine. We never made nests. When we wanted a nest, we found a hole in a gum tree. I used to sing to my wife while she sat on the nest. I can mock other birds. Sometimes I warble and chirp at the same time. Then it sounds like two birds singing. My tongue is short and thick, and this helps me to talk. But I have been talking too much. My tongue is getting tired. I think I'll have a ride on Pussy's back. Good bye. * * * Parrakeets have a great fondness for the grass lands, where they may be seen in great numbers, running amid the thick grass blades, clinging to their stems, or feeding on their seeds. Grass seed is their constant food in their native country. In captivity they take well to canary seed, and what is remarkable, never pick food with their feet, as do other species of parrots, but always use their beaks. "They do not build a nest, but must be given a piece of wood with a rough hole in the middle, which they will fill to their liking, rejecting all soft lining of wool or cotton that you may furnish them." Only the male sings, warbling nearly all day long, pushing his beak at times into his mate's ear as though to give her the full benefit of his song. The lady, however, does not seem to appreciate his efforts, but generally pecks him sharply in return. A gentleman who brought a Parrakeet from Australia to England, says it suffered greatly from the cold and change of climate and was kept alive by a kind-hearted weather-beaten sailor, who kept it warm and comfortable in his bosom. It was not kept in a cage, but roamed at will about the room, enjoying greatly at times, a ride on the cat's back. At meals he perched upon his master's shoulder, picking the bits he liked from a plate set before him. If the weather was cold or chilly, he would pull himself up by his master's whiskers and warm his feet by standing on his bald head. He always announced his master's coming by a shrill call, and no matter what the hour of night, never failed to utter a note of welcome, although apparently asleep with his head tucked under his wing. [Illustration: AUSTRALIAN GRASS PARRAKEET.] [Illustration: COCK-OF-THE-ROCK.] THE COCK-OF-THE-ROCK. The Cock-of-the-Rock lives in Guiana. Its nest is found among the rocks. T. K. Salmon says: "I once went to see the breeding place of the Cock-of-the-Rock; and a darker or wilder place I have never been in. Following up a mountain stream the gorge became gradually more enclosed and more rocky, till I arrived at the mouth of a cave with high rock on each side, and overshadowed by high trees, into which the sun never penetrated. All was wet and dark, and the only sound heard was the rushing of the water over the rocks. We had hardly become accustomed to the gloom when a nest was found, a dark bird stealing away from what seemed to be a lump of mud upon the face of the rock. This was a nest of the Cock-of-the-Rock, containing two eggs; it was built upon a projecting piece, the body being made of mud or clay, then a few sticks, and on the top lined with green moss. It was about five feet from the water. I did not see the male bird, and, indeed, I have rarely ever seen the male and female birds together, though I have seen both sexes in separate flocks." The eggs are described as pale buff with various sized spots of shades from red-brown to pale lilac. It is a solitary and wary bird, feeding before sunrise and after sunset and hiding through the day in sombre ravines. Robert Schomburgh describes its dance as follows: "While traversing the mountains of Western Guiana we fell in with a pack of these splendid birds, which gave me the opportunity of being an eye witness of their dancing, an accomplishment which I had hitherto regarded as a fable. We cautiously approached their ballet ground and place of meeting, which lay some little distance from the road. The stage, if we may so call it, measured from four to five feet in diameter; every blade of grass had been removed and the ground was as smooth as if leveled by human hands. On this space we saw one of the birds dance and jump about, while the others evidently played the part of admiring spectators. At one moment it expanded its wings, threw its head in the air, or spread out its tail like a peacock scratching the ground with its foot; all this took place with a sort of hopping gait, until tired, when on emitting a peculiar note, its place was immediately filled by another performer. In this manner the different birds went through their terpsichorean exercises, each retiring to its place among the spectators, who had settled on the low bushes near the theatre of operations. We counted ten males and two females in the flock. The noise of a breaking stick unfortunately raised an alarm, when the whole company of dancers immediately flew off." "The Indians, who place great value on their skins, eagerly seek out their playing grounds, and armed with their blow-tubes and poisoned arrows, lie in wait for the dances. The hunter does not attempt to use his weapon until the company is quite engrossed in the performance, when the birds become so preoccupied with their amusement that four or five are often killed before the survivors detect the danger and decamp." THE RED BIRD OF PARADISE. My home is on an island where it is very warm. I fly among the tall trees and eat fruit and insects. See my beautiful feathers. The ladies like to wear them in their hats. The feathers of my wife are brown, but she has no long tail feathers. My wife thinks my plumes are very beautiful. When we have a party, we go with our wives to a tall tree. We spread our beautiful plumes while our wives sit and watch us. Sometimes a man finds our tree and builds a hut among the lower branches. He hides in the hut and while we are spreading our feathers shoots at us. The arrows are not sharp. They do not draw blood. When they dry the skins they take off the feet and wings. This is why people used to think we had neither feet nor wings. They also thought we lived on the dews of heaven and the honey of flowers. This is why we are called the Birds of Paradise. * * * "Upon its waving feathers poised in air, Feathers, or rather clouds of golden down, With streamers thrown luxuriantly out In all the wantonness of winged wealth." [Illustration: RED BIRD OF PARADISE.] THE RED BIRD OF PARADISE. Birds of Paradise are found only in New Guinea and on the neighboring islands. The species presented here is found only on a few islands. In former days very singular ideas prevailed concerning these birds and the most extravagant tales were told of the life they led in their native lands. The natives of New Guinea, in preparing their skins for exportation, had removed all traces of legs, so that it was popularly supposed they possessed none, and on account of their want of feet and their great beauty, were called the Birds of Paradise, retaining, it was thought, the forms they had borne in the Garden of Eden, living upon dew or ether, through which it was imagined they perpetually floated by the aid of their long cloud-like plumage. Of one in confinement Dr. Bennett says: "I observed the bird, before eating a grasshopper, place the insect upon the perch, keep it firmly fixed by the claws, and, divesting it of the legs, wings, etc., devour it with the head always first. It rarely alights upon the ground, and so proud is the creature of its elegant dress that it never permits a soil to remain upon it, frequently spreading out its wings and feathers, regarding its splendid self in every direction." The sounds uttered by this bird are very peculiar, resembling somewhat the cawing of the Raven, but change gradually to a varied scale in musical gradations, like _he, hi, ho, how_! He frequently raises his voice, sending forth notes of such power as to be heard at a long distance. These notes are _whack_, _whack_, uttered in a barking tone, the last being a low note in conclusion. While creeping amongst the branches in search of insects, he utters a soft clucking note. During the entire day he flies incessantly from one tree to another, perching but a few moments, and concealing himself among the foliage at the least suspicion of danger. In Bennett's "Wanderings" is an entertaining description of Mr. Beale's bird at Maceo. "This elegant bird," he says, "has a light, playful, and graceful manner, with an arch and impudent look, dances about when a visitor approaches the cage, and seems delighted at being made an object of admiration. It bathes twice daily, and after performing its ablutions throws its delicate feathers up nearly over its head, the quills of which have a peculiar structure, enabling the bird to effect this object. To watch this bird make its toilet is one of the most interesting sights of nature; the vanity which inspires its every movement, the rapturous delight with which it views its enchanting self, its arch look when demanding the spectator's admiration, are all pardonable in a delicate creature so richly embellished, so neat and cleanly, so fastidious in its tastes, so scrupulously exact in its observances, and so winning in all its ways." Says a traveler in New Guinea: "As we were drawing near a small grove of teak-trees, our eyes were dazzled with a sight more beautiful than any I had yet beheld. It was that of a Bird of Paradise moving through the bright light of the morning sun. I now saw that the birds must be seen alive in their native forests, in order to fully comprehend the poetic beauty of the words Birds of Paradise. They seem the inhabitants of a fairer world than ours, things that have wandered in some way from their home, and found the earth to show us something of the beauty of worlds beyond." THE YELLOW THROATED TOUCAN. I am a Toucan and I live in a very warm country. See my handsome black coat and my yellow vest. My toes are like a parrot's, two in front and two behind. They help me to hold to the limbs. Look at my large beak. It looks heavy but it is not, as it is filled with air cells. These make it very light. Do you like my blue eyes? My nest is very hard to find. If I tell you where it is, you will not take the eggs, will you? It is in a hollow limb of a very high tree. I am very fond of fruit, and for this reason the people on the plantations do not like me very well. I can fly very fast, but I cannot get along so well on the ground. I keep my feet far apart and hop. I like to sit in the top of the tallest trees. Then I am not afraid. Nothing can reach me there but a rifle ball. I do not like the owl, he is so ugly. When we find an owl we get in a circle around him and snap our great beaks, and jerk our tails up and down and scream. He is very much afraid of us. The people where I live like our yellow breasts. They wear them on their heads, and also put them on the ends of their bows. We sometimes sit together in a tree and snap our beaks and shout. This is why we have been called "Preacher Birds." We can scream so loud that we may be heard a mile away. Our song is "Tucano! Tucano!" I think it is a pretty song, but the people do not like it very much. [Illustration: YELLOW THROATED TOUCAN.] THE YELLOW THROATED TOUCAN. The Toucans are a numerous race of South American birds, at once recognizable by the prodigious size of their beaks and by the richness of their plumage. "These birds are very common," says Prince Von Wied, "in all parts of the extensive forests of the Brazils and are killed for the table in large numbers during the cool seasons. Their eggs are deposited in the hollow limbs and holes of the colossal trees, so common in the tropical forests, but their nests are very difficult to find. The egg is said to be white. They are very fond of fruit, oranges, guavas and plantains, and when these fruits are ripe make sad havoc among the neighboring plantations. In return for these depredations the planter eats their flesh, which is very delicate." The flight of these birds is easy and graceful, sweeping with facility over the loftiest trees of their native forests, their strangely developed bills being no encumbrance to them, replete as they are with a tissue of air-filled cells rendering them very light and even buoyant. On the ground they get along with a rather awkward hopping movement, their legs being kept widely apart. In ascending a tree they do not climb but mount from one branch to another with a series of jumps, ascending to the tops of the very loftiest trees, safe from every missile except a rifle ball. They have a habit of sitting on the branches in flocks, lifting their bills, clattering them together, and shouting hoarsely all the while, from which custom the natives call them Preacher-birds. Sometimes the whole party, including the sentinel, set up a simultaneous yell so deafeningly loud that it can be heard a mile. They are very loquacious birds and are often discovered through their perpetual chattering. Their cry resembles the word "Tucano," which has given origin to the peculiar name. When settling itself to sleep, the Toucan packs itself up in a very systematic manner, supporting its huge beak by resting it on its back, and tucking it completely among the feathers, while it doubles its tail across its back just as if it moved on hinges. So completely is the large bill hidden among the feathers, that hardly a trace of it is visible in spite of its great size and bright color, so that the bird when sleeping looks like a great ball of loose feathers. Sir R. Owen concludes that the large beak is of service in masticating food compensating for the absence of any grinding structures in the intestinal tract. Says a naturalist: "We turned into a gloomy forest and for some time saw nothing but a huge brown moth, which looked almost like a bat on the wing. Suddenly we heard high upon the trees a short shrieking sort of noise ending in a hiss, and our guide became excited and said, "Toucan!" The birds were very wary and made off. They are much in quest and often shot at. At last we caught sight of a pair, but they were at the top of such a high tree that they were out of range. Presently, when I had about lost hope, I heard loud calls, and three birds came and settled in a low bush in the middle of the path. I shot one and it proved to be a very large toucan. The bird was not quite dead when I picked it up, and it bit me severely with its huge bill." THE RED-RUMPED TANAGER. I have just been singing my morning song, and I wish you could have heard it. I think you would have liked it. I always sing very early in the morning. I sing because I am happy, and the people like to hear me. My home is near a small stream, where there are low woods and underbrush along its banks. There is an old dead tree there, and just before the sun is up I fly to this tree. I sit on one of the branches and sing for about half an hour. Then I fly away to get my breakfast. I am very fond of fruit. Bananas grow where I live, and I like them best of all. I eat insects, and sometimes I fly to the rice fields and swing on the stalks and eat rice. The people say I do much harm to the rice, but I do not see why it is wrong for me to eat it, for I think there is enough for all. I must go now and get my breakfast. If you ever come to see me I will sing to you. I will show you my wife, too. She looks just like me. Be sure to get up very early. If you do not, you will be too late for my song. * * * "Birds, Birds! ye are beautiful things, With your earth-treading feet and your cloud-cleaving wings. Where shall man wander, and where shall he dwell-- Beautiful birds--that ye come not as well? Ye have nests on the mountain, all rugged and stark, Ye have nests in the forest, all tangled and dark; Ye build and ye brood 'neath the cottagers' eaves, And ye sleep on the sod, 'mid the bonnie green leaves; Ye hide in the heather, ye lurk in the brake, Ye dine in the sweet flags that shadow the lake; Ye skim where the stream parts the orchard decked land, Ye dance where the foam sweeps the desolate strand." [Illustration: RED-RUMPED TANAGER.] THE RED-RUMPED TANAGER. An American family, the Tanagers are mostly birds of very brilliant plumage. There are 300 species, a few being tropical birds. They are found in British and French Guiana, living in the latter country in open spots of dwellings and feeding on bananas and other fruits. They are also said to do much harm in the rice fields. In "The Auk," of July, 1893, Mr. George K. Cherrie, of the Field Museum, says of the Red-Rumped Tanager: "During my stay at Boruca and Palmar, (the last of February) the breeding season was at its height, and I observed many of the Costa Rica Red-Rumps nesting. In almost every instance where possible I collected both parents of the nests, and in the majority of cases found the males wearing the same dress as the females. In a few instances the male was in mottled plumage, evidently just assuming the adult phase, and in a lesser number of examples the male was in fully adult plumage--velvety black and crimson red. From the above it is clear that the males begin to breed before they attain fully adult plumage, and that they retain the dress of the female until, at least, the beginning of the second year. "While on this trip I had many proofs that, in spite of its rich plumage, and being a bird of the tropics, it is well worthy to hold a place of honor among the song birds. And if the bird chooses an early hour and a secluded spot for expressing its happiness, the melody is none the less delightful. At the little village of Buenos Aires, on the Rio Grande of Terraba, I heard the song more frequently than at any other point. Close by the ranch house at which we were staying, there is a small stream bordered by low woods and underbrush, that formed a favorite resort for the birds. Just below the ranch is a convenient spot where we took our morning bath. I was always there just as the day was breaking. On the opposite bank was a small open space in the brush occupied by the limbs of a dead tree. On one of these branches, and always the same one, was the spot chosen by a Red-rump to pour forth his morning song. Some mornings I found him busy with his music when I arrived, and again he would be a few minutes behind me. Sometimes he would come from one direction, sometimes from another, but he always alighted at the same spot and then lost no time in commencing his song. While singing, the body was swayed to and fro, much after the manner of a canary while singing. The song would last for perhaps half an hour, and then away the singer would go. I have not enough musical ability to describe the song, but will say that often I remained standing quietly for a long time, only that I might listen to the music." THE GOLDEN ORIOLE. We find the Golden Oriole in America only. According to Mr. Nuttall, it is migratory, appearing in considerable numbers in West Florida about the middle of March. It is a good songster, and in a state of captivity imitates various tunes. This beautiful bird feeds on fruits and insects, and its nest is constructed of blades of grass, wool, hair, fine strings, and various vegetable fibers, which are so curiously interwoven as to confine and sustain each other. The nest is usually suspended from a forked and slender branch, in shape like a deep basin and generally lined with fine feathers. "On arriving at their breeding locality they appear full of life and activity, darting incessantly through the lofty branches of the tallest trees, appearing and vanishing restlessly, flashing at intervals into sight from amidst the tender waving foliage, and seem like living gems intended to decorate the verdant garments of the fresh clad forest." It is said these birds are so attached to their young that the female has been taken and conveyed on her eggs, upon which with resolute and fatal instinct she remained faithfully sitting until she expired. An Indiana gentleman relates the following story: "When I was a boy living in the hilly country of Southern Indiana, I remember very vividly the nesting of a pair of fine Orioles. There stood in the barn yard a large and tall sugar tree with limbs within six or eight feet of the ground. "At about thirty feet above the ground I discovered evidences of an Oriole's nest. A few days later I noticed they had done considerably more work, and that they were using horse hair, wool and fine strings. This second visit seemed to create consternation in the minds of the birds, who made a great deal of noise, apparently trying to frighten me away. I went to the barn and got a bunch of horse hair and some wool, and hung it on limbs near the nest. Then climbing up higher, I concealed myself where I could watch the work. In less than five minutes they were using the materials and chatted with evident pleasure over the abundant supply at hand. "They appeared to have some knowledge of spinning, as they would take a horse hair and seemingly wrap it with wool before placing it in position on the nest. "I visited these birds almost daily, and shortly after the nest was completed I noticed five little speckled eggs in it. The female was so attached to the nest that I often rubbed her on the back and even lifted her to look at the eggs." [Illustration: GOLDEN ORIOLE.] TESTIMONIALS. CHICAGO, December 10th, 1896. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. DEAR SIRS: I am very much pleased with this movement to give such substantial and tangible aid to us on this subject, and for your kind offer also. Respectfully, HARRIET N. WINCHELL, Principal Tilden School. ST. JOSEPH, MICH., January 4, 1897. PRINCIPAL W. J. BLACK, Chicago. DEAR SIR: Thanks for sample copy of "Birds." It is by far the finest thing I have ever seen in that line. I shall take great pleasure in presenting it to my teachers, and shall be glad to be of any assistance to you that I am able. Yours, GEORGE W. LOOMIS, Superintendent City Schools. DES MOINES, IOWA, January 5, 1897. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY, Fisher Building, Chicago. I have just seen the January number of "Birds," illustrated by color photography; and think it instructive, delightful and beautiful. Very sincerely, MRS. MINNIE THERESA HATCH, Principal Washington School. LUTHER, MICH., December 31st, 1896. W. E. WATT, Chicago, Ill. DEAR SIR: Your serial on Birds received and after examination I have no hesitation in saying that it is the best publication of the kind that I have ever seen and I will do all that I can for you in presenting it to my teachers and recommending it to their favorable notice. Very truly, E. G. JOHNSON, Commissioner of Schools. OUR PREMIUM A picture of wonderful beauty of the Golden Pheasant almost life size in a natural scene, plate 12�18 inches, on card 19�25 inches, is given as a premium to yearly subscribers. Our price on this picture in Art Stores is $3.50. 
25874	----	Transcriber's Notes: 1) Title added. 2) Characters following ^ are supercripted. * * * * * BIRDS ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY Vol. One APRIL, 1897 No. 4 * * * * * FROM: THE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. _STATE OF NEW YORK_ _Department of Public Instruction_ _SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE_ _Albany_ December 26, 1896. [Illustration: (seal)] _Stenographic Letter_ Dictated by __________ W. E. Watt, President &c., Fisher Building, 277 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. My dear Sir: Please accept my thanks for a copy of the first publication of "Birds." Please enter my name as a regular subscriber. It is one of the most beautiful and interesting publications yet attempted in this direction. It has other attractions in addition to its beauty, and it must win its way to popular favor. Wishing the handsome little magazine abundant prosperity, I remain Yours very respectfully, [signature] State Superintendent. * * * * * Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville Ry. 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Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. +----------------------------+ | #A. REED & SONS PIANOS.# | +----------------------------+ Manufactured under patents granted by the governments of the United States, England, Germany, France and Canada. #A New and Scientific Method of Piano Construction# FREE SOUNDING BOARD, VIBRATION BAR, STRINGS RESTING ON ALUMINUM WHEELS, ANTI-MOISTURE PIN BLOCK, LATERAL PEDALS #Grand Diploma and Medal of Honor# Awarded at Columbian World's Exposition, 1893 Only American Piano receiving mention in the Official Report to the German Government #A. REED & SONS# No. 5 Adams Street ... CHICAGO Illustrated Catalogues ... containing full explanation Mailed Free. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. NOW READY. #THE STORY OF THE BIRDS.# By JAMES NEWTON BASKETT. Edited by Dr. W. T. Harris, U. S. Com'r of Education. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I.--A Bird's Forefathers. II.--How did the Birds First Fly, Perhaps? III.--A Bird's Fore Leg. IV.--Why did the Birds put on Soft Raiment? V.--The Cut of a Bird's Frock. VI.--About a Bird's Underwear. VII.--A Bird's Outer Wrap. VIII.--A Bird's New Suit. IX.--"Putting on Paint and Frills" among the Birds. X.--Color Calls among the Birds. XI.--War and Weapons among the Birds. XII.--Antics and Odor among the Birds. XIII.--The Meaning of Music among Birds. XIV.--Freaks of Bachelors and Benedicts in Feathers. XV.--Step-Parents among Birds. XVI.--Why did Birds begin to Incubate? XVII.--Why do the Birds Build So. XVIII.--Fastidious Nesting Habits of a few Birds. XIX.--What Mean the Markings and Shapes of Bird's Eggs? XX.--Why Two Kinds of Nestlings? XXI.--How Some Baby Birds are Fed. XXII.--How Some Grown-Up Birds get a Living. XXIII.--Tools and Tasks among the Birds. XXIV.--How a Bird Goes to Bed. XXV.--A Little Talk on Bird's Toes. XXVI.--The Way of a Bird in the Air. XXVII.--How and Why do Birds Travel? XXVIII.--What a Bird knows about Geography and Arithmetic. XXIX.--Profit and Loss in the Birds. XXX.--A Bird's Modern Kinsfolk. XXXI.--An Introduction to the Bird. XXXII.--Acquaintance with the Bird. 1 vol. 12mo. Cloth, 65 cents, postpaid. D. APPLETON & CO., New York, Boston, Chicago. Chicago Office, 243 Wabash Ave. #The Best is the Cheapest# #CROWN FOUNTAIN PENS# #CROWN GOLD PENS# Received Highest Awards at World's Fair, Chicago, 1893 [Illustration] ALL SIZES AND STYLES EVERY PEN GUARANTEED #CROWN PEN CO., Manufacturers# 78 State Street, CHICAGO, ILL. ALL MAKES OF FOUNTAIN AND GOLD PENS REPAIRED. #Ride a MONARCH and keep in front# MONARCH CYCLE MFG CO CHICAGO NEW YORK LONDON #Harvey Medical College# CO-EDUCATIONAL. [Illustration] 167-169-171 South Clark Street CHICAGO. Lectures every week day evening. Clinics all day. Four years graded course. Special three months summer course. For further information address FRANCES DICKINSON, M. D., Secy. 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No free samples, but to any one sending us 6 2-cent stamps we will mail a sample copy with several reform books; over 300 pages in all. Agents wanted. Charles H. Kerr & Company, Publishers, 56 Fifth Ave., Chicago. #PREPARE FOR A GOOD POSITION# #By studying Architecture, Engineering, Electricity, Drafting, Mathematics, Shorthand, Typewriting, English, Penmanship, Bookkeeping, Business, Telegraphy, Plumbing.# Best teachers. Thorough individual instruction. Rates lower than any other school. Instruction also by mail in any desired study. Steam engineering a specialty. Call or address, INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, 151 Throop St., Chicago. [Illustration: SEWING MACHINE CLOSED] #$9.00 For 30 Days Only# Buys the OXFORD Improved High Arm Sewing Machine, with a complete set of attachments and guaranteed for 10 years. This elegant High-Grade Folding Table Cabinet Oxford Sewing Machine sent to your own home on 80 DAYS FREE TRIAL, no money required in advance. 75,000 now in use. World's Fair Medal awarded. Silver Tea Set FREE. Buy from factory and save Dealer's and Agent's profits. Write to-day for free catalogue. Address OXFORD MDSE. CO., 300 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO, ILL. Stays lit. Don't jolt or blow out. "Out shines them all." Standard in fame, standard in name. [Illustration] #Standard Cycle Lamp.# For sale by all Sundries dealers. Made by Standard Carriage Lamp Co. Chicago. 43 S. Canal. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. * * * * * [Illustration: ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK. 9/16 Life-size.] THE ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK. This is an American bird, and has been described under various names by various authors. It is found in the lower parts of Pennsylvania, in the state of New York, and in New England, particularly in autumn, when the berries of the sour gum are ripe, on the kernels of which it eagerly feeds. As a singer it has few superiors. It frequently sings at night, and even all night, the notes being extremely clear and mellow. It does not acquire its full colors until at least the second spring or summer. It is found as far east as Nova Scotia, as far west as Nebraska, and winters in great numbers in Guatemala. This Grosbeak is common in southern Indiana, northern Illinois, and western Iowa. It is usually seen in open woods, on the borders of streams, but frequently sings in the deep recesses of forests. In Mr. Nuttall's opinion this species has no superior in song, except the Mocking Bird. The Rose-Breasted Grosbeaks arrive in May and nest early in June. They build in low trees on the edges of woods, frequently in small groves on the banks of streams. The nest is coarsely built of waste stubble, fragments of leaves, and stems of plants, intermingled with and strengthened by twigs and coarser stems. It is eight inches wide, and three and a half high, with a cavity three inches in diameter and one in depth, being quite shallow for so large a nest. Dr. Hoy, of Racine, states that on the 15th of June, within six miles of that city, he found seven nests, all within a space of not over five acres, and he was assured that each year they resort to the same locality and nest in this social manner. Six of these nests were in thorn-trees, all were within six to ten feet of the ground, near the center of the top. Three of the four parent birds sitting on the nests were males. When a nest was disturbed, all the neighboring Grosbeaks gathered and appeared equally interested. It is frequently observed early in the month of March, making its way eastward. At this period it passes at a considerable height in the air. On the banks of the Schuylkill, early in May, it has been seen feeding on the tender buds of trees. It eats various kinds of food, such as hemp-seed, insects, grasshoppers, and crickets with peculiar relish. It eats flies and wasps, and great numbers of these pests are destroyed by its strong bill. During bright moonshiny nights the Grosbeak sings sweetly, but not loudly. In the daytime, when singing, it has the habit of vibrating its wings, in the manner of the Mocking-bird. The male takes turns with his mate in sitting on the eggs. He is so happy when on the nest that he sings loud and long. His music is sometimes the cause of great mourning in the lovely family because it tells the egg hunter where to find the precious nest. THE CANADA JAY. I don't believe I shall let this bird talk to you, boys and girls, for I'm afraid he will not tell you what a funny fellow he is. Isn't he a queer looking bird? See how ruffled up his feathers are. He looks as though he forgot to fix up, just as some little boys forget to comb their hair before going to school. Well, to tell the truth, he is a very careless bird and does very funny things sometimes. He can't be trusted. Just listen to some of the names that people give him--"Meat Bird," "Camp Robber." I think you can guess why he is called those names. Hunters say that he is the boldest of birds, and I think they are right, for what bird would dare to go right into a tent and carry off things to eat. A hunter thought he would play a joke on one of these birds. He had a small paper sack of crackers in the bottom of his boat. The Jay flew down, helped himself to a cracker and flew away with it to his nest. While he was gone the hunter tied up the mouth of the bag. In a few moments the Jay was back for more. When he saw he could not get into the bag, he just picked it up and carried it off. The joke was on the hunter after all. Look at him. Doesn't he look bold enough to do such a trick? Look back at your February number of "BIRDS" and see if he is anything like the Blue Jay. He is not afraid of the snow and often times he and his mate have built their nest, and the eggs are laid while there is still snow on the ground. Do you know of any other birds who build their nests so early? There is one thing about this bird which we all admire--he is always busy, never idle; so we will forgive him for his funny tricks. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. CANADA JAY.] THE CANADA JAY. Many will recognize the Canada Jay by his local names, of which he has a large assortment. He is called by the guides and lumbermen of the Adirondack wilderness, "Whisky Jack" or "Whisky John," a corruption of the Indian name, "Wis-ka-tjon," "Moose Bird," "Camp Robber," "Hudson Bay Bird," "Caribou Bird," "Meat Bird," "Grease Bird," and "Venison Heron." To each of these names his characteristics have well entitled him. The Canada Jay is found only in the more northern parts of the United States, where it is a resident and breeds. In northern Maine and northern Minnesota it is most common; and it ranges northward through the Dominion of Canada to the western shores of Hudson Bay, and to the limit of timber within the Arctic Circle east of the Rocky Mountains. Mr. Manly Hardy, in a special bulletin of the Smithsonian Institution, says, "They are the boldest of our birds, except the Chickadee, and in cool impudence far surpass all others. They will enter the tents, and often alight on the bow of a canoe, where the paddle at every stroke comes within eighteen inches of them. I know nothing which can be eaten that they will not take, and I had one steal all my candles, pulling them out endwise, one by one, from a piece of birch bark in which they were rolled, and another pecked a large hole in a keg of castile soap. A duck which I had picked and laid down for a few minutes had the entire breast eaten out by one or more of these birds. I have seen one alight in the middle of my canoe and peck away at the carcass of a beaver I had skinned. They often spoil deer saddles by pecking into them near the kidneys. They do great damage to the trappers by stealing the bait from traps set for martens and minks, and by eating trapped game. They will sit quietly and see you build a log trap and bait it, and then, almost before your back is turned, you hear their hateful "Ca-ca-ca," as they glide down and peer into it. They will work steadily, carrying off meat and hiding it. I have thrown out pieces, and watched one to see how much he would carry off. He flew across a wide stream and in a short time looked as bloody as a butcher from carrying large pieces; but his patience held out longer than mine. I think one would work as long as Mark Twain's California Jay did trying to fill a miner's cabin with acorns through a knot hole in the roof. They are fond of the berries of the mountain ash, and, in fact, few things come amiss; I believe they do not possess a single good quality except industry." Its flight is slow and laborious, while it moves on the ground and in trees with a quickness and freedom equal to that of our better known Bluejay. The nesting season begins early, before the snow has disappeared, and therefore comparatively little is known about its breeding habits. It is then silent and retiring and is seldom seen or heard. The nest is quite large, made of twigs, fibres, willow bark, and the down of the cottonwood tree, and lined with finer material. The eggs, so far as is known, number three or four. They are of a pale gray color, flecked and spotted over the surface with brown, slate gray, and lavender. THE PURPLE GALLINULE. Purple Gallinules are found in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and casually northward as far as Maine, New York, Wisconsin, and south throughout the West Indies, Mexico, Central America, and northern South America to Brazil. The bird pictured was caught in the streets of Galveston, Texas, and presented to Mr. F. M. Woodruff, of the Chicago Academy of Sciences. Gallinules live in marshy districts, and some of them might even be called water-fowls. They usually prefer sedgy lakes, large swampy morasses and brooks, or ponds and rivers well stocked with vegetation. They are not social in disposition, but show attachment to any locality of which they have taken possession, driving away other birds much larger and stronger than themselves. They are tenderly attached to their little ones and show great affection for each other. The nest is always built among, or near the water plants of which they are fond. It is about eight inches thick and fifteen to eighteen inches in diameter, and is placed from a foot to two feet out of water among the heavy rushes. The Purple Gallinule is known to build as many as five or six sham nests, a trait which is not confined to the Wren family. From four to twelve smooth shelled and spotted eggs are laid, and the nestlings when first hatched are clad in dark colored down. On leaving the nest they, accompanied by their parents, seek a more favorable situation until after the moulting season. Half fluttering and half running, they are able to make their way over a floating surface of water-plants. They also swim with facility, as they are aquatic, having swimming membranes on their feet, and while vegetable feeders to some extent, they dive for food. It is noted that some Gallinules, when young, crawl on bushes by wing claws. The voice somewhat resembles the cackling or clucking of a hen. It eats the tender shoots of young corn, grass, and various kinds of grain. When the breeding season approaches, the mated pairs generally resort to rice fields, concealing themselves among the reeds and rushes. Mr. Woodruff noted that when the railway trains pass through the over-flowed districts about Galveston, the birds fly up along the track in large multitudes. The Purple Gallinules are stoutly built birds, with a high and strong bill, and their remarkably long toes, which enable them to walk readily over the water plants, are frequently employed to hold the food, very much in the manner of a parrot, while eating. O, purple-breasted Gallinule Why should thy beauty cause thee fear? Why should the huntsman seek to fool Thy innocence, and bring thee near His deadly tool of fire and lead? Thou holdest high thy stately head! Would that the hunter might consent To leave thee in thy sweet content.--C. C. M. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. PURPLE GALLINULE.] [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SMITH'S LONGSPUR.] SMITH'S PAINTED LONGSPUR. Smith's Painted Longspur is usually considered a rare bird in the middle west, but a recent observer found it very common in the fields. He saw twenty-five on October 3rd of last year. They were associated with a large flock of Lapland Longspurs. On account of its general resemblance to the latter species it is often overlooked. It is found in the interior of North America from the Arctic coast to Illinois and Texas, breeding far north, where it has a thick, fur-lined, grass nest, set in moss on the ground. Like the Lapland Longspur, it is only a winter visitor. It is not so generally distributed as that species, the migrations being wholly confined to the open prairie districts. Painted Longspurs are generally found in large flocks, and when once on the ground begin to sport. They run very nimbly, and when they arise utter a sharp click, repeated several times in quick succession, and move with an easy undulating motion for a short distance, when they alight very suddenly, seeming to fall perpendicularly several feet to the ground. They prefer the roots where the grass is shortest. When in the air they fly in circles, to and fro, for a few minutes, and then alight, keeping up a constant chirping or call. They seem to prefer the wet portions of the prairie. In the breeding seasons the Longspur's song has much of charm, and is uttered like the Skylark's while soaring. The Longspur is a ground feeder, and the mark of his long hind claw, or spur, can often be seen in the new snow. In 1888 the writer saw a considerable flock of Painted Longspurs feeding along the Niagara river near Fort Erie, Canada. The usual number of eggs found in a nest is four or five, and the nests, for the most part, are built of fine dry grasses, carefully arranged and lined with down, feathers, or finer materials similar to those of the outer portions. They are sometimes sunk in an excavation made by the birds, or in a tuft of grass, and in one instance, placed in the midst of a bed of Labrador tea. When the nest is approached, the female quietly slips off, while the male bird may be seen hopping or flying from tree to tree in the neighborhood of the nest and doing all he can to induce intruders to withdraw from the neighborhood. The eggs have a light clay-colored ground, marked with obscure blotches of lavender and darker lines, dots, and blotches of purplish brown. The Longspur is a strong flier, and seems to delight in breasting the strongest gales, when all the other birds appear to move with difficulty, and to keep themselves concealed among the grass. While the colors of adult males are very different in the Longspur family, the females have a decided resemblance. The markings of the male are faintly indicated, but the black and buff are wanting. THE AMERICAN CROSS BILL. American Crossbills are notable for their small size, being considered and described as dwarfs of the family. Their food consists exclusively of pine, fir, and larch, which accounts for the fact that they are more numerous in Northern latitudes where these trees abound. When the cones are abundant they visit in great numbers many places where they have not been for years, appearing at irregular intervals, and not confining themselves to particular localities. They are very social even during the nesting season. Their nests are built among the branches of the fir trees, and there they disport themselves gaily, climbing nimbly, and assisting their movements, as parrots do, with their beaks. They will hang downward for minutes clinging to a twig or cone, seeming to enjoy this apparently uncomfortable position. They fly rapidly, but never to a great distance. "The pleasure they experience in the society of their mates is often displayed by fluttering over the tops of the trees as they sing, after which they hover for a time, and then sink slowly to their perch. In the day time they are generally in motion, with the exception of a short time at noon. During the spring, summer and autumn they pass their time in flying from one plantation to another." The Crossbill troubles itself but little about the other inhabitants of the woods, and is said to be almost fearless of man. Should the male lose his mate, he will remain sorrowfully perched upon the branch from which his little companion has fallen; again and again visit the spot in the hope of finding her; indeed it is only after repeated proofs that she will never return that he begins to show any symptoms of shyness. In feeding the Crossbill perches upon a cone with its head downwards, or lays the cone upon a branch and stands upon it, holding it fast with his sharp, strong pointed claws. Sometimes it will bite off a cone and carry it to a neighboring bough, or to another tree where it can be opened, for a suitable spot is not to be found on every branch. The nest is formed of pine twigs, lined with feathers, soft grass, and the needle-like leaves of the fir tree. Three or four eggs of a grayish or bluish white color, streaked with faint blood red, reddish brown, or bluish brown spots, are generally laid. The following poem is quite a favorite among bird lovers, and is one of those quaint legends that will never die. THE LEGEND OF THE CROSSBILL. From the German of Julius Mosen, by Longfellow. On the cross the dying Saviour Heavenward lifts his eyelids calm, Feels, but scarcely feels, a trembling In his pierced and bleeding palm. And by all the world forsaken, Sees he how with zealous care At the ruthless nail of iron A little bird is striving there. Stained with blood and never tiring, With its beak it doth not cease, From the cross it would free the Saviour, Its Creator's son release. And the Saviour speaks in mildness: "Blest be thou of all the good! Bear, as token of this moment, Marks of blood and holy rood!" And that bird is called the Crossbill, Covered all with blood so clear, In the groves of pine it singeth, Songs, like legends, strange to hear. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. AMERICAN RED CROSSBILL.] BIRD DAY IN THE SCHOOLS. Bird Day! Have you heard of it? Whether you have or not, we wish to assure you that it is worthy the thoughtful consideration of all teachers, and of all others interested in protecting and preserving our sweet birds. Bird day has already proved a great success in two cities of the United States, both in the enthusiasm shown by the children in their friendly study of birds and in the result of such study. In 1894, Oil City, Pa., observed the day, and in 1896 it was celebrated in the schools of Fort Madison, Iowa. Of the results in his schools, Supt. Babcock, of Oil City, says, "There has been a complete change in the relations existing between the small boy and the birds." Although we in Fort Madison have been engaged in bird study less than a year, and have observed but one BIRD DAY, results similar to those secured by Supt. Babcock are becoming manifest. Only a few days ago a boy said to his teacher, "I used to take pleasure in killing all kinds of birds. Now I don't wish to harm even an English Sparrow." The object of BIRD DAY and the study that leads to it, is to diffuse a true knowledge of the aesthetic and practical value of birds and to arouse an interest in bird protection. And it is high time that something be done. From all over the country come reports of a decrease in native birds. In many places some of our sweetest songsters and most useful insect destroyers have become very scarce or have disappeared entirely. The causes are many, but the greatest is an inexcusable thoughtlessness on the part of young and old of both sexes. Johnny teases for a gun. His fond parents get it for him. Result--Johnny shows his marksmanship by shooting several birds in his vicinity. Or, perhaps, the ladies need new hats. Nothing except birds for trimming will do, though ten thousand sweet songs be hushed forever. The study of bird life is one of especial interest to children and if properly pursued will develop in them sympathetic characters that should make them kinder towards their playmates now and towards their fellow-men in the coming years. Impress upon a child that "He liveth best who loveth best All things, both great and small," and you have built into his life something that shall shine forth in good deeds through countless ages. And how go about this work? The limit of space allotted this article forbids a full answer. Briefly,--study the birds themselves. Get a boy aroused to a friendly, protective interest in one bird and you have probably made that boy a friend of all birds. If you are a teacher, take your little flock out early some bright, Spring morning and let them listen to [Continued on page 138.] THE CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER. I may not be as pretty a bird as my red-headed cousin but I'm just as busy. My home is in the west among the pines on the mountains. I do not visit the east at all. Of course I like insects and fruits just as my relations do, but I like best to eat acorns. You know, if I left the acorns on the trees and just got enough to eat at one time, after a while I would have a hard time finding any. They would drop off and roll away and get lost among the leaves and grasses. What would you do if you were I? I have a very sharp bill, you see. So I can peck and peck at the tree until I have made a hole which will hold an acorn. Sometimes I fill my store house quite full in this way. You can see how they look in the picture. When I want to get at the meat in the acorn I drive the nut into a crack and split the shell. Then I have my breakfast easily enough. Some of the other birds like acorns too--but I think they should find and store away their own and not try to take mine. I do not like to quarrel and so have many friends. Then I have my nest to look after. I make it as my cousin does, by digging into a tree, first a passage way or hall--then a living-room. There are the four or five white eggs and there too soon are the little baby-birds to be taken care of. Now, have I not a great deal of work? Do you not think I am quite as busy as my cousin? [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER.] THE CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER. This fine specimen of the Woodpecker is by far the most sociable representative of the family in the United States, and it is no unusual occurrence to see half a dozen or more in a single tree. It is also a well disposed bird, and seldom quarrels or fights with its own kind, or with smaller birds, but it attacks intruders on its winter stores with such vigor and persistence that they are compelled to vacate the premises in a hurry. Its manner of flight and call notes closely resemble those of the Red-Headed Woodpecker, and, like it, it loves to cling to some dead limb near the top of a tree and drum for hours at a time. It is one of the most restless of birds, and never appears to be at a loss for amusement, and no other bird belonging to this family could possibly be more industrious. During the Spring and Summer its food consists, to some extent, of insects, including grasshoppers, ants, beetles, and flies--varied with cherries, apples, figs, berries and green corn. Acorns form its principal food during the greater portion of the year. Of these it stores away large numbers in the thick bark of pines, in partly rotten limbs of oak trees, telegraph poles, and fence posts. A writer in the "Auk" says of its habits: "It is essentially a bird of the pines, only occasionally descending to the cotton woods of low valleys. The oaks, which are scattered through the lower pine zone, supply a large share of its food. Its habit of hoarding food is well known, and these stores are the source of unending quarrels with its numerous feathered enemies. I have laid its supplies under contribution myself, when short of provisions and lost from the command on which I had been traveling, by filling my saddlebags with half-dried acorns from under the loose bark of a dead pine." The California Woodpecker is found in western Mexico, northern Lower California, and north through California into western Oregon. So far as is known the eastern limit of its range is the Santa Fe Mountains. Its nest is usually from fifteen to twenty-five feet from the ground, excavated on the side of a branch of a good sized oak or sycamore. Breeding commences in April or May, according to locality. Both sexes assist in the excavation. The entrance hole is about one and three-fourths inches in diameter, perfectly circular, and is sometimes chiseled through two or three inches of solid wood before the softer and decayed core is reached. The inner cavity is greatly enlarged as it descends, and varies from eight to twenty-four inches in depth. The eggs rarely exceed four or five, and are pure white in color. The most remarkable fact concerning this species is the peculiar manner in which it stores acorns. The thick bark of large sugar and other pines has been seen completely riddled with small holes. A section of a partly decayed oak limb, three feet two inches long and five and one-half inches in diameter, contained 255 holes. Each hole is intended to hold a single acorn. The acorns fit quite accurately, are driven in point foremost, and are not readily extracted. Sweet acorns are selected. To get at their contents the acorns are carried to a convenient tree where a limb has been broken off, driven into a suitable crevice, split open, and the outer hull removed. Truly the California Woodpecker is no idler or bungler, nor is he a free-booter, like the noisy, roystering Jay. He makes an honest living, and provides for the evil day which comes alike to man and beast. THE PIEDBILL GREBE. Boys and Girls: This is the first time I've been on land for several weeks. I am sure you can't think of any other kind of bird who can say that. Sometimes I don't go on land for months, but stay in the water all of the time--eat and sleep there, floating around. My little chick wanted me to go on land so we could have our pictures taken. If he were not sitting so close to me you could see better what paddles I have for feet. I build my nest of weeds, grass, sticks, and anything I can find floating around. I most always fasten it to some reeds or tall grass that grow up out of the water. In this I lay the eggs and just as soon as the chicks come out of the shell they can swim. Of course they can't swim as well as I and they soon get tired. Do you know how I rest them? Well, it's very funny, but I just help them up on my back and there they rest while I swim around and get them food. When they get rested they slide off into the water. Are you wondering if I can fly? Well, I can fly a little but not very well. I can get along very fast swimming, and as I do not go on land often, why should I care to fly. Should any one try to harm me I can dive, and swim under water out of reach. Well, chick, let us go back to our home in the water. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. PIED BILLED GREBE.] THE PIEDBILL GREBE. Members of the family of Grebes are to be found in the temperate zones of both hemispheres, beyond which they do not extend very far either to the north or south. They are usually found on ponds or large sheets of stagnant water, sometimes on deep, slow-moving streams; but always where sedges and rushes are abundant. Probably there are no birds better entitled to the name of water fowl than the Grebes--at least, observers state that they know of no others that do not on some occasions appear on dry land. It is only under the most urgent circumstances, as, for instance, when wounded, that they approach the shore, and even then they keep so close to the brink that on the slightest alarm they can at once plunge into the water. Whatever they do must be done in the water; they cannot even rise upon the wing without a preliminary rush over the surface of the lake. From dry land they cannot begin their flight. Their whole life is spent in swimming and diving. They even repose floating upon the water, and when thus asleep float as buoyantly as if they were made of cork, the legs raised to the edges of the wings, and the head comfortably buried among the feathers between the back and shoulder. Should a storm arise, they at once turn to face the blast, and are usually able, with their paddle-like feet, to maintain themselves in the same place. They dive with great facility, and make their way more swiftly when under water than when swimming at the top. When flying the long neck is stretched out straight forwards and the feet backwards. In the absence of any tail, they steer their course by means of their feet. When alarmed they instantly dive. Their food consists of small fishes, insects, frogs, and tadpoles. Grebes are peculiar in their manner of breeding. They live in pairs, and are very affectionate, keeping in each other's company during their migrations, and always returning together to the same pond. The nest is a floating one, a mass of wet weeds, in which the eggs are not only kept damp, but in the water. The weeds used in building the nests are procured by diving, and put together so as to resemble a floating heap of rubbish, and fastened to some old upright reeds. The eggs are from three to six, at first greenish white in color, but soon become dirty, and are then of a yellowish red or olive-brown tint, sometimes marbled. The male and female both sit upon the nest, and the young are hatched in three weeks. From the first moment they are able to swim, and in a few days to dive. Having once quitted the nest they seldom return to it, a comfortable resting and sleeping place being afforded them on the backs of their parents. "It is a treat to watch the little family as now one, now another of the young brood, tired with the exertion of swimming or of struggling against the rippling water, mount as to a resting place on their mother's back; to see how gently, when they have recovered their strength, she returns them to the water; to hear the anxious, plaintive notes of the little warblers when they have ventured too far from the nest; to see their food laid before them by the old birds; or to witness the tenderness with which they are taught to dive." BIRD DAY IN THE SCHOOLS--Continued from page 129. the singing of their feathered brothers of the air. Call attention to their beauty and grace of form, plumage and movement. Watch them care for their little ones. Notice their nests--their happy little homes--those "halfway houses on the road to heaven," and as you and your flock wander, watch and listen and call to mind that, "'Tis always morning somewhere, and above The awakening continents, from shore to shore, Somewhere the birds are singing evermore." Let us, fellow teachers and fellow citizens of America, take up this work of bird study and bird protection. Let the schools teach it, the press print it, and the pulpit preach it, till from thousands of happy throats shall be proclaimed the glad tidings of good will of man towards the birds. C. H. MORRILL, _Supt. of Schools_. Fort Madison, Iowa. * * * * * We are in receipt almost daily of letter inquiries for good literature on birds, and suitable exercises for Bird Day Programs. It will be our purpose from time to time to suggest good works by the best authors. We give below a list of publications that are especially fine, and shall be pleased to supply them at the list price, as indicated, or as premiums for subscribers to "BIRDS." "#Birds Through an Opera Glass,#" 75 cents, or two subscriptions. "#Bird Ways,#" 60 cents, or two subscriptions. "#In Nesting Time,#" $1.25, or three subscriptions. "#A Bird Lover of the West,#" $1.25, or three subscriptions. "#Upon the Tree Tops,#" $1.25, or three subscriptions. "#Wake Robin,#" $1.00, or three subscriptions. "#Birds in the Bush,#" $1.25, or three subscriptions. "#A-Birding on a Bronco,#" $1.25, or three subscriptions. "#Land Birds and Game Birds of New England,#" $3.50, or eight subscriptions. "#Birds and Poets,#" $1.25, or three subscriptions. "#Bird Craft.#" "#The Story of Birds,#" 75 cents, or two subscriptions. "#Hand Book of Birds of Eastern North America,#" $3.00, or seven subscriptions. In numbers 70, 63, 4, 28 and 54 of the Riverside Series, published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co, may be found selections appropriate for Bird Day Programs, and in the "Intelligence," of April 1, published by E. O. Vaile, Oak Park, Illinois, may be found some interesting exercises for Bird Day Programs. Copies of the paper may be obtained at eight cents. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. BOHEMIAN WAX-WING.] THE BOHEMIAN WAX-WING. The Bohemian Wax-wing is interesting for its gipsy-like wanderings, one winter visiting one country, next season another, often in enormous flocks, and usually with intervals of many years, so that in former times their appearance was regarded as sure forebodings of war and pestilence, their arrival being dreaded as much as that of a comet. Another interesting feature of its history is the fact that for a long time this familiar bird eluded the search of the zoologist. Its breeding habits, and even the place where it breeds, were unknown thirty years ago, until finally discovered by Mr. Wolley in Lapland, after a diligent search during four summers. It is also called the European or Common Silk-tail, and is an inhabitant both of northern Europe and of North America, though in America the Cedar Bird is more often met with. In the northern portions of Europe, birch and pine forests constitute its favorite retreats, and these it seldom quits, except when driven by unusual severity of weather, or by heavy falls of snow, to seek refuge in more southern provinces. It is said that even in Russia, Poland, and southern Scandinavia it is constantly to be seen throughout the entire winter; that indeed, so rarely does it wander to more southern latitudes, that in Germany it is popularly supposed to make its appearance once in seven years. On the occasion of these rare migrations, the Silk-tails keep together in large flocks, and remain in any place that affords them suitable food until the supply is exhausted. These birds are heavy and indolent, exerting themselves rarely except to satisfy hunger. They live in perfect harmony, and during their migrations indicate no fear of man, seeking their food in the streets of the villages and towns. They frequently settle in the trees, remaining almost motionless for hours together. Their flight is light and graceful, but on the ground they move with difficulty. Their call note is a hissing, twittering sound. In summer, insects are their chief food, while in winter they live principally on berries. The Wax-wing will devour in the course of twenty-four hours an amount of food equal to the weight of its own body. In Lapland is the favorite nesting ground of the Bohemian Wax-wing. The nests are deeply hidden among the boughs of pine trees, at no great height from the ground; their walls are formed of dry twigs and scraps from the surrounding branches, and the cavities are wide, deep, and lined with blades of grass and feathers. There are five eggs, laid about the middle of June; the shell is bluish or purplish white, sprinkled with brown, black, or violet spots and streaks, some of which take the form of a wreath at the broad end. The exquisite daintiness and softness of the Wax-wing's coat can be compared only to floss silk. THE MARSH WREN. With tail up, and head up, The Wren begins to sing; He fills the air with melody, And makes the alders ring; We listen to his cadences, We watch his frisky motions, We think--his mate attending him-- He's got some nesting notions.--C. C. M. These Wrens inhabit marshy and weedy bottom lands along river courses, and have all the brisk manners and habits of the family. This species, however, has a peculiar habit of building several nests every season, and it is suggested that these are built to procure protection for the female, in order that when search is made for the nest where she is sitting, the male may lure the hunter to an empty nest. Its song is not unlike that of the House Wren, though less agreeable. It is a summer resident, arriving in May and departing in September. Its nest, which is found along borders of rivers, is made of sedge and grasses suspended near tall reeds. It has been found hanging over a small stream, suspended from the drooping bough of an alder tree, swayed to and fro by every breath of air. A careful observer states that a Wren will forsake her nest when building it, sooner than any other bird known to him. Disturb her repeatedly when building and she leaves it apparently without cause; insert your fingers in her tenement and she will leave it forever. But when the eggs are laid, the Wren will seldom abandon her treasure, and when her tender brood are depending on her for food, she will never forsake them, even though the young be handled, or the female bird be caught on the nest while feeding them. The food of the Wren is insects, their larvae and eggs, and fruit in season. This Wren has justly been called a perennial songster. "In Spring the love-song of the Wren sounds through the forest glades and hedges, as the buds are expanding into foliage and his mate is seeking a site for a cave-like home. And what a series of jerks it is composed of, and how abruptly he finishes his song, as if suddenly alarmed; but this is his peculiar habit and common to him alone. In summer we hear his song morning, noon, and night, go forth for very joyfulness, as he wanders hither and thither in his leafy bower." It is only in the moulting season that he does not sing. A lady who used to attract a great number of birds to her garden with crumbs, seeds, and other dainties, said that when the weather became cold the Wrens used to gather upon a large branch of a tree, about four inches beneath another branch. They assembled there in the evening and packed themselves very comfortably for the night, three or four deep, apparently for the sake of warmth, the topmost Wren always having his back pressed against the outer branch as if to keep all steady. Pitying their forlorn condition, she provided a bedroom for them--a square box lined with flannel, and with a very small round hole for a door. This was fastened to the branch, and the birds promptly took possession of it, their numbers increasing nightly, until at least forty Wrens crowded into the box which did not seem to afford room for half the number. When thus assembled they became so drowsy as to permit themselves to be gently handled. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN.] THE MARSH WRENS. A happier pair of birds than these little Wrens it would be hard to find. They have just come up from taking their morning bath and are going to sing a while before going to work on their nests. You see I say nests. That is a strange thing about the Wrens, they build several nests. I wonder if you can tell why they do this. If you can't, ask your teacher about it. It is a little too early in the season or I would have one of the nests in the picture for you to look at. I will try to describe it to you, so that you will know it when you see it. These little Wrens make their nests of coarse grasses, reed stalks, and such things, lined with fine grasses. It is round like a ball, or nearly so, and has the opening in the side. They fasten them to the reeds and bushes. If you wish to get acquainted with these birds, you must visit the tall grasses and cat-tails along rivers and creeks and in marshes. You won't have to let them know that you are coming; they will see you long before you see them, and from their little nests they will begin to scold you, for fear that you mean to do them harm. When they see that you mean them no harm, they will begin to entertain you with their songs. Oh, how they do sing! It just seems as though they would burst with song. You can see how happy the one is in the picture. The other little fellow will soon take his turn. See how straight he holds his tail up. Find out all you can about these Wrens. You notice they have long bills. We call them Long-billed Marsh Wrens. There are several other kinds. You surely must have seen their cousins, the House Wrens. I will show you their pictures some day. THE ARIZONA GREEN JAY. The geographical range of the Arizona Jay is in southern New Mexico and Arizona and south into Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico. It is a common resident throughout the oak belt which generally fringes the foothills of the mountains and ranges well up among the pines. In suitable localities it is very abundant. It is rarely seen at any distance out of the arid plains; but after the breeding season is over, small flocks are sometimes met with among the shrubbery of the few water courses, several miles away from their regular habitat. They are seen in the early Spring, evidently on a raid for eggs and the young of smaller birds. On such occasions they are very silent, and their presence is only betrayed by the scoldings they receive from other birds. On their own heath they are as noisy as any of our Jays, and apparently far more sociable, a number of pairs frequently nesting close to each other in a small oak grove. They move about in small family parties of from half a dozen to twenty or thirty, being rarely seen alone. They are restless, constantly on the move, prying into this or that, spending a good portion of their time on the ground, now hopping on a low limb, and the next minute down again, twitching their tails almost constantly. Their call notes are harsh and far reaching, and are somewhat similar to those of the California Jay. The voices of animals have a family character not easily mistaken, and this similarity is especially observable in birds. As Agassiz says, "Compare all the sweet warbles of the songster family--the nightingales, the thrushes, the mocking birds, the robins; they differ in the greater or lesser perfection of their note, but the same kind of voice runs through the whole group. Does not every member of the Crow family caw, whether it be a Jackdaw, the Jay, or the Magpie, the Rook in some green rookery of the Old World, or the Crow of our woods, with its long melancholy caw that seems to make the silence and solitude deeper?" The habits of the Arizona Jay are similar to those of its brethren. Its food consists of grasshoppers, insects, animal matter, wild fruits, seeds, and especially acorns. It flies by partly closing its wings, darting suddenly down, then up again, and repeating these movements for some time. It mates about the end of February. The nest, composed of dry rootlets laid very closely in rings, is usually found in an oak sapling about ten feet from the ground. The inside diameter is five inches, and depth one and three-fourths inches. It is like a deep saucer. The Arizona Jay is considered a foothill bird, not going far into the pines and not appearing on the plains. But one brood appears to be raised in a season, and nesting lasts about sixteen days. The eggs vary from four to seven, and differ from all the known eggs of this family found within the United States, being unspotted. They are glaucous green in color, and the majority are much more glossy than Jays' eggs generally are. In one hundred and thirty-six specimens examined, all were perfectly immaculate. [Illustration: ARIZONA JAY. 3/5 Life-size. CHICAGO COLORTYPE CO.] * * * * * #Amateur Photography.# [Illustration: FLASH LIGHT PICTURE MADE WITH "DEXTER" CAMERA.] Amateur Photography is the most delightful pastime one can indulge in. Aside from the pleasure and amusement derived, it cultivates the artistic taste, the love of nature, is a source of instruction, and may be made to serve many useful purposes. The "Dexter" is small, neat and compact. Makes pictures 3-1/2x3-1/2 inches square and will produce portraits, landscapes, groups, interiors or flashlights equally as well as many higher priced cameras. Will carry three double plate holders with a capacity of six dry plates. Each camera is covered with black morocco grain leather, also provided with a brilliant finder for snap shot work. 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Manufacturers, Importers and Dealers in Jewelry, Watches, Diamonds and Novelties. Sole Agents for the South African Off-Color Diamonds, ($3.00 per carat, unmounted), and Manufacturers Agents and Introducers of Novelties to the trade and street men. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. The Racycle crank-hanger has from 20 to 30 per-cent less pressure on the bearings than the crank-hanger of any other bicycle on the market. $1,000 in cash will be paid to the first one who can demonstrate that the above assertion is not a fact. No cycle considered without the consent of the maker. All infringements barred. Address all communications to #Racycle# Middletown, Ohio. [Illustration: $100.^00 $75.^00 $50.^00] ... INQUIRY BLANK ... To the Advertising Department, Miami Cycle & Mfg. Co., Middletown, Ohio. Please send me fuller information regarding your wonderful Racycle, narrow-tread, and how I can obtain one. Name.......................... Address........................... P.S. If there is a Racycle Agent in your town don't write us but call on him. #The MIAMI CYCLE & MFG. CO.# Middletown, Ohio. CHICAGO BRANCH: S. W. Corner Wabash Ave. and Congress St. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. * * * * * TESTIMONIALS. NEW YORK, N. Y., Dec. 21, 1896. W. E. WATT, Chicago, Ill. My dear Mr. Watt: I am glad to get yours of the 17th, and to find at the top of the letter head the names of two good friends, interested in so novel and valuable an undertaking. The idea is a good one, and the execution seems to me extraordinary for the price. With best wishes, Yours sincerely, NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, Columbia University, New York. * * * NEW YORK, N. Y., December 21, 1896. MR. W. E. WATT, Fisher Building, 277 Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill. Dear Mr. Watt: I thank you very much for the copy of "Birds," which has just been received, and I must congratulate you upon putting forth so attractive a publication. I shall be very glad to receive circulars stating the price of subscription. Very truly yours, EDWARD R. SHAW, New York University, Washington Square, N. Y. * * * CAMDEN, N. Y., March 3, 1897. MR. CHAS. H. DIXON, NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY, Chicago, Ill. My dear Sir: The sample of "Birds" received. I am exceedingly pleased with the beautiful little magazine. The cuts are truly marvelous. Why did not somebody think of the scheme before? It _must_ prove a grand success. Every teacher that knows enough to teach will be an enthusiastic admirer of "Birds." I shall do all I can for it. Please send me a few more copies. Find some stamps enclosed. Cordially yours, D. D. VAN ALLEN, Principal Camden High School. * * * CHICAGO, ILL., March 5th, 1897. MR. C. C. MARBLE, 277 Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: Your kindness in sending me Nos. 1 and 2 of "Birds," and also the premium picture "Golden Pheasant," is most fully appreciated. Your magazine, of course, is most attractive by reason of the beautiful pictures it contains, which are finer than any heretofore issued, including "Baird's" and "Audubon's." I also find that the descriptions and general reading matter are very interesting. It will equally please both adult and youth, I am sure, so I wish your enterprise the success it so abundantly deserves. Very truly yours, HIRAM BALDWIN, General Manager Northern Life Association. * * * #OUR PREMIUM# A picture of wonderful beauty of the Golden Pheasant almost life size in a natural scene, plate 12x18 inches, on card 19x25 inches, is given as a premium to yearly subscribers. Our price on this picture in Art Stores is $3.50 
34294	----	BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. III. FEBRUARY, 1898. NO. 2. ================================ GILBERT WHITE AND "SELBORNE." I suppose that a habit of minute observation of nature is one of the most difficult things to acquire, as it is one which is less generally pursued than any other study. In almost all departments of learning and investigation there have been numberless works published to illustrate them, and text books would fill the shelves of a large library. Thoreau in his "Walden" has shown an extremely fine and close observation of the scenes in which his all too short life was passed, but his object does not seem at any time to have been the study of nature from an essential love of it, or to add to his own or the world's knowledge. On the contrary, nature was the one resource which enabled him to exemplify his notions of independence, which were of such a sturdy and uncompromising character that Mr. Emerson, who had suffered some inconvenience from his experience of Thoreau as an inmate of his household, thought him fitter to meet occasionally in the open air than as a guest at table and fireside. There is a delicious harmony with nature in all that he has written, but his descriptions of out-of-door life invite us rather to indolent musing than to investigation or study. Who after reading Izaak Walton ever went a-fishing with the vigor and enterprise of Piscator? Washington Irving allowed his cork to drift with the current and lay down in the shadow of a spreading oak to dream with the beloved old author. In White's "Natural History of Selborne" we have a unique book indeed, but of a far more general interest than its title would indicate. Pliny, the elder, was the father of natural history but to many of us Gilbert White is entitled to that honor. To an early edition of the book, without engravings, and much abridged, as compared with Bohn's, published in 1851, many owe their first interest in the subject. Mr. Ireland in his charming little "Book Lover's Enchiridion," tells us that when a boy he was so delighted with it, that in order to possess a copy of his own (books were not so cheap as now) he actually copied out the whole work. In a list of one hundred books, Sir John Lubbock mentions it as "an inestimable blessing." Edward Jesse, author of "Gleanings in Natural History" attributes his own pursuits as an out-door naturalist entirely to White's example. Much of the charm of the book consists in the amiable character of the author, who "----lived in solitude, midst trees and flowers, Life's sunshine mingling with its passing showers; No storms to startle, and few clouds to shade The even path his Christian virtues made." Very little is known of him beyond what he has chosen to mention in his diaries, which were chiefly records of his daily studies and observations, and in his correspondence, from which the "history" is in fact made up. From these it is evident that his habits were secluded and that he was strongly attached to the charms of rural life. He says the greater part of his time was spent in literary occupations, and especially in the study of nature. He was born July 18, 1720, in the house in which he died. His father was his first instructor in natural history, and to his brother Thomas, a fellow of the Royal Society, he was indebted for many suggestions for his work. It is also to his brother's influence that we owe the publication of the book, as it required much persuasion to induce the philosopher to pass through the ordeal of criticism, "having a great dread of Reviewers," those incorrigible _bêtes noires_ of authors. His brother promising himself to review the work in the "Gentleman's Magazine," White reluctantly consented to its publication. The following short abstract from the review will show its quality, as well as suggest a possible answer to the current question propounded by students of the census. "Contemplative persons see with regret the country more and more deserted every day, as they know that every well-regulated family of property which quits a village to reside in a town, injures the place that is forsaken in material circumstances. It is with pleasure, therefore, we observe that so rational an employment of leisure hours as the study of nature promises to become popular, since whatever adds to the number of rural amusements, and consequently counteracts the allurements of the metropolis is, on this consideration, of national importance." It is to be feared, however, that many stronger influences than this of the study of nature will be necessary to keep the young men of the present day from the great cities. Indeed, modern naturalists themselves spend the greater part of their lives at the centers of knowledge and only make temporary sallies into the woods and fields to gather data. White was a noble pioneer. The very minuteness--almost painful--of his observation required him to occupy himself for days and weeks and months with what to the average mind would seem of the slightest importance. As an example of his patient investigation, his famous study of the tortoise may be given. It was more than thirty years old when it came into his possession, and for many years--perhaps twenty--we find White watching the habits of the interesting old reptile, until, we may assume, he knew all about him and his species. There are over three hundred and fifty different species of animals and birds treated by White, most of them exhaustively; the beech tree, the elm, and the oak are described and watched from year to year; and the geology and fossil remains of Selborne district are presented. We have daily accounts of the weather, information of the first tree in leaf, the appearance of the first fungi and the plants first in blossom. He tells us when mosses vegetate, when insects first appear and disappear, when birds are first seen and when they migrate--and a thousand other things; all in a style of such simplicity, united with rare scholarship, that it is well worth the attention and imitation of students of the English language. White was educated at Oxford. He had frequent opportunities, 'tis said, of accepting college livings, but his fondness for his native village made him decline all preferment. To this we owe "Selborne" of which Dr. Beardmore, a distinguished scholar, made the prophetic remark to a nephew of White's: "Your uncle has sent into the world a publication with nothing to attract attention to it but an advertisement or two in the newspapers; but depend upon it, the time will come when very few who buy books will be without it." The village was far less attractive than our imaginations would depict it to have been, and the traveler who would "view fair Selborne aright," according to a contemporary writer, should humor the caprices of the English climate and visit it only when its fields and foliage are clothed in their summer verdure. --CHARLES C. MARBLE. A FRIEND OF BIRDS It is told of George H. Corliss, the famous engine builder of Providence, R. I., that when building a foundry at the Corliss works, some Blue Birds took the opportunity to build in some holes in the interior framework into which horizontal timbers were to go. The birds flew in and out--as Blue Birds will--and went on with their housekeeping, until in the natural course of things the workmen would have evicted them to put the apertures to their intended use of receiving timbers. But Mr. Corliss interfered and showed how the particular aperture the birds were occupying could be left undisturbed until they were done with it, without any serious delay to the building. So the pair came and went in the midst of the noise of building and brought up their little family safely, and after they had flown away, and not until then, that particular part of the framework was completed. At another time, Mr. Corliss was working on a contract with the city of Providence to supply a steam pumping apparatus, power house and all, at Sockonosset, and the time was short, and there were forfeitures nominated in the bond for every day beyond a a specified date for its completion. The power house was to be upon virgin soil where were rocks and trees--little trees growing among rocks. In blasting and clearing the necessary place for the foundations of the building, a Robin's nest was discovered in a little tree within the space where the upheavals were to be made. When Mr. Corliss knew this he had the work transferred to the other side of the square or parallelogram around which the digging and blasting were to go, saying that it was just as well to do the other side first. But it proved that when the workmen had got clear around and back to the Robin's tree, the young birds were still not quite ready to fly. This called for a new exercise of an inventor's power of adapting means to a worthy end. Looking at the little tree with its nest and little birds high in the branches he bade the men support the tree carefully while it was sawed through the trunk a little above the ground, and then carry it in an upright position to a safe distance and stick it into the ground with proper support. The Robin family continued to thrive after this novel house-moving and all flew away together after a few more days. QUEER DOINGS OF A CRANE. A writer on "Animal Helpers and Servers" gives a remarkable account of a tame Crane, communicated by Von Seyffert. Von Seyffert had a pair of tame Cranes which soon lost all fear of man and of domestic animals, and became strongly attached to the former. Their life in a German village, in which agriculture was the sole employment and the communal system of joint herding of cattle and swine and driving them together to the common pasture prevailed, was very much to their taste. They soon knew all the inhabitants in the place and used to call regularly at the houses to be fed. Then the female died and the survivor at once took as a new friend a bull. He stood by the bull in the stall and kept the flies off him, screamed when he roared, danced before him and followed him out with the herd. In this association the Crane learned the duties of cowherd, so that one evening he brought home the whole of the village herd of heifers unaided and drove them into the stable. From that time the Crane undertook so many duties that he was busy from dawn till night. He acted as policeman among the poultry, stopping all fights and disorder. He stood by a horse when left in a cart and prevented it from moving by pecking its nose and screaming. A Turkey and a Game Cock were found fighting, whereon the Crane first fought the Turkey, then sought out and thrashed the cock. Meantime it herded the cattle, not always with complete success. The bovines were collected in the morning by the sound of a horn and some would lag behind. On one occasion the Crane went back, drove up some lagging heifers through the street and then frightened them so much that they broke away and ran two miles in the wrong direction. The bird could not bring them back, but drove them into a field, where it guarded them until they were fetched. It would drive out trespassing cattle as courageously as a dog and, unlike most busybodies, was a universal favorite and pride of the village.--_Cornhill Magazine._ [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. LEAST BITTERN. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE LEAST BITTERN. Throughout the whole of temperate North America and tropical America to Brazil, this, the smallest of the Bittern family, is a well-known bird, but being a nocturnal species, inhabiting the almost inaccessible swamps and boggy lands that are covered with a dense growth of canes, reeds, and rushes, it is seldom met with. Mr. Davis calls it an extremely interesting little bird, of quiet, retiring habits. In some places as many as a dozen or twenty pairs breed along the grassy shores of a small lake or pond. The nest is placed on the ground or in the midst of the rankest grass, or in a bush. It is often placed on floating bog, and is simply a platform of dead rushes. This bird has many odd habits. When standing on the edge of a stream, with its neck drawn in, it is often taken for a Woodcock, the long bill giving it this appearance. It is so stupid at times that it may be caught with the hand. The Least Bittern is usually seen just before or after sunset. When startled it utters a low _gua_, and in daylight flies but a short distance, in a weak, uncertain manner, but at dusk it flaps along on strong easy wing, with neck drawn in and legs extended. The eggs of this species are usually from two to six in number, and of a pale bluish or greenish-white. If approached while on the nest, the female generally steps quietly to one side, but if suddenly surprised, takes to flight. The Least Bittern is known by many local names. In Jamaica it is called Tortoise-shell Bird and Minute Bittern, and in many localities Little Bittern. * * * * * "All Nature is a unit in herself, Yet but a part of a far greater whole. Little by little you may teach your child To know her ways and live in harmony With her; and then, in turn, help him through her To find those verities within himself, Of which all outward things are but the type. So when he passes from your sheltering care To walk the ways of men, his soul shall be Knit to all things that are, and still most free; And of him shall be writ at last this word-- 'At peace with nature, with himself, and God.'" THE BALDPATE DUCK. "There seem to be as many Ducks as there are Owls," remarks Bobbie. "This fellow is called Baldpate, but he's not bare on top of his head like Gran'pa, at all." "No, his head is feathered as well as any Duck's head," replies mamma. "I remember hearing him called the Widgeon, I think." "Yes, that's what it says here, the American Widgeon, a game bird, you know, mamma." "Yes, its flesh is very delicious, almost as good as the Canvas-back." "Oh, but these Baldpates are cunning fellows," exclaims Bobbie, continuing his reading, "It says they are fond of a certain grass plant which grows deep in both salt and fresh water, but they don't dive for it as the Canvas-back and other deep water Ducks do." "Well?" says mamma, as Bobbie stops, his lips moving, but uttering no sound. "I stopped to spell a word," explains Bobbie. "It says they closely follow and watch the Canvas-back and other Ducks, and when they rise to the surface of the water with the roots of the plant in their bills, Mr. Baldpate quickly snatches a part, or all of the catch, and hurries off to eat it at his leisure." "A mean fellow, indeed," remarks mamma, "but he has no reason to guide him, as you have, you know." "Indeed I _don't_ know," quickly says Bobbie. "You remember that story about the imprisoned Duck that had its leg broken and was put under a small crate, or coop, to keep it from running about? Well, some of the other Ducks pitied the little prisoner and tried to release him by forcing their necks under the crate and thus lifting it up. They found they weren't strong enough to do that, and so they _quacked_, and _quacked_, and _quacked_ among themselves, then marched away in a body. Soon they came back with forty ducks, every one in the farm yard. They surrounded the crate and tried to lift it as before, but again they failed. Then they _quacked_ some more, and after a long talk the whole of them went to one side of the crate. As many as could thrust their necks underneath it, and the rest pushed them forward from behind. A good push, a strong push, up went the crate a little way, and out waddled the little prisoner. I want to know if they didn't reason that out, mamma?" [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. BALDPATE DUCK. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE BALDPATE. We would have you to wit, that on eggs though we sit, And are spiked on a spit, and are baked in a pan, Birds are older by far than your ancestors are, And made love and made war, ere the making of man! --ANDREW LANG. There is much variation in the plumage of adult males of this species of Widgeon, but as Dr. Coues says: "The bird cannot be mistaken under any condition; the extensive white of the under parts and wings is recognizable at gun-range." The female is similar, but lacks the white crown and iridescence on the head. The Baldpate ranges over the whole of North America. In winter it is common in the Gulf states and lower part of the Mississippi Valley. Cooke says it breeds chiefly in the north, but is known to nest in Manitoba, the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Illinois, and Texas. Throughout the whole of British America, as far north as the Arctic ocean, it is very abundant. In October and April it visits in large numbers the rivers and marshes, as well as both sea coasts of the northern United States, and is much sought by hunters, its flesh being of the finest quality, as when in good condition it cannot easily be distinguished from that of the Canvas-back. It is regarded by hunters as a great nuisance. It is not only so shy that it avoids the points of land, but by its whistling and confused manner of flight is said to alarm the other species. During its stay in the waters of the Chesapeake, it is the constant companion of the Canvas-backs, upon whose superiority in diving it depends in a large degree for its food, stealing from them, as they rise to the surface of the water, the tender roots of the plant of which both are so fond--_vallisneria_ grass, or wild celery. The Baldpate is said to visit the rice fields of the south during the winter in considerable numbers. It winters in the Southern states, Mexico, and the West Indies. In the north, the Widgeon exhibits a greater preference for rivers and open lakes than most of the other fresh-water Ducks. The favorite situation of the nest is remarkable, for while the other Ducks--except, perhaps, the Teal, according to Mr. Kennicott--choose the immediate vicinity of water, he found the Baldpate always breeding at a considerable distance from it. Several of the nests observed on the Yukon were fully half a mile from the nearest water. He invariably found the nest among dry leaves, upon high, dry ground, either under large trees or in thick groves of small ones--frequently among thick spruces. The nest is small, simply a depression among the leaves, but thickly lined with down, with which after setting is begun, the eggs are covered when left by the parent. They are from eight to twelve in number, and pale buff. The food of the Baldpate consists of aquatic insects, small shells, and the seeds and roots of various plants. The call of this bird is a plaintive whistle of two and then three notes of nearly equal duration. Col. N. S. Goss states that, as a rule, Widgeons "are not shy, and their note, a sort of _whew, whew, whew_, uttered while feeding and swimming, enables the hunter to locate them in the thickest growth of water plants." WOOING BIRDS' ODD WAYS. Of all the interesting points on which Mr. Dixon touches in his "Curiosities of Bird Life," perhaps none is more remarkable than the strange antics in which some birds indulge, especially at the pairing season. With what odd gestures will a smartly dressed Cock sparrow, for instance, endeavor to cut a good figure in the eyes of his demure and sober-tinted lady-love! To a similar performance, though with more of dignity and action about it, the Blackcock treats his wives, for, unlike the better conducted though often much calumniated sparrow, he is not satisfied with a single mate. One of the most characteristic of spring sounds on Exmoor, as evening darkens, or, still more, in the early hours of the morning, is the challenge of the Blackcock. In the month of April he who is abroad early enough may watch, upon the russet slopes of Dunkery, a little party of Blackcock at one of their recognized and probably ancestral meeting-places, by one of the little moorland streams, or on the wet edge of some swampy hollow. Each bird crouches on a hillock, in the oddest of attitudes--its head down, its wings a-droop, its beautiful tail raised--and utters at intervals strange, almost weird notes, sometimes suggestive of the purr of a Turtle-dove, and sometimes more like the cry of chamois. Presently an old cock, grand in his new black coat, will get up and march backward and forward with his neck stretched out and his wings trailing on the ground. Now he leaps into the air, sometimes turning right round before he alights, and now again he crouches close upon his hillock. It is said that in places where black game are few a single cock will go through all this by himself, or at least with only his wives for witnesses. But if there are more cocks than one, the proceedings generally end with a fight. Where the birds are numerous the young cocks, who are not allowed to enter the arena with their elders, hold unauthorized celebrations of their own. There are many birds which thus, like higher mortals, have their fits of madness in the days of courtship. But there are some, such as the spur-winged Lapwing of La Plata, which are, like the lady in the song, so fond of dancing, especially of what the natives call their serious dance, meaning a square one, that they indulge in such performances all the year, not in the daytime only, but even on moonlight nights. "If," says Mr. Hudson, who tells the story, "a person watches any two birds for some time--for they live in pairs--he will see another Lapwing, one of a neighboring couple, rise up and fly to them, leaving his own mate to guard their chosen ground, and instead of resenting this visit as an unwarranted intrusion on their domain, as they would certainly resent the approach of almost any other bird, they welcome it with notes and signs of pleasure. Advancing to the visitor, they place themselves behind it; then all three keeping step, begin a rapid march, uttering resonant drumming notes in time with their movements; the notes of the pair behind them being emitted in a stream, like a drum roll, while the leader utters loud single notes at regular intervals. The march ceases; the leader elevates his wings and stands motionless and erect, still uttering loud notes, while the other two with puffed-out plumage, and standing exactly abreast, stoop forward and downward until the top of their beaks touch the ground, and, sinking their rhythmical voices to a murmur, remain for some time in this posture. The performance is then over and the visitor goes back to his own ground and mate, to receive a visitor himself later on."--_London Daily News._ [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. PURPLE FINCH. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE PURPLE FINCH. "The wind blows cold, the birds are still, And skies are gray." Purple Grosbeak, Crimson Finch, Strawberry Bird, and Linnet are some of the common names by which this bird of bright colors, sweet song, and sociable disposition is known. It is very numerous in New England, but is found nesting regularly in the northern tier of states, North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, etc., northward, and it is said to breed in northern Illinois. In Nova Scotia it is exceeding abundant. Robert Ridgway says he first made the acquaintance of the Purple Finch at Mt. Carmel, in mid-winter, "under circumstances of delightful memory. The ground was covered with snow,--the weather clear and bright, but cold. Crossing a field in the outskirts of the town, and approaching the line of tall, dead rag-weeds which grew thickly in the fence corners, a straggling flock of birds was startled, flew a short distance, and again alighted on the tall weed-stalks, uttering as they flew, a musical, metallic _chink, chink_. The beautiful crimson color of the adult males, heightened by contrast with the snow, was a great surprise to the writer, then a boy of thirteen, and excited intense interest in this, to him, new bird. On subsequent occasions during the same winter, they were found under like circumstances, and also in 'sycamore' or buttonwood trees, feeding on the small seeds contained within the balls of this tree." Dr. Brewer says that the song of the Purple Finch resembles that of the Canary, and though less varied and powerful, is softer, sweeter, and more touching and pleasing. The notes may be heard from the last of May until late in September, and in the long summer evening are often continued until it is quite dark. Their song has all the beauty and pathos of the Warbling Vireo, and greatly resembles it, but is more powerful and full in tone. It is a very interesting sight to watch one of these little performers in the midst of his song. He appears perfectly absorbed in his work,--his form is dilated, his crest is erected, his throat expands, and he seems to be utterly unconscious of all around him. But let an intruder of his own race appear within a few feet of the singer, the song instantly ceases, and in a violent fit of indignation, he chases him away. S. P. Cheney says that a careful observer told him that he had seen the Linnet fly from the side of his mate directly upward fifteen or twenty feet, singing every instant in the most excited manner till he dropped to the point of starting. The Yellow-breasted Chat has a like performance. See Vol. II of BIRDS, p.238. The nest of the Finch is usually placed in evergreens or orchard trees, at a moderate distance from the ground. It is composed of weed-stalks, bark strips, rootlets, grasses, and vegetable fibres, and lined with hair. The eggs are four or five in number, dull green, and spotted with dark brown. Study his picture and habits and be prepared to welcome this charming spring visitant. THE RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER. A little Woodpecker am I, And you may always know When I am searching for a worm, For tap, tap, tap, I go. Oh yes, I am proud of my appearance, but really I am not proud of my name. Sometimes I am called the "Zebra Bird," on account of the bands of white and black on my back and wings. That is a much prettier name, I think, than the Red-bellied Woodpecker, don't you? Certainly it is more genteel. I know a bird that is called the Red-eyed Vireo, because his eyes are red. Well, my eyes are red, too. Then why not call me the Red-eyed Woodpecker? Still the Woodpeckers are such a common family I don't much care about that either. In the last February number of BIRDS that saucy red-headed cousin of mine had his picture and a letter. Before very long the Red-cockaded Woodpecker will have his picture taken too, I suppose. Dear, dear! If all the Woodpeckers are going to write to you, you will have a merry time. Why, I can count twenty-four different species of that family and I have only four fingers, or toes, to count on, and you little folks have five. There may be more of them, Woodpeckers I mean, for all I know. Speaking about toes! I have two in front and two behind. There are some Woodpeckers that have only three, two in front and one behind. It's a fact, I assure you. I thought I would tell you about it before one of the three toed fellows got a chance to write to you about it himself. I am not so shy and wary a bird as some people think I am. When I want an insect, or worm, I don't care how many eyes are watching me, but up the tree I climb in my zigzag fashion, crying _chaw-chaw_, or _chow-chow_ in a noisy sort of way. Sometimes I say _chuck, chuck, chuck_! The first is Chinese, and the last English, you know. You might think it sounded like the bark of a small dog, though. I am fond of flies and catch them on the wing. I like ripe apples, too; and oh, what a _good_ time I have in winter raiding the farmer's corn crib! I have only to hammer at the logs with my sharp bill, and soon I can squeeze myself in between them and eat my fill. I understand the farmer doesn't like it very much. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE RED BELLIED WOODPECKER. "Zebra Bird" is the name by which this handsome Woodpecker will be recognized by many readers. Some regard it as the most beautiful of the smaller species of its tribe. As may be seen, the whole crown and nape are scarlet in the male. In the female they are only partly so, but sufficiently to make the identification easy. A bird generally of retired habits, seeking the deepest and most unfrequented forests to breed, it is nevertheless often found in numbers in the vicinity of villages where there are a few dead and partially decayed trees, in which they drill their holes, high up on a limb, or in the bole of the tree. When engaged in hammering for insects it frequently utters a short, singular note, which Wilson likens to the bark of a small dog. We could never liken it to anything, it is so characteristic, and must be heard to be appreciated. _Chaw, chaw_, repeated twice, and with vigor, somewhat resembles the hoarse utterance. Prof. D. E. Lantz states that this species in the vicinity of Manhattan, Kansas, exhibits the same familiarity as the Flicker, the Red-headed and Downy Woodpeckers. About a dozen nests were observed, the excavations ranging usually less than twenty feet from the ground. One nest in a burrow of a large dead limb of an elm tree was found May 12, and contained five eggs. The birds are very much attached to their nests. If the nest is destroyed by man or beast, the birds almost immediately begin excavating another nest cavity for the second set, always in the vicinity of the first nest, often in the same tree. In its search for food, the "Zebra Bird," regardless of the presence of man, climbs in its usual spiral or zigzag manner the trees and their branches boldly uttering now and then its familiar _chaw, chaw_, darting off occasionally to catch a passing insect upon the wing. Its flight is undulating, and its habits in many respects are like those of the Red-headed, but it is not so much of an upland bird, or lover of berries and fruits, and therefore more respected by the farmer. In contest with the Red-head it is said to be invariably vanquished. The North American family of Woodpeckers--consisting of about twenty-five species--is likely to be brought together in BIRDS for the first time. We have already presented several species, and will figure others as we may secure the finest specimens. Occasionally a foreign Woodpecker will appear. About three hundred and fifty species are known, and they are found in all the wooded parts of the world except Australia and Madagascar. A FORCED PARTNERSHIP. A pair of Robins had made their nest on the horizontal branch of an evergreen tree which stood near a dwelling house, and the four young had hatched when a pair of English Sparrows selected the same branch for their nest. When the Robins refused to vacate their nest, the Sparrows proceeded to build theirs upon the outside of the Robin's nest. To this the Robins made no objection, so both families lived and thrived together on the same branch, with nests touching. The young of both species developed normally, and in due time left their nests. The branch bearing both nests is now preserved in the college museum.--_Oberlin College Bulletin._ WHAT IS AN EGG? How many people crack an egg, swallow the meat, and give it no further thought. Yet, to a reflective mind the egg constitutes, it has been said, the greatest wonder of nature. The highest problems of organic development, and even of the succession of animals on the earth, are embraced here. "Every animal springs from an egg," is a dictum of Harvey that has become an axiom. In an egg one would suppose the yolk to be the animal. This is not so. It is merely food--the animal is the little whitish circle seen on the membrane enveloping the yolk. We hope to group a number of eggs, to enable our readers to compare their size and shape, from that of the Epyornis, six times the size of an Ostrich egg, down to the tiny egg that is found in the soft nest of the Humming-bird. This gigantic egg is a foot long and nine inches across, and would hold as much as fifty thousand Humming-bird's eggs. THE SAW-WHET OWL. "The Lark is but a bumpkin fowl; He sleeps in his nest till morn; But my blessing upon the jolly Owl That all night blows his horn." A curious name for a bird, we are inclined to say when we meet with it for the first time, but when we hear its shrill, rasping call note, uttered perhaps at midnight, we admit the appropriateness of "saw-whet." It resembles the sound made when a large-toothed saw is being filed. Mr. Goss says that the natural home of this sprightly little Owl is within the wild woodlands, though it is occasionally found about farm houses and even cities. According to Mr. Nelson, it is of frequent occurrence in Chicago, where, upon some of the most frequented streets in the residence portion of the city, a dozen specimens have been taken within two years. It is very shy and retiring in its habits, however, rarely leaving its secluded retreats until late at eve, for which reason it is doubtless much more common throughout its range than is generally supposed. It is not migratory but is more or less of an irregular wanderer in search of food during the autumn and winter. It may be quite common in a locality and then not be seen again for several years. It is nocturnal, seldom moving about in the day time, but passing the time in sleeping in some dark retreat; and so soundly does it sleep that ofttimes it may be captured alive. The flight of the Saw-whet so closely resembles that of the Woodcock that it has been killed by sportsmen, when flying over the alders, through being mistaken for the game bird. These birds nest in old deserted squirrel or Woodpecker holes and small hollows in trees. The eggs--usually four--are laid on the rotten wood or decayed material at the bottom. They are white and nearly round. In spite of the societies formed to prevent the killing of birds for ornamenting millinery, and the thousands of signatures affixed to the numerous petitions sent broadcast all over the country, in which women pledged themselves not to wear birds or feathers of any kind on their hats, this is essentially a bird killing year, and the favorite of all the feathers is that of the Owl. There is an old superstition about him too. He has always been considered an unlucky bird, and many persons will not have one in the house. He may, says a recent writer, like the Peacock, lose his unlucky prestige, now that Dame Fashion has stamped him with her approval. Li Hung Chang rescued the Peacock feather from the odium of ill luck, and hundreds of persons bought them after his visit who would never permit them to be taken inside their homes prior to it. So the Owl seems to have lost his ill luck since fair woman has decided that the Owl hat is "the thing." The small size of the Saw-whet and absence of ears, at once distinguish this species from any Owl of eastern North America, except Richardson's, which has the head and back spotted with white, and legs barred with grayish-brown. THE SAW-WHET OWL. "Whew!" exclaims Bobbie. "Here's another Owl. I never knew there were so many different species, mamma." Mamma smiled at that word "species." It was a word Bobbie had learned in his study of BIRDS. "The _Saw-whet Owl_," said she, looking at the picture. "A good looking little fellow, but not handsome as the Snowy Owl in the June number of BIRDS." "He _was_ a beauty," assented Bobbie, "such great yellow eyes looking at you out of a snow bank of feathers. This little fellow's feet have on black shoes with yellow soles, not white fur overshoes like the _Snowy Owl's_." "His eyes glow like topaz, though, just as the others did," said mamma. "Let us see what he says about himself. "As stupid as an Owl. That's the way some people talk about us. Then again I've heard them say, 'tough as a b'iled owl.' B'iled Owls may be tough, I don't know anything about that, for I have been too shy and wary to be caught. "I had a neighbor once who was very fond of chickens. He was a Night Owl and said he found it easy to catch them when roosting out at night. Well he caught so many that Mr. Owl grew very fat, and the farmer whose chickens he ate, caught, cooked, and ate him. His flesh, the farmer said, was tender and sweet. So, my little friends, when you want to call anything 'tough,' don't mention the Owl any more. "A foreigner? "Oh, my, no! I'm proud to say I am an American, and so are all my folks. A branch of the family, however, lives way up north in a region where they sing 'God save the Queen' instead of the 'Star Spangled Banner.' They call themselves English Owls, I guess, because they live on British soil. "Do I sing? "Well, not exactly. I can hoot though, and my _Ah-ee, ah-ee_, _ah-oo, ah-oo_, has a pleasant sound, very much like filing a saw. That is the reason they call me the Saw-whet Owl. My mate says it doesn't sound that way to her, but then as she hasn't any ears maybe she doesn't hear very well. "You never see me out in the day time, no indeed! I know when the mice come out of their holes; I am very fond of mice, also insects. I like small birds, too--to eat--but I find them very hard to catch. "Don't you?" [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. SAW-WHET OWL. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE BLACK SWAN. I advise you little folks to take a good look at me. You don't often see a Black Swan. White Swans are very common, common as white Geese. I only wish I could have had my picture taken while gliding through the water. I am so stately and handsome there. My feet wouldn't have shown either. Really I don't think my feet are pretty. They always remind me when I look down at them of a windmill or the sails of a vessel. But if they hadn't been made that way, webbed-like, I wouldn't be able to swim as I do. They really are a pair of fine paddles, you know. There was a time when people in certain countries thought a Black Swan was an impossibility. As long as there were black sheep in the world, I don't see why there shouldn't have been Black Swans, do you? Well, one day, a Dutch captain exploring a river in Australia, saw and captured four of the black fellows. That was way back in sixteen hundred and something, so that one of those very Black Swans must have been my great, great, great, _great_ grandfather. Indeed he may have been even greater than that, but as I have never been to school, you know, I can't very well count backward. I can move forward, however, when in the water. I make good time there, too. Well, to go back to the Dutch captain. Two of the Swans he took alive to Dutchland and everybody was greatly surprised. They said "Ach!" and "Himmel," and many other things which I do not remember. Since that time they say the Black Swans have greatly diminished in numbers in Australia. You will find us all over the world now, because we are so ornamental; people like to have a few of us in their ponds and lakes. They say that river in Australia which the captain explored was named Swan river, and Australia took one of us for its armorial symbol. Well, a Black Swan may look well on a shield, but no matter how hard you may pull his tail-feathers, he'll never scream like the American Eagle. THE BLACK SWAN. Australia is the home of the Black Swan, and it is invested by an even greater interest than attaches to the South American bird, which is white. For many centuries it was considered to be an impossibility, but by a singular stroke of fortune, says a celebrated naturalist, we are able to name the precise day on which this unexpected discovery was made. The Dutch navigator William de Vlaming, visiting the west coast of Southland, sent two of his boats on the 6th of January, 1697, to explore an estuary he had found. There their crews saw at first two and then more Black Swans, of which they caught four, taking two of them alive to Batavia; and Valentyn, who several years later recounted this voyage, gives in his work a plate representing the ship, boats, and birds, at the mouth of what is now known from this circumstance as the Swan River, the most important stream of the thriving colony of West Australia, which has adopted this Swan as its armorial symbol. Subsequent voyagers, Cook and others, found that the range of the species extended over the greater part of Australia, in many districts of which it was abundant. It has since rapidly decreased in number there, and will most likely soon cease to exist as a wild bird, but its singular and ornamental appearance will probably preserve it as a modified captive in most civilized countries, and it is said, perhaps even now there are more Black Swans in a reclaimed condition in other lands than are at large in their mother country. The erect and graceful carriage of the Swan always excites the admiration of the beholder, but the gentle bird has other qualities not commonly known, one of which is great power of wing. The _Zoologist_ gives a curious incident relating to this subject. An American physician writing to that journal, says that the first case of fracture with which he had to deal was one of the forearm caused by the blows of a Swan's wing. It was during the winter of 1870, at the Lake of Swans, in Mississippi, that the patient was hunting at night, in a small boat and by the light of torches. In the course of their maneuvers a flock of Swans was suddenly encountered which took to flight without regard to anything that might be in the way. As the man raised his arm instinctively to ward off the swiftly rising birds, he was struck on his forearm by the wing of one of the Swans in the act of getting under motion, and as the action and labor of lifting itself were very great, the arm was badly broken, both bones being fractured. When left to itself the nest of the Swan is a large mass of aquatic plants, often piled to the height of a couple of feet and about six feet in diameter. In the midst of this is a hollow which contains the eggs, generally from five to ten in number. They sit upon the eggs between five and six weeks. It is a curious coincidence that this biographical sketch should have been written and a faithful portrait for the first time shown on the two hundredth anniversary of the discovery of the Black Swan. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. BLACK SWAN. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] LIFE IN THE NEST. Blithely twitting, gayly flitting Thro' the budding glen; Golden-crested, sunny-breasted, Goes the tiny Wren. Peeping, musing, picking, choosing, Nook is found at last; Moss and feather, twined together-- Home is shaped at last. Brisk as ever, quick and clever, Brimming with delight-- Six wee beauties, bring new duties, Work from morn to night. Peeping, musing, picking, choosing, Nook is found at last; Moss and feather, twined together-- Home is shaped at last. --J. L. H. THE SNOWY PLOVER. About one hundred species are comprised in the Plover family, which are distributed throughout the world. Only eight species are found in North America. Their habits in a general way resemble those of the true Snipes, but their much shorter, stouter bills are not fitted for probing, and they obtain their food from the surface of the ground. Probably for this reason several species are so frequently found on the uplands instead of wading about in shallow ponds or the margins of streams. They frequent meadows and sandy tracts, where they run swiftly along the ground in a peculiarly graceful manner. The Plovers are small or medium-sized shore-birds. The Snowy Plover is found chiefly west of the Rocky Mountains, and is a constant resident along the California coast. It nests along the sandy beaches of the ocean. Mr. N. S. Goss found it nesting on the salt plains along the Cimarron River in the Indian Territory, the northern limits of which extend into southwestern Kansas. The birds are described as being very much lighter in color than those of California. Four eggs are usually laid, in ground color, pale buff or clay color, with blackish-brown markings. Mr. Cory says the nest is a mere depression in the sand. He says also that the Snowy Plover is found in winter in many of the Gulf States, and is not uncommon in Northwestern Florida. When the female Snowy Plover is disturbed on the nest she will run over the sand with outstretched wings and distressing gait, and endeavor to lead the trespasser away from it. It sometimes utters a peculiar cry, but is usually silent. The food of these birds consists of various minute forms of life. They are similar in actions to the Semi-palmated (see July BIRDS), and fully as silent. Indeed they are rarely heard to utter a note except as the young are approached--when they are very demonstrative--or when suddenly flushed, which, in the nesting season, is a very rare thing, as they prefer to escape by running, dodging, and squatting the moment they think they are out of danger, in hopes you will pass without seeing them as the sandy lands they inhabit closely resemble their plumage in color, and says Mr. Goss, you will certainly do so should you look away or fail to go directly to the spot. The first discovery of these interesting birds east of Great Salt Lake was in June, 1886. A nest was found which contained three eggs, a full set. It was a mere depression worked out in the sand to fit the body. It was without lining, and had nothing near to shelter or hide it from view. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. SNOWY PLOVER. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] ONLY A BIRD. Only a bird! and a vagrant boy Fits a pebble with boyish skill Into the folds of a supple sling. "Watch me hit him. I can, an' I will." Whirr! and a silence chill and sad Falls like a pall on the vibrant air, From a birchen tree, whence a shower of song Has fallen in ripples everywhere. Only a bird! and the tiny throat With quaver and trill and whistle of flute Bruised and bleeding and silent lies There at his feet. Its chords are mute. And the boy with a loud and boisterous laugh, Proud of his prowess and brutal skill, Throws it aside with a careless toss. "Only a bird! it was made to kill." Only a bird! yet far away Little ones clamor and cry for food-- Clamor and cry, and the chill of night Settles over the orphan brood. Weaker and fainter the moaning call For a brooding breast that shall never come. Morning breaks o'er a lonely nest, Songless and lifeless; mute and dumb. --MARY MORRISON. THE LESSER PRAIRIE HEN. Extending over the Great Plains from western and probably southern Texas northward through Indian Territory to Kansas is said to be the habitation of the Lesser Prairie Hen, though it is not fully known. It inhabits the fertile prairies, seldom frequenting the timbered lands, except during sleety storms, or when the ground is covered with snow. Its flesh is dark and it is not very highly esteemed as a table bird. The habits of these birds are similar to those of the Prairie Hen. During the early breeding season they feed upon grasshoppers, crickets, and other forms of insect life, but afterwards upon cultivated grains, gleaned from the stubble in autumn and the corn fields in winter. They are also fond of tender buds, berries, and fruits. When flushed, these birds rise from the ground with a less whirring sound than the Ruffed Grouse or Bob White, and their flight is not as swift, but more protracted, and with less apparent effort, flapping and sailing along, often to the distance of a mile or more. In the fall the birds come together, and remain in flocks until the warmth of spring awakes the passions of love; then, in the language of Col. Goss, as with a view to fairness and the survival of the fittest, they select a smooth, open courtship ground, usually called a scratching ground, where the males assemble at the early dawn, to vie with each other in carnage and pompous display, uttering at the same time their love call, a loud, booming noise. As soon as this is heard by the hen birds desirous of mating, they quietly appear, squat upon the ground, apparently indifferent observers, until claimed by victorious rivals, whom they gladly accept, and whose caresses they receive. Audubon states that the vanquished and victors alike leave the grounds to search for the females, but he omits to state that many are present, and mate upon the "scratching grounds." The nest of the Prairie Hen is placed on the ground in the thick prairie grass and at the foot of bushes when the earth is barren; a hollow is scratched in the soil, and sparingly lined with grasses and a few feathers. There are from eight to twelve eggs, tawny brown, sometimes with an olive hue and occasionally sprinkled with brown. During the years 1869 and 1870, while the writer was living in southwestern Kansas, which was then the far west, Prairie Chickens as they were called there, were so numerous that they were rarely used for food by the inhabitants, and as there was then no readily accessible market the birds were slaughtered for wanton sport. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. LESSER PRAIRIE HEN. Copyright by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE NEW TENANTS. BY ELANORA KINSLEY MARBLE. The next day Mrs. Jenny retired into the tin pot, and later, when Mr. Wren peeped in, lo! an egg, all spotted with red and brown, lay upon the soft lining of the nest. "It's quite the prettiest thing in the world," proudly said Mr. Wren. "Why, my dear, I don't believe your cousin, Mrs. John Wren, ever laid one like it. It seems to me those spots upon the shell are very remarkable. I shouldn't be surprised if the bird hatched from that shell will make a name for himself in bird-land some day, I really shouldn't." "You foolish fellow," laughed Mrs. Wren, playfully pecking him with her bill, "if you were a Goose your Goslings, in your eyes, would all be Swans. That's what I heard our landlady say to her husband last night, out on the porch, when he wondered which one of his boys would be president of the United States." Mr. Wren chuckled in a truly papa-like manner and pecked her bill in return, then fairly bubbling over with happiness flew to a neighboring limb, and burst into such a merry roundelay, one note tumbling over another in Wren fashion, that every member of the household came out to hear and see. "There he is," cried Pierre, as Mrs. Wren left her nest and flew over beside him, "with tail down and head up, singing as though he were mad with joy." "Such a rapturous song," said mamma. "It reminds me of two almost forgotten lines: 'Brown Wren, from out whose swelling throat Unstinted joys of music float.' "How well we are repaid for the litter they made, are we not?" "And sure, mum," said Bridget, whose big heart had also been touched by the sweet song, "it's glad I am, for sure, that I wasn't afther dispossessin' your tinents. It's innocent craythurs they be, God bless 'em, a harmin' ov no wan. Sthill--" "Well," queried her mistress, as Bridget paused. "Sthill, mum, I do be afther wonderin' if the tin pot had been a hangin' under the front porch instead of the back, would ye's been after takin' the litter so philosophyky like as ye have, mum, to be sure." The mistress looked at Bridget and laughingly shook her head. "That's a pretty hard nut to crack, Bridget," said she. "Under those conditions I am afraid I----" What ever admission she was going to make was cut short by a burst of laughter from the children. "Look at him, mamma, just look at him," they cried, pointing to Mr. Wren, who, too happy to keep still had flown to the gable at the extremity of the ridge-pole of the house, and after a gush of song, to express his happiness was jerking himself along the ridge-pole in a truly funny fashion. From thence he flew into the lower branches of a neighboring tree, singing and chattering, and whisking himself in and out of the foliage: then back to the roof again, and from roof to tree. "I know what makes him so happy," announced Henry, who, standing upon a chair, had peeped into the nest. "There's a dear little egg in here. Hurrah for Mrs. Wren!" "Do not touch it," commanded mamma, "but each one of us will take a peep in turn." Mrs. Wren's bead-like eyes had taken in the whole proceeding, and with fluttering wings she stood on a shrub level with the porch and gave voice to her motherly anxiety and anger. "_Dee, dee, dee_," she shrilly cried, fluttering her little wings, which in bird language means, "oh dear, oh dear, what shall I do?" Her cries of distress were heard by Mr. Wren, and with all haste he flew down beside her. "What is it?" cried he, very nearly out of breath from his late exertions. "Has that rascally Mr. Jay----" "No, no!" she interrupted, wringing her sharp little toes, "It's not Mr. Jay this time, Mr. Wren. It's the family over there, _our_ family, robbing our nest of its one little egg." "Pooh! nonsense!" coolly said Mr. Wren, taking one long breath of relief. "Why, my dear, you nearly frighten me to death. You know, or _ought_ to know by this time, that our landlord's family have been taught not to do such things. Besides you yourself admit them to be exceptionally good children and good children never rob nests. Fie, I'm ashamed of you. Really my heart flew to my bill when I heard your call of distress." Mrs. Wren, whose fears were quite allayed by this time, looked at her mate scornfully. "Oh!" said she, with fine sarcasm, "your heart flew into your bill did it? Well, let me say, Mr. Wren, that if it had been my mother in distress, father at the first note of warning, would have flown to her assistance with his heart in his _claws_. He kept them well sharpened for just such occasions, and woe to any enemy _he_ found prowling about his premises." "Oh, indeed!" said Mr. Wren, "I presume he would have attacked Bridget over there, and the whole family. To hear you talk, Mrs. Wren, one would think your father was a whole host in himself." "And so he was," said she, loftily, "I have seen him attack a _Bluebird_ and a _Martin_ at the same time and put them both to flight. An _Owl_ had no terrors for him, and as for squirrels, why----" Mrs. Wren raised her wings and shrugged her shoulders in a very Frenchy and wholly contemptuous manner. "I'm a peace-loving sort of a fellow, that you know, Mrs. Wren, deploring the reputation our tribe has so justly earned for fighting, and scolding, and jeering at everything and everybody. Indeed they go so far as to say we trust no one, not even our kindred. But mark me, Mrs. Wren, mark me, I say! Should any rascally Jay, neighbor or not, ever dare approach that tin pot over yonder, or ever alight on the roof of the porch, I'll, I'll----" Mr. Wren fairly snorted in his anger, and standing on one foot, doubled up the toes of the other and struck it defiantly at the imaginary foe. "Oh, I dare say!" tauntingly said Mrs. Wren, "you are the sort of fellow that I heard little Dorothy reading about the other day. You would fight and run away, Mr. Wren, that you might live to fight another day." Mr. Wren lifted one foot and scratched himself meditatively behind the ear. "Good, _very_ good, indeed, my dear! It must have been a pretty wise chap that wrote that." And Mr. Wren, who seemed to find the idea very amusing, laughed until the tears stood in his eyes. Mrs. Wren smoothed her ruffled feathers and smiled too. "Tut, tut, Jenny," said the good-natured fellow, "what is the use of us newly married folk quarreling in this fashion. Think how joyous we were less than one short hour ago. Come, my dear, the family have all left the porch, save Emmett. Let us fly over there and take a look at our treasure." And Mrs. Wren, entirely restored to good humor, flirted her tail over her back, hopped about a little in a coquettish manner, then spread her wings, and off they flew together. Mrs. Wren the next day deposited another egg, and the next, and the next, till six little speckled beauties lay huddled together in the cosy nest. "Exactly the number of our landlord's family," said she, fluffing her feathers and gathering the eggs under her in that truly delightful fashion common to all mother birds. "I am so glad. I was greatly puzzled to know what names we should have given the babies had there been more than six." "I hadn't thought of that," admitted Mr. Wren, who in his joy had been treating his mate to one of his fine wooing songs, and at length coaxed her from the nest, "but I dare say we would have named them after some of our relatives." "Why, of course," assented Mrs. Wren, "I certainly would have named one after my dear, brave papa. Mrs. John Wren says that boys named after a great personage generally develop all the qualities of that person." "Oh, indeed!" sniffed Mr. Wren, "that was the reason she named one of her numerous brood last year after our rascally neighbor, Mr. Jay, I presume. Certainly the youngster turned out as great a rascal as the one he was named after." Mrs. Wren's head feathers stood on end at once. "For the life of me," she said tartly, "I cannot see why you always fly into a passion, Mr. Wren, whenever I mention dear papa, or Mrs. John, or in fact _any_ of my relatives. Indeed--but sh-sh! There's one of our neighbors coming this way. I verily believe it is, oh yes, it is, it _is_----" and Mrs. Wren wrung her toes, and cried _cheet, cheet, cheet_, and _dee, dee, dee_! in a truly anxious and alarming manner. [TO BE CONTINUED.] SUMMARY. Page 46. #LEAST BITTERN.#--_Botaurus exilis._ RANGE--Temperate North America, from the British Provinces to the West Indies and South America. NEST--In the thick rushes, along the edge of the water, bending down the tops of water grass and plaiting it into a snug little nest, about two or three feet above the water. EGGS--Three or five, pale bluish or greenish-white. * * * * * Page 50. #BALDPATE.#--_Anas americana._ RANGE--North America from the Arctic ocean south to Guatemala and Cuba. NEST--On the ground in marshes, of grass and weeds, neatly arranged and nicely hollowed; usually lined with the down and feathers from its own breast. EGGS--Eight to twelve, of pale buff. * * * * * Page 54. #PURPLE FINCH.#--_Carpodacus purpureus._ Other names: "Purple Grosbeak," "Crimson Finch," "Linnet." RANGE--Eastern North America, breeding from Northern United States northward. NEST--In evergreens or orchard trees, at a moderate distance from the ground. Composed of weed-stalks, bark-strips, rootlets, grasses, all kinds of vegetable fibres, and lined with hairs. EGGS--Four or five, of a dull green, spotted with very dark brown, chiefly about the larger end. * * * * * Page 58. #RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER.#--_Melanerpes carolinus._ Other name: "Zebra Bird." RANGE--Eastern United States, west to the Rocky Mountains, south to Florida and Central Texas. NEST--In holes in decayed trees, twenty or thirty feet from the ground. EGGS--Four or six, glossy white. * * * * * Page 63. #SAW-WHET OWL.#--_Nyctale acadica._ Other name: "Acadian Owl." RANGE--Whole of North America; breeding from middle United States northward. NEST--In holes, trees, or hollow trunks. EGGS--Four to seven, white. * * * * * Page 67. #BLACK SWAN.#--_Cygnus atratus._ RANGE--Australia. NEST--On a tussock entirely surrounded by water. EGGS--Two to five. * * * * * Page 71. #SNOWY PLOVER.#--_Aegialitis nivosa._ RANGE--Western North America, south to Mexico in winter, both coasts of Central America, and in western South America to Chile. NEST--On the ground. EGGS--Three, ground color, pale buff or clay color, marked with blackish-brown spots, small splashes and fine dots. * * * * * Page 75. #LESSER PRAIRIE HEN.#--_Tympanuchus pallidicinctus._ RANGE--Eastern edge of the Great Plains, from western and probably southern Texas northward through Indian Territory to Kansas. NEST--On the ground in thick prairie grass, and at the foot of bushes on the barren ground; a hollow scratched out in the soil, and sparingly lined with grasses and a few feathers. EGGS--Eight to twelve, tawny brown. 
47280	----	Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). * * * * * BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. VOL. III. MAY, 1898. NO. 5. COLOR IN MUSIC. "No ladder needs the bird, but skies To situate its wings, Nor any leader's grim baton Arraigns it as it sings. The implements of bliss are few-- As Jesus says of Him, 'Come unto me,' the moiety That wafts the cherubim." --EMILY DICKINSON. OH, Music! voice inspired of all our joys and sorrows, of all our hopes and disappointments, to thee we turn for life, for strength and peace. The choristers of Nature--the birds--are our teachers. How free, how vital, how unconstrained! The bird drops into song and delicious tones as easily as he drops from the bough through the air to the twig or ground. To learn of the bird has been found to be a truthful means whereby children's attention and interest may be held long enough to absorb the sense of intervals in pitch, notation on the staff, and rythms. In teaching a child, it is obvious that the desire to learn must be kept widely awake, and heretofore black notes on five lines and four spaces, with heiroglyphics at the beginning to denote clef, and figures to indicate the rhythm of the notes, have never interested children. But now, color and the bird with its egg for a note, telegraph wires for the staff, and swinging the pulsing rhythm instead of beating the time, has charmed children into accomplishment of sight singing and sweet purity of tone. Formerly, and by the old method, this was a long and laborious task, barely tolerated by the musical child and disliked by the little soul unawakened thereby to its own silent music. It may be questioned, what is the new method, and what its value? The method is this: In recognizing tone, the finer and more sensitive musician has realized that certain intervals of scale suggested to their minds or reminded them of certain colors. Thus the Doh, the opening and closing tone of the scale, the foundation and cap stone, suggested Red, which is the strong, firm color of colors, and on the ethical side suggested Love, which is the beginning and end, the Alpha and Omega of Life. This firmness and strength is easy to recognize in the tune "America," where the tonic Doh is so insistent, and colors the whole melody. "The Star-Spangled Banner" and "Hail Columbia" are other strong examples. The Dominant or fifth tone in the scale is clear and pure, which the blue of heaven represents, and so also the quality of aspiration or exaltation is sounded. This is joyously clear in the Palestrina "Victory," set to the Easter hymn, "The strife is o'er the battle done." The Mediant or third of the scale is peaceful and calm, and the color Yellow is suggested, with its vital, radiating, sunshiny warmth and comfort. The "O, rest in the Lord" from "Elijah" exemplifies this quality of restful and peaceful assurance. Of the tones of the Dominant chord besides the Soh which we have considered, the Ti or seventh interval is full of irresolution and unrest, crying for completion in the strong and resolute Doh. This unrest and yearning suggest the mixed color Magenta. The quality is expressed in bits of an old English song entitled "Too Late." The insistency of the seventh is felt in the strong measures with the words, "oh let us in, oh, let us in." The Ray or second of the scale which completes the Dominant chord is rousing and expectant--quite in contrast to the eagerness and dispair of the seventh. This second is represented by orange, the mixture of red and yellow between which it stands being equally related to both, with the expectancy born of trust and rest which the Mediant expresses, and the rousing hopefulness which is the outcome of the firm strength and conviction of the Doh. As a musical example take Pleyel's hymn set to the words: "Children of the Heavenly King." In the remaining tones of the sub-dominant chord Fah and Lah, we find Fah the fourth has a distinctively leaning tendency, a solemnity which calls forth the direct opposite of the seventh or Ti which yearns upward and cannot be otherwise satisfied, while Fah is a downward leaning, a protective and even-solemnly grand, dependent tone. We hear this in the dead march in "Saul," and the almost stern reproach in the two measures of "Too late, too late, ye cannot enter now." Fah's tonal qualities suggest the protective green. Lah, or the sixth tone is expresive of tender sympathy, and unlike Fah, is a variable tone which may turn upward or downward for rest. It is found prominently in Minor music and is represented by the half mourning color of lavender or violet. "By the sad sea-waves" is a good illustration of this gentle wail. While these emotional effects are certainly true, it may be well to remind the reader that when modulation comes in, the character of the tones is necessarily changed; just as the appearance and impression of an individual will be modified and altered by change of surroundings. Consequently these effects are strong only in the pure unmodulated key. In awakening the musical sensibility of the child, we are rescuing it from probable loss of appreciation for the noble, and true, and fine. This loss is shown by such as are pleased with the trash of the "popular" tunes of a day--tunes which express nothing worthy of the great gift of expression. Music is life in all its moods and tenses, but we should be sensitive only to that which is the expression of the best and most helpful. Through the many percepts of sight of the birds which represent the intervals of the scale, of touch in pasting the little colored discs on the staff, of ear in singing the tones of the Doh bird, the Me bird, the Soh bird, etc., the child finds the symbols and mechanics of musical notation entrancing instead of tedious. In teaching the rythms and value of notes the imagination is called upon in marking off rooms instead of measures, and putting one or more bird eggs into them, naming them with the time names and swinging the rythm with a snap-tape measure. AGNES STEWART. In charge of classes in Color Music and assistant teacher of Voice in The Mrs. John Vance Cheney School, Steinway Hall, Chicago. ---- CONTENTMENT. ONCE on a time an old red hen Went strutting around with pompous clucks, For she had little babies ten, A part of which were tiny ducks; "'Tis very rare that hens," said she, "Have baby ducks, as well as chicks; But I possess, as you can see, Of chickens four and ducklings six!" A season later, this old hen Appeared, still cackling of her luck, For though she boasted babies ten, Not one among them was a duck! "'Tis well," she murmured, brooding o'er The little chicks of fleecy down, "My babies now will stay ashore, And, consequently, cannot drown!" The following spring the old red hen Clucked just as proudly as of yore; But lo! her babies were ducklings ten, Instead of chickens, as before! "'Tis better," said the old red hen, As she surveyed her waddling brood, "A little water, now and then, Will surely do my darlings good!" But, oh! alas, how very sad! When gentle spring rolled round again, The eggs eventuated bad, And childless was the old red hen! Yet, patiently she bore her woe, And still she wore a cheerful air, And said: "'Tis best these things are so, For babies are a dreadful care!" I half suspect that many men, And many, many women too, Could learn a lesson from the hen, With foliage of vermilion hue. She ne'er presumed to take offence At any fate that might befall, But meekly bowed to Providence.-- She was contented--that was all! --EUGENE FIELD. ---- THE FASCINATION OF BIRD STUDY. WHEN one knows six birds by sight or sound, it has been said, he is lost. After that he cannot rest until he knows fifty, or a hundred, or two hundred--in his back-door yard, or down in the orchard, or across the farm. It is not easy to explain wherein lies the fascination of "naming the birds without a gun." The humility of the scoffer, caught unawares, and taught his first six before he knows it, is something pathetic and instructive. Few mortals are proof against the charm--when once the first half-dozen are conquered. The first three come easy. Most of us know the Crow--and the Robin--and the Bluebird--and--and--the Sparrow--until we discover that there are more than a dozen varieties of Sparrow, and perceive that this common brown bird, hopping so cheerily in and out of the bushes, may be a Song Sparrow or a Chipping Sparrow or a White-Throated or White-Crowned or any one of the dozen--or even the Cocky English Sparrow, despised by ornithologist and tyro alike. When to the Crow and Robin and Bluebird one has added the Blackbird--both the Keel-tailed and the Redwing--and the Meadow Lark or the Highhole, the charm begins to work. Armed with opera-glass and bird book, the victim casts convention to the winds. He stands in the full glare of the public highway, his glass focused on an invisible spot, an object of ridicule to men and dogs. He crawls on his hands and knees through underbrush, under barbed fences and over stone walls. He sits by the hour waiting for a Vireo to come down from the topmost branch within range of his glass. He forgets luncheon and engagements. And what does he bring home? Certainly not the river and sky, and seldom even a feather. Books on birds, continues the _Boston Evening Transcript_, like good wine, need no bush at this season of the year; the Golden-winged Woodpecker drums announcement on every limb; the Redwing Blackbird gurgles and chuckles and calls across the swamp; and the Lesser Sparrows and Bluebirds and Robins wake the morning to the weaving of new song. The hand reaches out for the familiar bird-book; that last note was a strange one. It is a new bird--or merely one forgotten? The delight begins all over with the first Bluebird's call, "a mere wandering voice in the air." "The Department of Agriculture," Miss Merriam tells us, in her new book, "Birds of Village and Field," "realizing the losses that often result from the ignorant sacrifice of useful birds, constituted the Division of Ornithology, now a part of the Biological Survey, a court of appeal where accusations against the birds could be received and investigated. The method used by the division is the final one--the examination of stomach contents to prove the actual food of the birds. After the examination of about eighty birds, the only one actually condemned to death is the English Sparrow. Of all the accused Hawks, only three have been found guilty of the charges made against them--the Goshawk, Cooper's, and the Sharp-Shinned--while the rest are numbered among the best friends of the fruit-grower and farmer." [Illustration: SOUTH AMERICAN RHEA.] ---- THE OSTRICH. SOUTH AMERICAN Rhea is the name by which this immense bird is known to science. It is a native of South America, and is especially numerous along the river Plata. Usually seen in pairs, it sometimes associates in flocks of twenty or thirty, and even more have been seen together. Like all the members of the family, it is a swift-footed and wary bird, but possesses so little presence of mind that it becomes confused when threatened with danger, runs aimlessly first in one direction and then in another, thus giving time for the hunter to come up and shoot it, or bring it to the ground with his bolas--a terrible weapon, consisting of a cord with a heavy ball at each end, which is flung at the bird, and winds around its neck and legs so as to entangle it. For our knowledge of the Rhea and its habits, we are chiefly indebted to Mr. Darwin, and we shall use his language in this account of the bird. He says it is found also in Paraguay, but is not common. The birds generally prefer running against the wind, yet, at the instant, they expand their wings and, like a vessel, make all sail. "On one fine hot day I saw several Ostriches enter a bed of tall rocks, where they squatted concealed till nearly approached." It is not generally known that Ostriches readily take to the water. Mr. King says that at Patagonia and at Pont Valdez he saw these birds swimming several times from island to island. They ran into the water both when driven down to a point, and likewise of their own accord, when not frightened. Natives readily distinguish, even at a distance, the male bird from the female. The former is larger and darker colored, and has a larger head. It emits a singular deep-toned hissing note. Darwin, when he first heard it, thought it was made by some wild beast. It is such a sound that one cannot tell whence it comes, nor from how far distant. "When we were at Bahia Blanca, in the months of September and October, the eggs of the Rhea were found in extraordinary numbers all over the country. They either lie scattered singly, in which case they are never hatched, or they are collected together into a hollow excavation which forms the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained twenty-two eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. The Gauchos unanimously affirm, and there is no reason to doubt their statement, that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, and that he for some time afterward, accompanies the young. The cock while in the nest lies very close; I have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted that at such times they are occasionally fierce, and even dangerous, and that they have been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on him." The skylight in the roof of the apartment in which two Ostriches were kept in the Garden of Plants, Paris, having been broken, the glaziers were sent to repair it, and in the course of their work let fall a piece of glass. Not long after this the female Ostrich was taken ill, and died after an hour or two in great agony. The body was opened, and the throat and stomach were, found to have been dreadfully cut by the sharp corners of the glass which she had swallowed. From the moment his companion died the male bird had no rest; he appeared to be continually searching for something, and daily wasted away. He was removed from the spot, in the hope that he would forget his grief; he was even allowed more liberty, but in vain, and at length he mourned himself to death. ---- THE SOUTH AMERICAN RHEA. I need'nt tell you I'm an Ostrich, for my picture speaks for itself. I'm a native of South America, but members of my family have been caught and taken to the United States, so you have seen some of them, probably, in a "Zoo." We are swift-footed and wary birds, but unfortunately have no presence of mind, so that when danger threatens us we become confused, run this way and that way, till the hunter comes up and with gun or "bolas" brings us to the ground. If your legs and neck were as long as mine, and an Indian should fling around you a cord with a ball at each end and get your legs all tangled up, wouldn't you tumble to the ground, too? Of course you would. That is the way they catch us with a "bolas." I think we ought to be called "ship of the desert" as well as the camel, for when the wind blows, we expand our great wings, and running against it, like a vessel under full sail, go skimming along, happy as a bird, in truth. You can never see us do that unless you come to South America. In captivity we act differently, you know. Maybe you have seen us, when in an inclosure, holding our wings from our bodies and running up and down as though we were being chased, appearing greatly alarmed. Well, that is all fun. We have to do something to while the time away. Then, too, that is as near as we can come to "sailing" as we did when wild and free. You have heard so much about the mother-bird sitting on the nest, that I am sure you will be interested in seeing a _father_ who broods the eggs and hatches out the little ones. I have five wives. They all lay their eggs in one and the same nest, which is a hollow pit scraped out by their feet, the earth heaped up around to form a sort of wall. They lay the eggs, I have said, sometimes thirty in a nest, and I--well, I do the rest. We are dangerous fellows if disturbed when brooding; have been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on him. Our kick is no love-tap, let me tell you, but being so powerful we can easily kill a man. When startled, or angry, we utter a kind of grunt as a warning; if it is not heeded, we then hiss sharply, draw back our head, and get ready to strike. [Illustration: BAY BREASTED WARBLER.] ---- THE BAY-BREASTED WARBLER. ABOUT sixty species of Warblers are known to ornithologists, no one of which can be considered a great singer, but their several twitterings have a small family resemblance. The Bay-breasted, which is also popularly called Autumnal Warbler, breeds from northern New England and northern Michigan northward, its nest being found in low, swampy woods, where there is a mixture of evergreens, oak, birch, elm and other trees. It is compact, cup-shaped, and usually placed in coniferous trees from five to fifteen or even twenty feet above the ground. Fine shreds of bark, small twigs, fibrous roots, and pine hair are used in its construction. Four eggs are laid, which are white, with a bluish tinge, finely speckled on or round the larger end with reddish-brown. Comparatively little is known of the habits of this species. It passes in spring and fall, on its way to the north, being sometimes abundant at both seasons, but does not tarry long. In general habits, at all times, it closely resembles other species of the genus. In Oxford County, Maine, says Mr. Maynard, these birds are found in all the wooded sections of that region, where they frequent the tops of tall trees. The species seems to be confined during the building season to the region just north of the White Mountains range. Ridgway says: "Tanagers are splendid; Humming-birds are refulgent; other kinds are brilliant, gaudy or magnificent, but Warblers alone are pretty in the proper and full sense of that term. When the apple trees bloom, the Warblers revel among the flowers, vieing in activity and in number with the bees; now probing the recesses of a blossom for an insect which has effected lodgment there, then darting to another, where, poised daintily upon a slender twig, or suspended from it, he explores hastily but carefully for another morsel. Every movement is the personification of nervous activity, as if the time for their journey was short; and, indeed, such appears to be the case, for two or three days at most suffice some species in a single locality; a day spent in gleaning through the woods and orchards of one neighborhood, with occasional brief siestas among the leafy bowers, then the following night in continuous flight toward its northern destination, is probably the history of every individual of the moving throng." "Have you walked beneath the blossoms in the spring? In the spring? Beneath the apple blossoms in the spring? When the pink cascades are falling, And the silver brooklets bawling, And the Warbler bird soft calling, In the spring?" ---- BIRD SUPERSTITIONS AND WINGED PORTENTS. THE superstitions of the peasant folk of any country are not only interesting with thought, feeling, and belief, says an intelligent writer, but through them much of the inner history of a people can often be traced. Ireland is peculiarly rich in these forgivable vagaries about birds. They often seem of a very savage and grewsome character, but as we come to know that however grim-visaged the face of one confiding the weird assertion of uncanny belief, that secretly the masses of the peasantry scout and flout them all, save those of a tender and winsome character, we become reconciled to it. Thus the quaint and weird things which might seem unaccountable and often repulsive to us, have become, in lieu of book lore, a folk and fireside lore, out of which endless entertainment is secured; and underneath much of this there is a deep and earnest tenderness, such as all hearts know, for many things without apparent reason, that grow into life and ancestry, oft repeated homeside tale, beloved custom and that mysterious hallowing which comes upon changeless places and objects to men. Here are a few bird superstitions: If an Osprey be shot along any coast, all the herring and mackerel will immediately disappear. If the Hen-harrier, which only hunts by twilight, is missed from its accustomed raptorial haunt, some evil spirit is said to be hovering about the locality. When Water-ousels appear in the spring time in unusual numbers in any unfrequented locality, it is a sign of abundance of fresh-water fish, but also a token of the approach of malignant disease. On the west coast in the early spring the poor fisherman watches early and late for the Gannet. He calls it the Solan, or Swift-flying Goose. If it does not come his heart sinks, for there will be no luck at fishing; but if great numbers wheel about the headlands of the coast, plenty will smile in his cabin home that year. Great numbers of Jay or Missel Thrushes feeding upon the berries of the hawthorn betoken the approach of a very cold winter, and their Grackle-like calls bring fear to the heart if the meal be low and the peat be scant in the little tenants cabin. When the nest of the Thrush or Mavis is built unusually high in the thorn-bush, this betokens a great calamity to a neighborhood, for some distressing disturbance is under way among the fairies, who in happy or friendly mood always see to it that these nests are built near their haunts in the grasses, that they may more readily enjoy the music of the thrush's songs. The crops of sweet singing Blackbirds are supposed to hold the souls of those in purgatory until the judgment day; and whenever the Blackbird's notes are particularly shrill, these parched and burning souls are imploring for rain, which never fails of coming in response to the bird cries for their relief. The Wicklow mountains are notably the haunts of the Ring-Ousel or Mountain Stars. Whenever, after singing his fine deep song, he hesitates for a time, and then is heard to utter a loud, shrill and prolonged whistle, that night every human that has heard it will remain behind barred doors; for that is a true fairy call, and the "wea folk of Wicklow" are sure to congregate in the mooonlit mountain hollows and "dance rings round their swate selves" until dawn. Of course none of these dire calamities ever occur, but the simple-minded folk continue to have faith in them, and the innocent birds remain the supposed precursors of the, to them, mysterious misinterpreted operations of nature. [Illustration: BLACK-NECKED STILT.] ---- THE BLACK-NECKED STILT. STILT would be a peculiarly appropriate name for this bird, with its excessively long legs, were it less graceful and dignified in its walk, moving on land with easy and measured tread, not in a "tremulous manner," says Col. Goss, as stated by some writers. The Stilt is an inhabitant of temperate North America, from New Brunswick, Maine, Minnesota and Oregon southward; south in winter to Peru, Brazil, and West Indies. It is rare in the middle and western provinces, except Florida, also along the Pacific coast; breeding in suitable localities and in abundance in western Texas, southern Colorado, Utah, eastern Colorado, and southern Oregon. Extensive as is the range of the Stilt, we wonder how many of our readers have ever had the pleasure of seeing even a picture of one. The specimen depicted in BIRDS is regarded by experts as about as nearly perfect as art can produce. It will be observed that the eyes are alive in expression, as, indeed, are those of all our specimens that have appeared in recent numbers. This slender wader inhabits the shores of bays, ponds, and swales where scantily covered with short grasses. It swims buoyantly and gracefully, and on land runs swiftly, with partially raised wings, readily tacking or stopping in its chase after insect life. Its flight, says Goss, is not very swift, but strong and steady, with sweeping strokes, legs fully extended and head partially drawn back, after the manner of the Avocet, (see BIRDS, Vol. II, p. 15), and like the latter, will often meet one a long distance from its nest, scolding and threatening. At such times its legs are as fully extended as its legs, the latter often dangling as it retreats. The food of the Black-necked Stilt consists of insects, minute shell fish and larvae, and various small forms of life. The birds are social, usually living and breeding in small flocks. The nests of these birds--when placed on dry, sandy land--are slight depressions worked out to fit the body; on wet lands they are upon bunches or masses of vegetation. Eggs three or four, buff to brownish-olive, irregularly but rather thickly splashed and spotted with blackish brown. ---- THE ENGLISH SPARROW. When the English Sparrow (see BIRDS, Vol. II, p. 208), was first introduced into Canada, we are informed by Mr. Albert Webber, the city of Hamilton provided for its protection by causing to be erected a large iron pole, on which was set a huge box containing many apartments, the pole surrounded by a circular iron railing. Each day during the winter a sheaf of oats was attached to the pole. In a year or two the Sparrows became so numerous that the authorities were obliged to abandon the project of contributing to the support of the birds and left them to shift for themselves. They soon found, however, that the little foreigners were quite independent of the city fathers. Indefatigable, persistent, industrious breeders--at once rebuilding their nests, if destroyed by accident or otherwise--there is little hope of their extermination, if such action should be desired in the future. Mr. Thomas Goodearl, an observer of these birds in their nativity, predicts that the English Sparrow will be the survivor--though not the fittest--of all English birds. C. C. M. ---- THE PIN-TAIL DUCK. It was my cousin the TEAL who said he was not born to sing and look pretty flitting among the trees, but was a useful bird, born to be "done brown" and look pretty in a dish. Well, I am one of that kind, too. _Pin-tail_, _Sprig-tail_, _Sharp-tail_, _Water Pheasant._ I am known by all of these names, though people only use one at a time, I believe. You will find us Pin-tails generally in fresh water. We move in very large flocks, in company with our cousins the Mallards, feeding and traveling with them for days. But when it comes to flying we distance them everytime. Our flight is rapid and graceful, the most graceful, they say, of all the Duck tribe. Instead of a song we have a call note, a low plaintive whistle which we repeat two or three times. It is easily imitated, and often, thinking a companion calls us, we swim in the direction of the sound, when "bang" goes a gun and over flops one or more _Pin-tails_. We have other enemies beside man, and have to keep a sharp lookout all the time. Way up north one day, a Fox stood on the borders of a lake and watched a flock of Ducks feeding among the rushes. He was very hungry and the sight of them made his mouth water. "How can I get one of those fine, fat fellows for my dinner," he muttered, and Mr. Fox, who is very cunning, you know, remained very quiet, while he thought, and thought, and thought. "Oh, I have it!" he presently exclaimed, and going to the windward of the Ducks, set afloat a lot of dead rushes or grass, which drifted among the flock, causing no alarm or suspicion whatever. Then Mr. Fox, taking a bunch of grass in his mouth, slipped into the lake, and with nothing but the tips of his ears and nose above the water, drifted down among the rushes and the Ducks, too. Such a squawking as there was, when Mr. Fox opened his red mouth, seized the largest of the flock, and with a chuckle put back for the shore. "Hm!" said he, after enjoying his dinner, "what stupid things Ducks are to be sure." A mean trick, wasn't it? Nobody but a Fox--or a man--would have thought of such a thing. I'd rather be an innocent Duck than either of them though my name is _Pin-tail_. Wouldn't you? [Illustration: PIN-TAIL DUCK.] ---- THE PINTAIL DUCK. ALL the Ducks are interesting, and few species of the feathered creation, in shape, color, beauty, and general variety of appearance present more that is attractive to the student of ornithology. Aside from their utility as destroyers of much that is obnoxious to vegetation and useful animal life, and as a desirable, if not indispensable, food for man, they possess characteristics that render them interesting and instructive subjects for investigation and study. Among them this widely distributed fresh water Duck is one of the best known. Its name describes it well. It is one of the first arrivals in the spring. The Pintail haunts wet prairies, mud flats, and the edges of reedy, grassy waters, feeding largely upon bulbous roots, tender shoots, insects and their larvae, worms and snails, and, on its return in the fall, upon various seeds, water plants, and grain. Acorns have been frequently taken from the crops of these Ducks. The Pintail, according to Goss, seldom dives, and it never does so while feeding, but in searching in the water for its food immerses not only the head but a large portion of the body. It is an odd sight to see a flock thus tipped up and working their feet in the air, as if trying to stand upon their heads. They move about with a graceful motion of the head, and with tail partially erect, and upon the land step off with a dignity of carriage as if impressed with the thought that they are no common Duck. In flight they are very swift. The nest of the Pintail is placed on low but dry, grassy land and not far from water, usually under the shelter of a bush, and is a mere depression in the ground, lined with grasses and down. There are from seven to ten eggs, of pale green to olive buff, in form oval and ovate. The habitat of the Pintail Duck is the northern hemisphere in general; in North America it breeds from the northern United States northward to Iceland and south in winter to Cuba and Panama. Mr. George Northrup, of long experience on Calumet lake and river, Illinois, says that only a few years ago there were to be seen on these waters during the seasons of migration as many as a million, perhaps millions, of Ducks, among which were multitudes of Pintails. He has seen the lake so covered with them that there seemed to be no room whatever for more, though others continued to alight. The hunters were delighted with the great opportunities these vast flocks presented for slaughter--sport, as they called it; mania, Mr. Northrup characterized it. He said the birds, at the very earliest indication of day, hurried on swift wing to their feeding grounds to get their breakfasts, where the sportsmen were usually awaiting them. The Pintail Duck is not regarded as so great a delicacy as the Canvasback, the Red Head, or even the Mallard, yet when fat, young, and tender it is a very palatable bird, and well esteemed for its flavor. The cook probably has something to do with its acceptableness when served, for No Duck is bad when appetite Waits on digestion. ---- FEATHERS OR FLOWERS? WAS the question which confronted the fair sex this year when about to select their Easter hats or bonnets. "Say flowers," pleaded the members of the Audubon Society, and from the many fair heads, innocent of feather adornment, which bowed before the lily-decked altars on Easter morning, one must believe that the plea was heeded. Nearly every large house in Chicago, dealing wholly or in part in millinery goods, was visited by a member of the Audubon Society, says the _Tribune_. One man who sells nothing but millinery declared that the bird protective association was nothing but a fad, and that it would soon be dead. He further said he would sell anything for hat trimming, be it flesh, fish, or fowl, that a _woman would wear_. Touching the question whether the beautiful Terns and Gulls, with their soft gray and white coloring, were to be popular, it was said that they would not be used as much as formerly. One salesman said that he would try, where a white bird was requested, to get the purchaser to accept a domestic Pigeon, which was just as beautiful as the sea and lake birds named. The milliners all agree that the Snowy Egret is doomed to extermination within a short time, its plumes, so fairy-like in texture, rendering its use for trimming as desirable in summer as in winter. As to the birds of prey, people interested in our feathered friends are as desirous of saving them from destruction as they are to shield the song birds. There are only a few of the Hawks and Owls which are injurious, most of them in fact being beneficial. Hundreds of thousands of these birds were killed for fashion's sake last fall, so that this coming season the farmer will note the absence of these birds by the increased number of rat, mouse, and rabbit pests with which he will have to deal. It is a matter of congratulation, then, to the members of the Audubon Society to know that their efforts in Chicago have not been wholly fruitless, inasmuch as the majority of dealers in women's headgear are willing to confess that they have felt the effect of the bird protective crusade. Dr. H. M. Wharton, pastor of Brantly Baptist Church, Baltimore, has always been a bitter opponent of those who slaughter birds for millinery purposes. "It is wholesale murder," said he, "and I am delighted that a bill is to be offered in the Maryland legislature for the protection of song birds. I have commented from the pulpit frequently upon the evil of women wearing birds' wings or bodies of birds on their hats, for I have long considered it a cruel custom." "Birds are our brothers and sisters," said the Rev. Hugh O. Pentecost before the Unity Congregation at Carnegie Music Hall, Pittsburg, a few weeks ago. "If we are children of God, so are they. The same intelligence, life, and love that is in us is in them. The difference between us is not in kind, but in degree." "How is this murderous vanity of women to be overcome?" asks _Our Animal Friends_. "We confess we do not know; but this we do know, that good women can make such displays of vanity disreputable, and that good women _ought to do it_." ---- THE DOUBLE YELLOW-HEADED PARROT. HERE we have a picture of the best, with possibly one exception, the African Gray, of the talking parrots. Its home is in Mexico, about the wooded bottoms of La Cruz river, in the province of Taumaulipas, on the east coast. It is a wild, picturesque region of swamps, jungles, and savannahs, with here and there a solitary hacienda or farm-house, where three hundred or four hundred persons are at work in the fertile soil. Here, three hundred miles south of Matamoras, the nearest American settlement, is the spot where your pet Parrot, says an exchange, probably first opened its eyes to the light of day stealing through the branches of the ebony and coma trees, amid surroundings that might to an imaginary Polly suggest the first dawn of creation. The forests in this region abound in all kinds of birds in rich plumage. Parrakeets are so abundant that what with the screeching and cawing of the Parrots it is sometimes impossible to hear one's own voice. Hunters do not trouble themselves to secure them, however, as they are not worth carrying to market. There is apparently a profit only in the Double Yellow-head, for which the hunters get as much as $20.00. There are two kinds of Mexican Parrots, both of which are held in far different esteem. The only Mexican Parrot that is in general demand as a talking pet is the Double Yellow-head, which with age develops a yellow hood that extends completely over its head and shoulders. In connection with the "speaking" of Parrots, one of the most curious circumstances is that recorded by Humboldt, who in South America met with a venerable bird which remained the sole possessor of a literally dead language, the whole tribe of Indians who alone had spoken it having become extinct. The Parrot builds no nest. The female selects a deep hollow in the highest tree trunk and there lays two eggs. This occurs about the first of May. The young are hatched about the 15th of June, ten days elapse before they can open their eyes, and several weeks must be allowed for the young birds to outgrow their squab state and gain sufficient strength to be removed from the care of their parents. The Parrot is a wily and wise bird. It lays its eggs safely out of reach of ordinary danger and takes good care not to betray their whereabouts. When the young birds are hatched they are fed twice a day by their elders, early in the morning and again about the close of day. The birds in feeding their young give vent to a series of contented clucks and chuckles, which is answered by the young ones. These birds live on mangoes and the nuts of the ebony tree. Newton observes, that considering the abundance of Parrots both as species and individuals, it is surprising how little is known of their habits in a wild state. It is probable that no other bird has been more admired or more thoroughly execrated. If it is good natured, is an interesting talker, and you happen to be in a mood to listen to it with some pleasure, you will speak favorably of the bird, saying to it: "Pretty Polly! pretty Polly!" but should your nerves be unstrung and every noise a source of irritation, the rasping, high-pitched screech of a Parrot, which is a nuisance in any neighborhood, will be beyond endurance. We shall always be satisfied with the possession of Polly's picture as she was. ---- THE DOUBLE YELLOW-HEADED PARROT. I came from Mexico. Once I talked Spanish, but at the present time I speak the English language altogether. Lucky, isn't it? My neck might be wrung did I cry "_Viva Espana!_" just now. The reason why I spoke Spanish in Mexico was because I boarded with a Spaniard there; now I live in the United States and make my home with an American family. As I only repeat what I hear I must, of course, talk just as they do. I was born, however, in the finest Parrot country in the world. My mother built her nest in a deep hollow in the highest tree trunk in a swamp or jungle, and there laid just two eggs. She was wise to choose a high tree, for there she thought her nest was out of danger. When we were hatched, my brother and I, our parents fed us only twice a day, in the early morning and late evening. Two meals a day was enough for little babies, my mother said. Well, maybe it was, but in our case it would have been better had she not fed us at all. You see the Parrot hunters were about, and as my parents always kept up such a loud "clucking" when feeding us, and we did the same, why, the hunters found out in which tall tree we lived. It was easy then for a "peon" or poor Mexican to climb the tree, and so all of our family were made prisoners. Being Double Yellow-headed Parrots we were very valuable because we can talk. My master paid $20.00 for me. The gentleman who owns me now sells tickets in a theatre. My cage hangs near the window, and I used to hear him say when there was a rush to buy tickets, "One at a time, gentlemen; one at a time, please!" I hadn't learned to speak English very well, then, but I heard the sentence so often that I stored it up for future use. My master, one day, went to the country and took me with him. The sight of the trees made me think of my old home, so I escaped from the cage and flew off to the woods. They searched for me all day but not till nightfall did they find me. Such a sorry looking bird as I was, sitting far out on the end of a limb of a tree, with my back humped, and half the gay feathers plucked out of me. Around me were a flock of Crows, picking at me whenever they got a chance. "One at a time, gentlemen," I kept saying, hitching along the limb, "one at a time, please;" but instead of tickets they each got a feather. [Illustration: DOUBLE YELLOW-HEADED PARROT.] ---- SPRING THOUGHTS. AND now there is such a fiddling in the woods, such a viol creaking of bough on bough that you would think music was being born again as in the days of Orpheus. Orpheus and Apollo are certainly there taking lessons; aye, and the Jay and Blackbird, too, learn now where they stole their "thunder." They are perforce, silent, meditating new strains. * * * * Methinks I would share every creature's suffering for the sake of its experience and joy. The Song Sparrow and the transient Fox-colored Sparrow, have they brought me no message this year? Is not the coming of the Fox-colored Sparrow something more earnest and significant than I have dreamed of? Have I heard what this tiny passenger has to say while it flits thus from tree to tree? God did not make this world in jest, no, nor in indifference. These migratory Sparrows all bear messages that concern my life. I love the birds and beasts because they are mythologically in earnest. I see the Sparrow chirps, and flits, and sings adequately to the great design of the universe, that man does not communicate with it, understand its language, because he is not alone with nature. I reproach myself because I have regarded with indifference the passage of the birds. I have thought them no better than I. * * * * I hear the note of a Bobolink concealed in the top of an apple tree behind me. Though this bird's full strain is ordinarily somewhat trivial, this one appears to be meditating a strain as yet unheard in meadow or orchard. He is just touching the strings of his theorbo, his glassichord, his water organ, and one or two notes globe themselves and fall in liquid bubbles from his tuning throat. It is as if he touched his harp within a vase of liquid melody, and when he lifted it out the notes fell like bubbles from the trembling strings. Methinks they are the most liquidly sweet and melodious sounds I ever heard. They are as refreshing to my ear as the first distant tinkling and gurgling of a rill to a thirsty man. Oh, never advance farther in your art; never let us hear your full strain, sir! But away he launches, and the meadow is all bespattered with melody. Its notes fall with the apple blossoms in the orchard. The very divinest part of his strain drops from his overflowing breast _singultim_, in globes of melody. It is the foretaste of such strains as never fell on mortal ears, to hear which we should rush to our doors and contribute all that we possess and are. Or it seemed as if in that vase full of melody some notes sphered themselves, and from time to time bubbled up to the surface, and were with difficulty repressed. --_Thoreau._ ---- THE MAGNOLIA WARBLER. IN this number of BIRDS we present two very interesting specimens of the family of Warblers, the Magnolia or Black and Yellow Warbler, ranking first in elegance. Its habitat is eastern North America as far west as the base of the Rocky Mountains. It breeds commonly in northern New England, New York, Michigan, and northward. According to Mr. William Brewster it is found everywhere common throughout the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Its favorite resorts are little clumps of firs and spruce shrubs, also willow thickets near streams and ponds and other damp places. "Its gay colors and sprightly song will at once attract the attention of even the casual observer. The nest is usually placed in the horizontal twigs of a fir or spruce at heights ranging from four to six feet, five being the average elevation, and the favorite localities are the edges of wood paths, clearings, or roads bordered by woods. Sometimes the nests are built in the tops of young hemlocks ten or fifteen feet up, or in the heart of the forest thirty-five feet above the ground." Mr. Brewster describes the nest as loosely put together, of fine twigs, preferredly hemlock, coarse grasses and dry weed-stalks. The lining is fine black roots, closely resembling horse-hair. The eggs are four, very rarely five, of creamy white, spotted and blotched with various shades of reddish brown, hazel and chestnut. The markings are generally large and well defined and often form wreaths about the larger ends. Ridgway mentions the Magnolia Warbler as "one of the most agile of its tribe, its quick and restless movements being more like those of the Redstart than those of its nearest kindred. The tail is carried somewhat elevated and widely expanded, to display the broad white band across the middle portion of the inner web of the feathers, which together with the bold contrasts of black, yellow, and blue-gray of the plumage, render it both conspicuous and beautiful." Mr. Langille describes the song of the Magnolia Warbler as "a loud, clear whistle, which may be imitated by the syllables _chee-to_, _chee-to_, _chee-tee-ee_, uttered rapidly and ending in the falling inflection." ---- I CAN BUT SING. "O little bird of restless wing, Why dost thou sing so sweet and loud? Why dost thou sing so strong and proud? Why dost thou sing?" "Oh I have drunk the wine of spring, My mate hath built a nest with me: My hope flames out in song," said he, "I can but sing." [Illustration: MAGNOLIA WARBLER.] ---- BIRDS PAIRING IN SPRING. TO the deep woods They haste away, all as their fancy leads, Pleasure, or food, or secret safety prompts; That nature's great command may be obeyed, Nor all the sweet sensations they perceive Indulged in vain. Some to the holly hedge Nestling, repair, and to the thicket, some; Some to the rude protection of the thorn Commit their feeble offspring; the cleft tree Offers its kind concealment to a few, Their food its insects, and its moss their nests; Others apart, far in the grassy dale Or roughening waste their humble texture weave; But most in woodland solitudes delight, In unfrequented glooms or shaggy banks, Steep, and divided by a babbling brook, Whose murmurs soothe them all the livelong day, When by kind duty fixed. Among the roots Of hazel pendent o'er the plaintive stream, They frame the first foundation of their domes, Dry sprigs of trees, in artful fabric laid, And bound with clay together. Now 'tis nought But restless hurry through the busy air, Beat by unnumbered wings. The swallow sweeps The slimy pool, to build his hanging house Intent; and often from the careless back Of herds and flocks a thousand tugging bills Steal hair and wool; and oft when unobserved, Pluck from the barn a straw; till soft and warm, Clean and complete, their habitation grows. As thus the patient dam assiduous sits, Not to be tempted from her tender task Or by sharp hunger or by smooth delight, Though the whole loosened spring around her blows, Her sympathizing lover takes his stand High on the opponent bank, and ceaseless sings The tedious time away; or else supplies Her place a moment, while she suddenly flits To pick the scanty meal. --JAMES THOMSON. ---- THE GREAT BLUE HERON. Grotesque and tall, he stands erect, Where the reed-riffle swirls and gleams. Grave, melancholy, circumspect-- A hermit of the streams.--ERNEST MCGAFFEY. ERRONEOUSLY called Sandhill Crane or Blue Crane, by which names it is better known than by its proper name, this bird is well known as one of the most characteristic of North America, breeding, as it does, singly and in colonies from the Arctic regions southward to the West Indies and South America. In the warmer parts of the country it breeds in vast heronries in company with other species of Herons, of which there are eleven or twelve, to which places they resort year after year. It is a common bird, except in localities far removed from streams or ponds which furnish its food supply. This solitary and wary bird is usually seen standing in shallow water, often in mid-stream, but it requires great caution and skill on the part of the person who would observe its movements to get a view of him, as he usually first sees the intruder, and startles him by his harsh squawking cries as he flies from his feeding place. The nests are placed in trees along rivers, usually the largest. They are bulky structures of sticks on the highest branches, a dozen or more nests sometimes being built in one tree. In localities destitute of trees the nests are built on rocks. Sycamore trees are favorite resorts of these birds, the light color of the limbs and the peculiar tint of the foliage harmonizing so well with their plumage as to render their presence difficult of detection. The Heron's food consists of fishes, frogs, crawfish, and the like, large quantities of which must be sacrificed to appease its voracious appetite, as many as ten good-sized fishes having been disgorged at one time by a Heron that was in haste to get away, a happy provision of nature which often enables this family of birds to escape from the squirrel hunters and irresponsible gun-carriers. The eggs of this species are plain greenish-blue and three or four in number. The young are without plumes, which develop gradually with maturity. Dr. Neill mentions a curious instance of the Heron feeding on young Water-hens. A large old willow tree has fallen down into the pond, and at the extremity, which is partly sunk in the sludge and continues to vegetate, Water-hens breed. The old male Heron swims out to the nest and takes the young if he can. He has to swim ten or twelve feet, where the water is between two and three feet deep. His motion through the water is slow, but his carriage stately. He has been seen to fell a rat at one blow on the back of the head, when the rat was munching at his dish of fish. While the Heron stands on the water's edge, it remains still as if carved out of rock, with its neck retracted, and its head resting between the shoulders. In this attitude its sober plumage and total stillness render it very inconspicuous, and as it prefers to stand under the shadow of a tree, bush, or bank, it cannot be seen except by a practiced eye, in spite of its large size. The flight of the Heron is grand and stately. The head, body, and legs are held in a line, stiff and immovable, and the gently waving wings carry the bird through the air with a rapidity that seems the effect of magic. [Illustration: GREAT BLUE HERON.] ---- THE GREAT BLUE HERON. I belong to a family that is fast disappearing, simply because my plumes are pretty. The ladies must have them to trim their hats and bonnets, so the plume hunters visit our "rookeries" when our mates are on their nest, and kill hundreds and hundreds of us. Our nests are great flat, bulky affairs, made of sticks and lined with grasses. We build them in high trees along the rivers, or way back in the swamps, a dozen or more in one tree. We "go fishing" every day; but not for sport as you boys do. No, indeed, we must get a catch or go hungry. Our long bills are better than a hook and line, and our long legs enable us to wade in the water without getting our clothes--feathers, I mean,--wet. Fish, frogs, and crawfish make up our diet, and as we have very healthy appetites it takes a great many of them to make a meal. Like some other birds I have more than one name. _Blue Crane_, _Little Blue_, _Little Crane_, _Skimmer_, and _Scissorsbill_. Some people call me "gawky." Is that a name, too? To see us standing on one foot, by the margin of a stream, the very picture of loneliness, you would little imagine what gay birds we are just before the mating season in the spring. In order to show off our best points before the lady-birds, off we all go to some secluded spot, form a circle or ring, in which each male bird in turn performs his showing off act. We skip, flap our wings, curve our necks, and prance around, the lady-birds expressing their approval by deep croaks, something like a bull-frog's, while the envious cocks keep up a running fire of remarks in the rasping tones of a horse-fiddle. Each performer when his act is done, resumes his place in the circle, and so it goes on, till every male has displayed his accomplishments and good looks before the lady-birds. Then we return to our feeding grounds, and nose around in the water for our supper. It does sound odd to hear a bird of my size talk about flying, doesn't it? But in truth my body is very light, weighing between four and five pounds. I am long from bill to tail, and my wings are very long and curving. My legs? Oh that is a matter I dislike to talk about. They certainly speak for themselves. ---- A FOSTER BROTHER'S KINDNESS. A YOUNG Oriole was rescued from the water where it had evidently just fallen from the nest. When taken home it proved a ready pet and was given full freedom of the place. Some weeks later a nestling from another brood was placed in the same cage with the other. The newcomer had not yet learned to feed himself, and like a baby as it was, cried incessantly for food. The first captive though but a fledgling himself, proceeded to feed the orphan with all the tender solicitude of a parent. "It was irresistably cunning and heartsome, too," says the narrator, W. L. Dawson, in the _Bulletin_, "to see the bird select with thoughtful kindness a morsel of food and hop over toward the clamoring stranger and drop it in his mouth, looking at it afterward with an air as much as to say, 'there, baby, how did you like that?' This trait was not shown by a chance exhibition, but became a regular habit, and was still followed when the older bird had attained to fly catching. It upset all ones notions about instinct and made one think of a Golden Rule for birds." ---- A GOOSE THAT TAKES A HEN SAILING. The following remarkable instance of the communication of ideas among the lower animals is narrated by the Rev. C. Otway: "At the flour mills of Tubberakeena, near Clonmel, while in the possession of the late Mr. Newbold, there was a Goose, which by some accident was left solitary, without mate or offspring, gander or goslings. Now it happened, as is common, that the miller's wife had set a number of Duck eggs under a hen, which in due time were incubated; and of course the ducklings, as soon as they came forth, ran with natural instinct to the water, and the hen was in a sad pucker--her maternity urging her to follow the brood, and her instinct disposing her to keep on dry land. "In the meanwhile, up sailed the Goose, and with a noisy gabble, which certainly (being interpreted) meant, 'Leave them to my care,' she swam up and down with the ducklings, and when they were tired with their aquatic excursion, she consigned them to the care of the hen. "The next morning, down came again the ducklings to the pond, and there was the Goose waiting for them, and there stood the hen in her great flustration. On this occasion we are not at all sure that the Goose invited the hen, observing her maternal trouble; but it is a fact that she being near the shore, the hen jumped on her back, and there sat, the ducklings swimming and the Goose and hen after them, up and down the pond. "This was not a solitary event; day after day the hen was seen on board the Goose, attending the ducklings up and down, in perfect contentedness and good humor--numbers of people coming to witness the circumstance, which continued until the ducklings, coming to days of discretion, required no longer the joint guardianship of the Goose and Hen."--_Witness._ [Illustration: EGGS.] 1. Great Crested Fly-catcher. 2. King Bird. 3. Night Hawk. 4. Crow. 5. Red-headed Woodpecker. 6. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 7. Audubon's Caracara. 8. Black-billed Magpie. 9. Kingfisher. 10. Screech Owl. 11. Turkey Vulture. 12. Gamble's Partridge. 13. Bob White. ---- THE NEW TENANTS. BY ELANORA KINSLEY MARBLE. Under the eaves in an old tin pot, Six little birds lie in a nest; The mother bird broods them with her wings, And her downy-feathered breast. With "coos" and "chirps" she tells her love As human mothers do, Says "tootsy, wootsy, mammy's dove, And papa's tootsy, too." Pierre gazed after Bridget with a perplexed look. "A-a-what?" he inquired: "I never heard that word before." "Oh, you did'nt," returned Henry with a wise air, "if I'm not mistaken a Hornithologist has reference to a Horned Owl. Has it not, Mama?" "It might if there were such a word," she replied, with a laugh. "Bridget meant an Ornithologist, the scientific name for students of birds and their ways. But come, Mrs. Wren shows signs of uneasiness; we must not disturb her again to-day." "I'm truly glad they are gone," said Mrs. Wren, as her spouse flew over to the tin pot. "It makes me very nervous when they all stand about and stare at me so." "Of course it does," sympathizingly replied Mr. Wren, "but now, let me get another peep at the little darling. My, what a lovely little creature it is?" and Mr. Wren whisked his tail and chirped to the baby in a truly papa-like fashion. "And to think that moon-faced Bridget said it was the 'skinniest, ugliest little baste she iver saw'," indignantly returned Mrs. Wren, mimicking Bridget's brogue to perfection. "The precious little thing?" turning the birdling over with her bill, "why, he is the very image of his father." "Do you think so?" a little doubtfully, "It seems to me that--that----" "Oh, you will see when his hair, or rather feathers grow out and his lovely black eyes open. Just look at his dear little tootsy-wootsy's," kissing the long scrawny toes, "my, how glad I am that the eldest is a boy. Little Dorothy will have a brother to protect her, you know." "Don't count your chickens before they are hatched, my dear," warned Mr. Wren, never forgetful of the many dangers surrounding a nest full of eggs, or young birds. "Mr. Jay, or Mr. Owl, or Mr. Hawk, might yet pay us a visit and----" "Or a collector might come along," said Mrs. Wren, "and carry off eggs, birdling, and all. Oh how that thought frightens me," and the poor little mother cowered deeper down in the nest uttering a plaintive, shuddering cry. "There, there!" said Mr. Wren, caressing her with his bill, "time enough to cross the stream when we come to it. Our landlord will protect his tenants, I am sure, so sit here and croon a lullaby to the baby while I go to market. I heard of a place yesterday where I can get some of those delicious thousand legs of which you are so fond. Ta, ta, love," and away he flew, fully alive to the fact of another mouth in the home-nest to feed. Every day for six, a little yellow bill pecked its way out of the shell, and every day a delighted and curious group of children peeked into the tin-pot at the nervous Mrs. Wren and her family. "Their eyes look so big, and so do their mouths," she lamented after one of these visits. "I am always reminded of that story our landlady one afternoon told the children." "What story?" tenderly inquired Mr. Wren. "Of the wolf and Little Red Riding Hood. Ugh! imagine anything eating up our dear little Dorothy!" and Mrs. Wren stood on her feet, fluffed her feathers in a pretty motherly way and gathered her brood more closely under her. Very little time, now, had Mr. Wren to spare for singing or flying about with his neighbors, so occupied were he and Mrs. Wren in providing food for their family. "There is precious little fun in this sort of thing," growled he one day when paying a brief visit to Mr. John and his spouse. "One can never go near the nest but open fly six red mouths asking for food. Its peep, peep, peep, from morning till night; hurry, hurry, hurry, eat and bring up again; to cram, cram, cram down six long, red throats the whole day long. There are some days," with a sigh, "when I really long to be a bachelor again." "Oh, you do," said Mrs. John, with a meaning glance at her husband, "There are other fathers of families, I dare say, Mr. Wren, who, if they _dared_ would say the same thing. But," smoothing her apron, "you have such a shiftless creature for a wife that I don't much wonder. Jenny, I presume, stays at home and lets you do all the fetching and carrying." "Indeed," replied Mr. Wren, who wished he had not complained at all, "you are very much mistaken, Mrs. John. Jenny can find more grubs, worms, and beetles in one minute than I can in ten. She is always on the go, and seldom complains, though I must admit she does a deal of scolding." "She wouldn't be a member of _our_ family if she didn't," proudly said Mrs. John, "my mother----" but Mr. Wren, who had heard that story a score of times, suddenly remembered Mrs. Jenny would be expecting him at home, said "good-by" and hastily flew away. Pierre, the first born, was now old enough to fly, but timidly stayed in the nest. Mrs. Wren noted with great anxiety that no sooner did she leave the tin-pot but up popped six little heads, and out upon a curious world gazed twelve little bead-like eyes. "Do be good children while I am gone," she would entreat, when ready for market, "do keep your heads inside of the house. Pierre, put your head down in the nest instantly, do you hear me!" and little Mrs. Wren would stand on the edge of the tin-pot and fussily cry _krup_, _up_, _up_, which in Wren language means, you naughty, naughty, birds. "I think I am big enough to get out of here," said Pierre one day as he watched her fly away, "bugs and worms must taste a heap better fresh from the ground. I'm tired of baby-food, I am." "So am I," piped Emmett, "you try your wings first, Pierre, and if you can fly I will come after." "Well, here goes," said Pierre, poising himself on the rim of the pot as he had seen his parents do, "watch me, boys, watch me fly." "Well, we are watching you," they chorused, as he spread his wings and flapped them a number of times, "why don't you go?" "I--I--" stammered Pierre, "oh, there's a cat!" and into the pot he darted and down they all huddled like so many frightened mice. Presently Bobbie raised his head and peeped out. "I don't see any cat," said he, "and I don't believe you did, either, Pierre. You were only afraid to fly." Pierre looked a little sheepish. "If you fellows think it so easy, try it," was the mocking reply. "There is nobody here to hinder you." "Well, I will," said Bobbie stoutly, and out he crawled onto the edge of the pot, spread his wings, and with one preparatory flap rose in the air and down he came with a frightened "peep" to the ground. Bridget at this moment, broom in hand, came out upon the porch to do her daily sweeping. "It's lucky for ye's, me darlint," said she, tenderly picking up the helpless bird, "that we do be havin' no cats for tinents on these premises, so it is. A purty soft thing ye's now are in your coat of feathers, and not an ugly little baste, at all, at all." "It's quare," she continued, stroking the bird with her big red fingers, "what idees the innocent crather do be puttin' into me head for sure. Me hand, for insthance, and the wings ov this little bird! Two wonderful things, when wan comes to think of it, and very useful. It's sorra crathers we'd both be without 'em, wudn't we, birdie? There now," placing it in the pot, "take an owld woman's advice and don't ye's be so anxious after leavin' the home nest. Its many a hard arned dollar, so it is, that Bridget O'Flaherty wud give to get back to her own," and with visions before her humid eyes, of Old Ireland and the tumble-down cottage in which she was born, Bridget fell vigorously to sweeping. (TO BE CONCLUDED.) ---- SUMMARY. Page 166. SOUTH AMERICAN RHEA.--_Rhea americana._ Other name: "Ostrich." RANGE--Paraguay and southern Brazil through the State of La Plata to Patagonia. NEST--In the ground, dug by the female with her feet. EGGS--Twenty and upwards. ---- Page 170. BAY-BREASTED WARBLER.--_Dendroica castanea._ Other name: "Autumnal Warbler." RANGE--Eastern North America, westward to Hudson Bay; south in winter to Central America. NEST--Of fine shreds of bark, small twigs, roots, and pine hair. EGGS--Four, white, with bluish tinge, finely speckled on or round the larger end. ---- Page 174. BLACK-NECKED STILT.--_Himantopus mexicanus._ Other names: "Lawyer," "Long Shanks," "Pink-Stockings." RANGE--The whole of temperate North America, middle America, and northern South America, south to Peru and Brazil; West Indies in general, and Bermudas; north on the Atlantic coast to Maine. More generally distributed and more abundant in the western than in the eastern province. NEST--Small sticks and roots, in the grass on the margin of a lake or river. EGGS--Three or four, greenish-yellow. ---- Page 178. PINTAIL.--_Dafila acuta._ Other names: Sprig-tail; Spike-tail; Pike-tail; Picket-tail; Pheasant Duck; Sea Pheasant; Water Pheasant; Long-neck. RANGE--Nearly the entire northern hemisphere, breeding chiefly far northward, in North America, migrating south in winter as far as Panama and Cuba. NEST--In tall bunches of prairie grass, seldom far from water. EGGS--Eight or nine, of a dull grayish olive. ---- Page 183. DOUBLE YELLOW-HEADED PARROT.--_Conurus mexicanus._ RANGE--Eastern coast of Mexico. NEST--In holes of trees. EGGS--Two. ---- Page 187. MAGNOLIA WARBLER.--_Dendroica maculosa._ Other name: "Black and Yellow Warbler." RANGE--Eastern North America, west to eastern base of Rocky Mountains; winters in Bahamas, Cuba (rare), eastern Mexico and Central America. NEST--Loosely put together, of fine twigs, coarse grasses, and dry weed-stalks, lined with fine black roots resembling horse hair. EGGS--Four, creamy white, spotted and blotched with various shades of reddish-brown, hazel and chestnut. ---- Page 191. GREAT BLUE HERON.--_Ardea herodias._ Other names: "Sand-hill Crane;" "Blue Crane." RANGE--The whole of North and middle America, excepting Arctic districts; north to Hudson's Bay, fur countries, and Sitka; south to Columbia, Venezuela; Bermudas, and throughout the West Indies. NEST--In high trees along rivers, or in the depths of retired swamps. EGGS--Commonly three or four, of a plain greenish blue. 
47649	----	Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). * * * * * BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. VOL. III. JUNE, 1898. NO. 6. JUNE. "What is so rare as a day in June? Then, if ever, come prefect days." YES, Lowell, in a few words, describes the month of June, or, at least, he indicates something of it. But, still, what are perfect days? We look for them in April, when the birds, many of them, certainly the most attractive of them, return from the south, and we find ourselves, when we visit the woods and parks, disappointed that the sun does not shine, that the air is not soft and balmy, and that the grass and leaves and buds do not show themselves in spring attire, for, on the contrary, we find winter lingering distressingly near, that the merry Warblers are silent, and that the "greenery of young Nature" is very slow to indicate her presence or even her early coming. We pull our wrappings about us and go home. April past, we then fancy that her older sister, May, beautiful in literary imagery--for do we not recall descriptive visions of May days of long ago, when the human blossoms danced about the May pole, lolled luxuriantly in the soft, tender grass, hid themselves in the deep-leaved trees, and at last gratified our imaginations with the belief that she is altogether perfect? Unfortunately a chill takes possession of us and we return home disconsolate. May also has disappointed us. We have had an experience which we shall not forget. We have seen and recognized many birds, but they have not sung for us. They have been, as they almost always are, influenced by the elements. And why should they not be? They have but one suit of clothes. Have you observed the Robin in the early spring? He is worth watching. We watched a fine specimen in south Washington Park in March last. It was a comparatively mild day for the windy month. He perched on a lateral limb of a leafless tree a few yards from Sixtieth street. Whether he saw us or not we could not be sure, as he took little notice beyond saying _Toot-tut, toot-tut_! He ruffled his suit and seemed as fat as feathers could make him. They seemed as important to him as were buffalo robes to the sleighing parties of a few days before. Still he was observant and seemed to be looking for stray food that would warm him up. We had some fresh crackers in our pocket, which we broke into fine fragments, and scattered, withdrawing several yards away. To our surprise, not only the Robin but several Nuthatches, some Brown Creepers, a number of English Sparrows, three or four Bluejays, and a gray Squirrel, (from whence he came I could not conceive, there being no large tree near in which he might have had a winter home) came with great promptitude to feed on the unexpected offering. Others, no doubt, have had this experience. Does it not suggest that the birds which remain with us the whole year round--finding, of course, during the spring, summer, and fall, sufficient for their wants,--should be looked after a little bit, if only that they may be permitted to escape from the sometime unusually severe storms of winter? Nature has provided them with ample feathery protection from her ordinary moods, but when she breaks out in icy blasts and snow that covers the very face of her they suffer and they perish. But April, with its weather uncertainties--although it has long been said and believed that its showers bring May flowers--with its disappointments to all those who wish that the balm of mild breezes would come--longed for by the invalid and the convalescent, the lover of nature who would go forth to visit her and to court her, April seems a sort of humbug. And is May much better? How many days, "so calm, so sweet, so bright, the bridal of the earth and sky," come in May? A few do come, and we remember them. But, as Lowell says, perfect days are rare, even in June, when, if ever, come "perfect days." We think that Lowell nevertheless lived a little too far north to entitle him to state, even poetically, that perfect days are only to be enjoyed in June. Had he, with the writer, lived in southern Ohio, on the Little Miami river, and gone fishing in the month of May, he would, we think, have changed his mind. Or had he read the little less than perfect poem of W. H. Venable, which, it may be, however, was written later than the verses of our, many think, greatest poet, "June on the Miami," he might have put aside his books and his criticisms and his philosophy, and sought out the beautiful river of western history--then the sweetest stream that flowed in America, and even now, notwithstanding the giant sycamores have largely disappeared and the waters of the river have greatly diminished in volume, leaving only holes and ripples,--and modified his views of days perfect only in June. There were perfect days in May on the Miami. There were perfect days on all the streams that made it. The birds were multitudinous; they sang in chorus; they were, indeed, almost infinite in number--for the naturalist and the collector were unknown--the birds were _natural_ residents, without fear of man, building their nests close to his habitations. A year or two ago we stopped off the cars in May in order to recall, if possible, in the shadow of a few remaining trees at a familiar place on the vanishing river, in the expected voices of the well known native birds, the delightful far-gone years. Verily we had our reward, but it was not satisfactory. It seems to us we should do our best, through legislation and personal influence to protect and multiply the birds. --C. C. MARBLE. ---- OUR NEIGHBOR. ---- We've a charming new neighbor moved in the next door; He is hardly new either, he's lived there before; I should think he had come here two summers or more; His winters he spends far away. He is handsome and stylish, most fine to behold, In his glossy black coat and his vest of bright gold; He is "proud of his feathers," so I have been told, And I half believe what people say. His wife is a beauty, he's fond of her, too; He calls her his "Judy;" I like it, don't you? And he sings every day all the long summer through, Yet he is not a bit of a bore. For he's a musician of wonderful power; I could list to his beautiful voice by the hour, As he sings to his wife in their green, shady bower In the elm tree that shadows my door. He's a sociable neighbor, we like him full well, Although we've not called yet, and cannot quite tell All he says, tho' his voice is as clear as a bell, And as sweet as the notes of a psalm. Do you ask what his name is? Our dear little Sue Was anxious to know it, and asked him it, too, And this was his answer, I'll tell it to you-- "My name is Sir Oriole, ma'am." --_L. A. P., in Our Dumb Animals._ ---- BIRDS' NESTS. ---- THE nest of the mourning dove.--The nest of the Carolina or Mourning Dove, which authorities place on the horizontal limb of a tree, is not always found in this situation, as I can testify. Last year, while wandering in early May through a piece of low woodland in Amherst, Mass., my eye was caught by a pair of well-grown youngsters covered with bluish pin feathers. The nest containing them--a loose affair of small sticks and leaves--was placed on the ground, or rather on the decayed base of a stump, surrounded by a ring of second-growth birches. Immediately suspecting their identity, I merged myself in the landscape after the manner of bird-lovers, and was soon rewarded by a sight of the parent Doves, who came sweeping down from a neighboring tree, uttering their pensive call-note. The pair had been frequent visitors about the lawn and drive-way for a few weeks previous. I have heard of another similar instance of ground-nesting on the part of Wild Doves. --DORA READ GOODALE. ---- Wrens--That clumsy little bunch of animated feathers, the Wren, is undoubtedly the most contented of dwellers on the face of the earth. In country or city he is never homeless. Anything hollow, with an aperture large enough to admit his jaunty little self is sufficient, and so long as it remains undisturbed he is a happy tenant. The variety of sites selected by this agile little creature, is greater than that of any other bird. It has been said that "a Wren will build in anything from a bootleg to a bomb-shell." And this seems to be so. Many an urchin can testify to having found the neat nest of the Wren in his cast-off shoe or a tin can, and nests filled with Wren eggs are frequent finds in odd places around the battle fields of the South. The home of a Wren, a few miles from Petersburg, Va., furnishes the strangest case in the matter of queer habitations yet discovered. This country is the site of one of the most dramatic epochs of the civil war, and frequently the bones of unburied soldiers are picked up. Recently a rusty old skull was found in which one of these Wrens chose a shelter. The skull, when found, was hidden in a patch of shrubbery. The interior of the one-time pate was carefully cleaned out, and nestled in the basin of the bony structure was the birth-place of many a baby Wren. The skull made a perfect domicile. A bullet hole in the rear formed a window. An eyeless socket was the exit and entrance to the grim home. It is easy to imagine that many a family feud had its origin in the desire of others to possess so secure a home. "I have myself," says A. W. Anthony, of San Diego, Cal., "watched Cactus Wrens in New Mexico carrying grass and thickening the walls of their old nests in October, for winter use, and have found them hidden in their nests during a snowstorm in November. But there is another trait in bird nature that I have seen very little of in print--that of building nests before or after the proper season, seemingly for the sole purpose of practice or pastime, the out-cropping of an instinct that prompts ambitious birds to build out of season even though they know that their work will be lost." [Illustration: BRUNNICHS MURRE.] ---- BRÜNNICH'S MURRE. ---- THIS species, which inhabits the coasts and islands of the north Atlantic and eastern Arctic ocean, and the Atlantic coast south to New Jersey, has the same general habits as the common Murre, which, like all the Auks, Murres and, Puffins, is eminently gregarious, especially in the breeding season. Davie says that tens of thousands of these birds congregate to make their nests on the rocky islands, laying single eggs near one another on the shelves of the cliffs. The birds sit side by side, and although crowded together never make the least attempt to quarrel. Clouds of birds may be seen circling in the air over some huge, rugged bastion, "forming a picture which would seem to belong to the imaginary rather than the realistic." They utter a syllable which sounds exactly like _murre_. The eggs are so numerous as to have commercial value, and they are noted for their great variation in markings and ground color. On the Farallones islands, where the eggs were until recently collected for market purposes, the Murres nest chiefly in colonies, the largest rookery covering a hillside and surrounding cliffs at West End, and being known as the Great Rookery. To observe the egg-gatherers, says an eye-witness, is most interesting. "As an egger climbs his familiar trail toward the birds a commotion becomes apparent among the Murres. They jostle their neighbors about the uneven rocks and now and then with open bills utter a vain protest and crowd as far as possible from the intruder without deserting their eggs. But they do not stay his progress and soon a pair, then a group, and finally, as the fright spreads, the whole vast rookery take wing toward the ocean. In the distance, perhaps, we see, suspended over a cliff by a slender rope, an egger gathering the eggs from along the narrow shelves of rock, seeming indifferent to the danger of the work." All this is now changed, the authorities having intervened to prevent the wholesale destruction of the eggs. The Western Gull, however, is another enemy of the Murre (the California species;) it carries off and devours both eggs and young. Mr. Bryant says the Gull picks up a Murre's egg bodily and carries it away in his capacious mouth, but does not stick his bill into it to get hold, as is stated by some writers, whose observations must have referred to the eggs already broken by the Gulls or eggers. The eggs of Brunnich's Murre cannot be distinguished from those of the common species. They show a wonderful diversity of color, varying from white to bluish or dark emerald-green. Occasionally unmarked specimens are found, but they are usually handsomely spotted, blotched, and lined in patterns of lilac, brown, and black over the surface. ---- THE CANADA GOOSE. ---- Just a common Wild Goose of North America. In the spring and fall you will see great flocks of us flying overhead, an old Gander in the lead, crying _honk, honk_ as loud as he can. Our nests are only simple hollows in the sand, on the shores of lakes and rivers, around which are placed a few sticks and twigs, the five eggs laid on a layer of gray down. "You're a Goose." That's a polite way some people have of calling another stupid, but there are Geese and Geese as well as men and men. I am going to tell you about one Goose that dearly loved her master, and considering the way he treated her you may conclude she _was_ a stupid Goose after all. Well, this particular Goose took such a fancy to her owner that she would follow him about like a dog, even to the village, where she would wait outside the barber's or other shop which he might enter. People noticed this, and instead of calling the farmer by his proper name began to speak of him as "Mr. Goosey." This angered the man and he ordered the poor loving Goose to be locked up in the poultry-yard. Shortly after he went to an adjoining town to attend a meeting; in the midst of the business he felt something warm and soft rubbing against his legs; he looked down and there stood his Goose, with protruding neck and quivering wings, gazing up at him with pleasure and fondness unutterable. The people about shouted with laughter, which so enraged her master, that seizing his whip, he twisted the thong of it about the poor bird's neck, swung her round and round, and supposing her dead, angrily threw her body out of the window. A few days after Mr. Goosey was seized with a severe illness, which brought him to the verge of the grave. He recovered, however, and was able at length to sit beside the open window. There on the grass sat the Goose gazing up at him with the same old look of affection in her eyes. "Am I never to be rid of that stupid thing?" he cried, but when he was told that through all his illness the faithful bird had sat there opposite his window, scarcely touching food, his hard heart melted, and from thenceforth Mr. Goosey treated his feathered friend with the greatest kindness. [Illustration: CANADA GOOSE.] THE CANADA GOOSE. ---- "Steering north, with raucous cry, Through tracts and provinces of sky, Every night alighting down In new landscapes of romance, Where darkling feed the clamorous clans By lonely lakes to men unknown." NORTH America at large is the range of this magnificent bird. Common Wild Goose and Grey Goose are its other names, and by which it is generally known. The Canada Goose is by far the most abundant and universally distributed of all North American Geese, and in one or other of its varieties is found in all the states and territories of our country except perhaps Florida and the Gulf States. In Texas, however, it is plentiful during the winter months. According to Hallock, although by far the greater portion of Wild Geese which pass the winter with us, go north to breed, still in suitable localities young are reared all over the United States from North Carolina to Canada. They nest in the wilder parts of Maine, and are especially numerous in Newfoundland near the secluded pools and streams so abundant throughout that island. There, remote from man, they breed undisturbed on the edges and islands of the ponds and lakes. The Geese moult soon after their arrival in the spring, and, says Hallock, owing to the loss of their pinion feathers are unable to fly during the summer or breeding seasons, but they can run faster than a man on the marshes, or if surprised at or near a pond, they will plunge in and remain under water with their bills only above the surface to permit breathing, until the enemy has passed by. They feed on berries and the seeds of grasses. Both the old and young become enabled to fly in September, and as soon after that as the frost affects the berries, and causes the seeds of the grasses on the marshes and savannas to fall to the earth, or otherwise when the snow falls and covers the ground, they collect in flocks and fly off to the southern shores of the island, and from thence to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where they remain until December, and then assembled, take flight in immense flocks to the southern parts of America, to return in the spring. The Canada Goose also breeds in great numbers on the Mississipi river, in which region it often places its nest in trees, choosing generally a cottonwood stub not more than thirty feet in height. The young are said to be carried from the nest to the water in the mother's bill, as are the young of the Wood Duck. (See BIRDS, vol. ii, p. 21). The Wild Goose is often domesticated, and in many portions of the country they are bred in considerable numbers. When these birds return south at the commencement of winter they are generally very thin and poor, being quite worn out by their long journey. They soon recuperate, however, and in a short time become fat and are delicious eating. A full and excellent account of the method of capturing the Canada Goose may be found in Hallock's "Gazetteer." ---- THE BROWN CREEPER. ---- I'm not a showy looking bird like my friend the Woodpecker, but my habits are something like his--and so is my tail. He uses his, you know, to aid him in climbing trees, and so do I. They call me the _Creeper_ because I am always creeping over the timber in search of insects. If you ever see a brown-streaked little fellow, resembling a Wren, traveling up a tree in short stages, now stopping to pick out an insect lurking in the crevices of the bark, or returning head downwards to pounce on an unwary fly, that is your humble servant the _Brown Creeper_. Up again, you will then see me creep, just like a little mouse, uttering now and then a low plaintive note; clear to the top I go, exploring every nook and cranny, never using my wings once. Last summer a little boy in the park wanted to get a good look at me, so he very slyly crept up to the tree which I was exploring, thinking, perhaps, that I was too busy to notice that he was there. But I did see him, for we little birds have to be always on the watch against our human, as well as feathered enemies, so I just stood still and peeked out at him from the other side of the tree. Very slily then he moved around to that side, and very slily did I move around to the other, keeping the tree trunk all the time between me and his bright blue eyes. "He's playing hide and seek with me, Mama," he shouted, and so pleased was the little fellow that it was quite a while before I flew away. Like the Woodpecker, I prefer a hole in a tree in which to build my nest, but instead of boring I look for a tree that has some of its bark loose enough for me to squeeze in. I line it with dry grass, moss, and feathers and see to it that the overhanging bark shelters me and my four, or six, white, red-speckled eggs. [Illustration: BROWN CREEPER.] THE BROWN CREEPER. ---- A LITTLE mite of a bird is this pretty creature, which many observers claim is seldom seen, or, indeed, is known to few besides the special student of ornithology and the collector. We venture to assert that any one with fairly good eyes can see it almost any day creeping over the timber in search of its insect food. Besides seeing it in the deepest woods, we often notice it in the open places in parks, and in gardens and orchards it is quite common. It commences operations at the foot of a tree, and travels upwards in short stages, "now stopping to pick out an insect lurking in the crevices of the bark with its long, slender bill, or returning head downwards to pounce on an unwary fly. Up again it creeps, more like a mouse than a bird, occasionally uttering a low and plaintive note; right to the top of the tree it mounts, exploring every nook and cranny likely to reward its search as it goes. Now it creeps on the under side of a projecting limb, then again on the top, and although it will explore an entire tree, still it but rarely uses its wings to convey it from one part to another. You will also find that it, like the Woodpecker, endeavors to be on the opposite side to you, and carry on its explorations unseen." Curiosity, however, often seems to get the better of the Creeper, and you will see its light colored breast and sharp little head peep trustfully at you and again vanish from sight. The Creeper is admirably adapted to its ways of life. Its bill is formed for obtaining its insect food, and its tail supports it while climbing. The Brown Creeper nests in early summer, when insect life is most abundant, and, like the Woodpecker, prefers a hole for the purpose. This it lines with dry grass, moss and feathers, and makes a very warm and comfortable home. The eggs are from five to eight, white, spotted and speckled with red. The Creeper is not migratory, and we see it in the woods throughout the year. It is hardy and lives sumptuously the winter through. One who was very fond of the little creatures said: "If the Swallow were to visit us at this time, it would undoubtedly perish, for the air in winter is almost clear of insect life; but the little Creeper can live in ease when the sun is at Capricorn, just because he can climb so dexterously, for the bark of trees abounds with insects, and more particularly their eggs and larvae, which lie there torpid until called into life by the genial presence of the vernal sun." ---- THE DOWNY WOODPECKER. ---- Another Woodpecker? Yes, there are such a tribe of us, you know; more than you can count on your fingers and toes, as my cousin the Red-Bellied Woodpecker said in the February number of BIRDS. The word toes reminds me that I am not one of the three-toed fellows he was so anxious to tell about. I have four, as you see, two before and two behind. So have most of the Woodpeckers. Should you be looking out for me this summer you will recognize me by my four toes, the white band down my back, and the two white stripes on the side of my head. My tongue you can't see, but it is small, flat, short, and horny, armed along the edges with hooks. When I catch an insect I do it by throwing my tongue forward, out of my mouth. I have an idea the insects consider my treatment of them rather rough. If I didn't eat them, the wood-boring ones, would destroy all the trees. My bill isn't strong enough to bore in the hard wood; I only injure the bark, no matter what some people may say. The wood-eating beetles, caterpillars, spiders, daddy longlegs, grass-hoppers, and flies, are all grist for my mill--or bill, rather. I like beechnuts, too, when I can find them. I'm the smallest of all the Woodpecker family, quiet and unobtrusive they say, in my manners. I am sociable, however, and go about a great deal in the company of other birds. Mr. Nuthatch, Mr. Brown Creeper, Mr. Titmouse, and Mr. and Mrs. Wren are my especial friends. Can I drum? Indeed, yes. I wouldn't belong to the Woodpecker family if I couldn't. All I need is the stub of a dead limb whose center is hollow and whose shell is hard and resonant. I will drum on that with my bill for an hour at a time, stopping now and then to listen for a response from my mate or a rival. Early in the spring we "Downies" pick a hole in a dead tree, or in a post or rail of a fence, in which we lay four, five, or six glossy white eggs. Sometimes it takes us a whole week to chisel out that hole, and we are so busy that a little boy or little girl can get very near without our minding it. [Illustration: DOWNY WOODPECKER.] THE DOWNY WOODPECKER ---- Every leaf was at rest, and I heard not a sound, Save a Wood-drummer tapping on a hollow beech tree. THIS little Woodpecker is the smallest of all those inhabiting the United States. In the shade trees about houses and parks, and especially in orchards, he may be frequently seen tapping or scratching on the limb of a tree within two or three yards' distance, where he has discovered a decayed spot inhabited by wood-boring larvae or a colony of ants, his food consisting of ants, beetles, bugs, flies, caterpillars, spiders, and grasshoppers. The late Dr. Glover of the Department of Agriculture, states that on one occasion a Downy Woodpecker was observed by him making a number of small, rough-edged perforations in the bark of a young ash tree, and upon examination of the tree when the bird had flown, it was found that wherever the bark had been injured, the young larvae of a wood-eating beetle had been snugly coiled underneath and had been destroyed by the bird. Beechnuts also constitute a considerable portion of the food of this bird. Dr. Merriam says that in northern New York they feed extensively on this nut, particularly in fall, winter, and early spring. This miniature Woodpecker is very social in its habits, far more so than other species, and is often found associated with other birds, in the woods, the orchards, along fence rows, and not infrequently in the cities. He is often seen in company with the White-breasted Nuthatch (See Vol. II, p. 118) and the Brown Creeper (Vol. III, p. 214). Early in the spring the "Downies" retire to the woods to make their nests, preferring the vicinity of running water. The nest is begun about the second or third week in May, and consumes from two days to a week in building. The holes are usually excavated in dead willow, poplar, or oak trees, and the height varies from four to thirty feet, generally about fifteen feet. The entrance to the nest is about two inches in diameter, and the depth of the nest hole varies from eight to eighteen inches. The eggs are four or five, rarely six, and are pure glossy-white. We know of no more interesting occupation than to observe this bird. It is fond of drumming on the stub of a dead limb whose center is hollow, and whose shell is hard and resonant. Upon such places it will drum for an hour at a time, now and then stopping to listen for a response from its mate or of some rival. At all times it is unsuspicious of man, and when engaged in excavating the receptacle for its nest it continues its busy chiseling, unheeding his near approach. The Woodpecker is wrongfully accused of boring into the sound timber, and, by letting in the water, hastening its decay. As Dixon says: "Alas! poor harmless, unoffending Woodpecker, I fear that by thy visits to the trees thou art set down as the cause of their premature decay. Full well I know thy beak, strong as it is, is totally incapable of boring into the sound timber--full well do I know that, even if thou wert guilty of such offense, nothing would reward thy labors, for thy prey does not lurk under the bark of a healthy tree. Insects innumerable bore through its bark and hasten its doom, and it is thy duty in Nature's economy to check them in their disastrous progress." ---- THE NEW TENANTS. ---- BY ELANORA KINSLEY MARBLE. ---- And now the little Wrens are fledged And strong enough to fly; Wide their tiny wings they spread, And bid the nest "good-bye." Such a chattering as greeted Mrs. Wren when she returned with a fine black spider in her bill. All the children talked at once. Bobbie alone never uttered a word. "You naughty boy," exclaimed Mrs. Wren, turning to the crest-fallen Pierre, "did I not tell you to take care of your brothers and little sister? The idea of trying to fly before you have had a lesson! I have a good mind to whip every one of you," and the irate Mrs. Wren very unjustly did indeed peck every little head sharply with her bill. Bobbie cowered in the nest much too frightened to whimper or even mention the injury to one of his legs which he had sustained in his fall. Mr. and Mrs. Wren the next day proceeded to give the children a lesson or two in flying. "My tail is so stubby," wailed Emmett at the first trial, "it brings me right down to the ground." "Tho doth mine," lisped little Dorothy, "dess wish I had no tail at all, so I do," at which the others laughed very heartily. Bobbie made a heroic effort to do as did the rest, but at the first movement sank back into the nest with a cry of pain. "Such fortitude!" exclaimed Mrs. Wren when it was found one of his legs was broken, "not a whimper has the little fellow made since his fall. How heroic! How like my dear, dear papa!" and Mrs. Wren laughed, and then cried, from mingled pity and joy. "H'm," commented Mr. Wren, "if Bobbie had remembered the motto I gave them before I left yesterday morning, this accident wouldn't have happened. Can you repeat it?" turning to the eldest of the brood. "Be sure you're right, then go ahead," shouted Pierre, totally forgetting he had not heeded the rule any more than Bobbie. "Yes, a safe rule to go by," said Mr. Wren, gravely stroking his chin with one claw. "Dear, dear," ruefully examining the injured limb, "now the the child will go stumping through life like his grandpa. I only hope," with a dry cough, "that he'll not turn out a rowdy and lose one eye, too." "'He jests at scars who never felt a wound,'" loftily replied Mrs. Wren, who seemed never to forget a quotation. "For my part I am proud that one of my boys should turn out to be such a spirited little fellow. But there, Mr. Wren, the children are calling you from that bunch of weeds over yonder. Go down to them, while I fetch a nice canker-worm for Bobbie." After a few days the lame Bobbie was able to leave the nest and go hopping around with the other children, adding his feeble _chur chur_ to theirs. Mr. and Mrs. Wren led them from one place to another, always among the weeds and shrubbery where they were soon taught to earn their own livelihood. "Moths, butterflies, gnats, flies, ants, beetles, and bugs constitute our bill of fare," said Mrs. Wren as they went whisking along, "together with thousand-legs, spiders, and worms. If we didn't eat them they would destroy the fruits in their seasons, so you see, my children, what valuable citizens we are in the world." At nightfall Mr. and Mrs. Wren, with their brood, flew to the crotch of a tree, and in ten seconds every little head was under a wing, and every little Wren sound asleep. "Well," said Mr. Wren one day, "the children are old enough now to take care of themselves, and we must begin, my dear, to build a nest in which once more to begin housekeeping." "It will not be in an old tin pot this time," replied Mrs. Wren, with a toss of her head, "and furthermore, Mr. Wren, I intend to have entirely new furniture." "Of course, of course," assented her mate, "whoever heard of a Wren raising a second brood in the same nest? We are much too neat and nice for that, my dear." "We," sniffed Mrs. Wren, ever ready for quarrel. "I'd like to know, Mr. Wren, what you had to do with building the nest, I would, really! Humph!" and Mrs. Wren flirted her tail over her head and laughed shrilly. "I brought the first sticks, my dear," he answered mildly, "and didn't I do all the house hunting? Besides, I forgot to tell you, that when looking about in April, I found two other apartments which, if the tin-pot had not appeared suitable, I intended to offer you. In order to secure them I partly furnished each, so that other house hunters would know they were not 'to let.'" "Humph!" returned Mrs. Wren, though exceedingly well pleased, "I'll wager we'll find a Sparrow family in each one of them." "No we won't," chuckled Mr. Wren "for the houses I selected were much too small for Mr. and Mrs. Sparrow to squeeze in." "You clever fellow," exclaimed Mrs. Wren, pecking him gleefully with her bill. "I am proud of my hubby, I am, indeed," and Mr. Wren laughed, and hopped about, never hinting to his innocent spouse that all the gentlemen Wrens did the same thing every year. The next day, while preening their feathers, and getting ready for a visit to the apartments Mr. Wren had spoken of, a cry of distress smote upon their ears. "That sounds like our Dorothy's voice," said Mrs. Wren, her little knees knocking together in fright. "It _is_ Dorothy calling for help," assented Mr. Wren. "I left the children in the orchard. Come, let us fly over there as quickly as we can." On the ground, under some bushes, they found huddled their frightened group of little ones, while above, on a limb of a tree, perched Mr. and Mrs. Jay, uttering at intervals their harsh cry of _jay, jay, jay_. "Its our Bobbie," cried Mrs. Wren, aghast, after she had counted her brood and found one of them missing, "look at him fighting over there with that young Jay." "That's it, give it to him," screamed the delighted Mr. Jay to his young son, "hit him in the eye, my boy, hit him in the eye." Mr. and Mrs. Wren flew about Bobbie uttering cries of distress. "Fair play, fair play," cried papa Jay, flying down almost upon Mr. Wren's back. "Give the young ones a chance, or----" A loud, sharp twitter from the tree top caused Mr. Jay to glance up. "My old enemy," he exclaimed, his crest falling at once, as a low crown encircling a pompon of orange-red showed itself among the green branches. "That tyrant, Mr. Kingbird. He's always meddling in other people's affairs, he is. I'd like to wring his neck. Come, Mrs. Jay; come, my son," he screamed, and off they flew to boast of the victory among their neighbors. "I hope your little boy is not much hurt," said Mr. Kingbird rather pompously, "I arrived just in the nick of time, I think." "Oh, my Bobby," wailed Mrs. Wren, wiping the blood from his face, "that dreadful Jay has scratched out one of his eyes." "How did it happen?" sternly inquired Mr. Wren, "tell me the truth or----" Dorothy interrupted her father with loud sobbing. "I--I was flirting," she stammered "just a _little_, with young Mr. Jay, papa--you know how handsome he is, and bold--when Bobby steps up, and he says--he says--" "Well, go on, my little miss," said Mr. Kingbird, deeply interested, "what did your brother say?" "He said," wiping her eyes with a corner of her wing, "that 'birds of a feather flock together,' and a girl with such a grandpa as I had should be ashamed to associate with the son of a robber and coward like Mr. Bluejay, and so----" "And so young Mr. Jay pitched into me," interrupted Bobbie, "and I pitched into him. I'd a licked him, too, Pop," he added, flourishing his crippled leg, "if his old pa and ma hadn't come up when they did and told him to hit me in the eye." "A chip off the old block, ma'am," said Mr. Kingbird, who had heard of Mrs. Wren's fighting papa, "a chip off the old block, I see. Well, good-day all, good-day. As your son wisely says 'birds of a feather flock together,' and it wouldn't look well, you know, for a person of my aristocratic appearance to be seen in such humble company. So good-day, good-day," and off the pompous fellow flew leaving Mr. and Mrs Wren decidedly angry though grateful. Another week found the pair building a nest in the cavity of a maple tree near the study window. To the sticks and straws which Mr. Wren had placed therein early in the season, Mrs. Wren added spider webs and cocoons, lining the nest, or furnishing it as she called it, with horsehair and the downiest goose and duck feathers she could procure. "There!" said she, when all was completed and the first egg laid, "Mrs. John can't sneer at our home now. No coarse chicken feathers, or stable straw this time, Mr. Wren. We will use the other apartment you chose for the third brood, for three we are to have this summer as well as Mrs. John. When we go south in November, our family I intend shall be as large as hers." Mr. Wren made no answer, but, possibly being such an uncommonly wise bird, inwardly marveled over that imperious force, that wonderful instinct which made it necessary for them and all the feathered tribe to reproduce their kind. Very carefully, one winter's day, Bridget removed the nest from the tin-pot and wreathing it in ribbons, hung it above her chest of drawers in the the attic. "It do same," said she to the children, who prided themselves upon their knowledge of the looks and habits of the House Wren, "that in sthudoin the birds this summer I do be afther learnin' a lesson I wasn't expectin' meself at all." "A lesson?" said they curiously. "Indade! Its young ye's aire, me darlint's, to be thinkin' of the same, but sure its not meself that'll ever be forgetten the patience, ingenuity, industhry, and conjoogal love of the wee pair. Faith but it was a purty sight. Dumb animals indade! Niver sphake to me of _dumb_ animals, for be St. Patrick, if them two blessed little crathers didn't talk, schold, make love, and sing in a langwidge all their own, then me grandfather's name wasn't Dinnis, and I'm not Bridget O'Flaherty, at all, at all." [THE END.] [Illustration: OLD SQUAW DUCK.] THE OLD SQUAW DUCK. ---- HERE is an instance where the female is the head of the family indeed, for by common consent the name includes the male of this species. It has numerous other names, however, as Old Wife, South-Southerly, Long-tailed Duck, Swallow-tailed Duck, Old Injun (Massachusetts and Connecticut;) Old Molly, Old Billy, Scolder, (New Hampshire and Massachusetts.) The habitat of the Old Squaw is the northern hemisphere; in America, south in winter to nearly the southern border of the United States. It is distributed throughout the northern portions of the globe, but makes its summer home in Arctic regions. George Harlow Clarke, Naturalist, Peary Polar Expedition, in a recent article mentioned that, "in June the Old Squaw's clanging call resounded everywhere along shore, and the birds themselves were often perceived gliding to and fro amid the ice cakes drifting with the tide between the main ice-floe and the land." It is a resident in Greenland and breeds in various places in Iceland. The nests are made on the margins of lakes or ponds, among low bushes or tall grass, are constructed of grasses, and generally, but not always, warmly lined with down and feathers. The eggs are from six to twelve in number. In the United States the Long-tail is found only in winter. Mr. Nelson found it to be an abundant winter resident on Lake Michigan, where the first stragglers arrived about the last of October, the main body arriving about a month later and departing about the the first of April, a few lingering until about the last of the month. The words _south--south--southerly_, which some have fancied to resemble its cry, and which have accordingly been used as one of its local names, did not, to the ear of Dr. Brewer, in the least resemble the sounds which the bird makes; but he adds that the names "Old Wives" and "Old Squaws" as applied to the species are not inappropriate, since when many are assembled their notes resemble a confused gabble. Hallock says that most of the common names of this Duck are taken from its noisy habits, for it is almost continually calling. Mr. E. P. Jaques, asks, in _Field and Stream_, "What has become of our Waterfowl?" assuming that their numbers have greatly diminished. "The answer is a simple one," he goes on to say; "they have followed conditions. Take away their breeding and feeding grounds and the birds follow. Bring back their breeding and feeding grounds and lo! the birds reappear. For the past five years waterfowl have been about as scarce in the Dakotas as in Illinois or Indiana. The lakes were dry and conditions were unfavorable for them. In the spring of 1897 the lakes filled up once more. For the most part the bottoms of the lakes were wheat stubbles. This furnished food for the spring flight and thousands of birds nested there. When the wheat was gone the aquatic growth took its place and for every thousand Ducks that tarried there in the spring, ten thousand appeared in the fall." ---- THE WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS. ---- Ibises, of which there are about thirty species, are distributed throughout the warmer parts of the globe. Four species occur in North America. According to Chapman, they are silent birds, and live in flocks during the entire year. They feed along the shores of lakes, bays, and salt-water lagoons, and on mud flats over which the tide rises and falls. The beautiful, lustrous White-faced Glossy Ibis inhabits the south-western United States and tropical America. It is found as far north as Kansas, and west through New Mexico and Arizona to California. In southern Texas it is very abundant, and in some localities along the banks of the Rio Grande swarms by thousands. Dr. J. C. Merrill in May, visited a large patch of tule reeds, growing in a shallow lagoon about ten miles from Fort Brown, in which large numbers of this Ibis and several kinds of Herons were breeding. The reeds grew about six feet above the surface of the water, and were either beaten down to form a support for the nests, or dead and partly floating stalks of the previous year were used for that purpose. Dr. Merrill states that it was impossible to estimate the number of Ibises and different Herons nesting here. "Both nests and eggs of the Ibises were quite unlike those of any of the Herons, and could be distinguished at a glance. The nests were made of broken bits of dead tules, supported by and attached to broken and upright stalks of living ones. They were rather well and compactly built, quite unlike the clumsy platforms of the Herons. The eggs were nearly always three in number, and at this date were far advanced toward hatching; many of the nests contained young of all sizes." The walk of the Ibis is quiet and deliberate, though it can move over the ground with considerable speed whenever it chooses. Its flight is lofty and strong, and the bird has a habit of uttering a loud and peculiar cry as it passes through the air. The Ibis was formerly invested with sacerdotal honors by the ancient Egyptians, and embalmed and honored after death with a consecrated tomb, in common with the bull and the cat. The bird probably owes its sacred character to the fact that its appearance denotes the rising of the Nile, an annual phenomenon on which depends the prosperity of the whole country. The food of the Ibis consists mostly of mollusks, both terrestrial and aquatic, but it will eat worms, insects, and probably the smaller reptiles. The sexes have similar plumage, but the female is smaller than her mate. [Illustration: WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS.] SOME LOVERS OF NATURE. ---- Our Music's in the Hills.--EMERSON. ---- The groves were God's first temples.--BRYANT. ---- Nature, the vicar of the Almighty Lord.--CHAUCER. ---- The liquid notes that close the eye of day, (the Nightingale).--MILTON. ---- When spring unlocks the flowers to paint the laughing soil.--BISHOP HEBER. ---- O, for a seat in some poetic nook, Just hid with trees and sparkling with a brook.--LEIGH HUNT. ---- By shallow rivers, to whose falls Melodious birds sing madrigals.--CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE. ---- To me the meanest flower that blows can give Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.--WORDSWORTH. ---- To him who in the love of nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language.--BRYANT. ---- And this one life, exempt from public haunt, Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything.--SHAKESPEARE. ---- And now 'twas like all instruments, Now like a lonely flute; And now it is an angel's song, That makes the heavens be mute.--COLERIDGE. ---- There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, There is a rapture in the lonely shore, There is society, where none intrudes, By the deep sea, and music in its roar; I love not Man the less, but Nature more.--BYRON. ---- In June 'tis good to be beneath a tree While the blithe season comforts every sense; Steeps all the brain in rest, and heals the heart, Brimming it o'er with sweetness unawares, Fragrant and silent as that rosy snow Wherewith the pitying apple-tree fills up And tenderly lines some last-year's Robin's nest.--LOWELL. ---- THE ARKANSAS KINGBIRD. ---- ONE of the difficulties of the scientific ornithologist is to differentiate species. This bird is often confounded with the Flycatchers, and for a very good reason, its habits being similar to those of that family. It is almost a counterpart of the Kingbird, (See BIRDS, vol. ii, p. 157) possessing a harsher voice, a stronger flight, and, if possible, a more combative, pugnacious spirit. It is a summer resident, is common in the western United States, and occasionally a straggler far eastward, migrating southward in winter to Guatemala. Col. Goss, in his history of the birds of Kansas, one of the most comprehensive and valuable books ever published on ornithology, says that the nesting places and eggs of this species are essentially the same as those of the Kingbird. They are brave and audacious in their attacks upon the birds of prey and others intruding upon their nesting grounds. Their combative spirit, however, does not continue beyond the breeding season. They arrive about the first of May, begin laying about the middle of that month, and return south in September. The female is smaller than the male and her plumage is much plainer. Mr. Keyser "In Birdland" tells an interesting story which illustrates one of the well known characteristics of the Kingbird. "One day in spring," he says, "I was witness to a curious incident. A Red-headed Woodpecker had been flying several times in and out of a hole in a tree where he (or she) had a nest. At length, when he remained within the cavity for some minutes, I stepped to the tree and rapped on the trunk with my cane. The bird bolted like a small cannon ball from the orifice, wheeled around the tree with a swiftness that the eye could scarcely follow, and then dashed up the lane to an orchard a short distance away. But he had only leaped out of the frying-pan into the fire. In the orchard he had unconsciously got too near a Kingbird's nest. The Kingbird swooped toward him and alighted on his back. The next moment the two birds, the Kingbird on the Woodpecker's back, went racing across the meadow like a streak of zigzag lightning, making a clatter that frightened every echo from its hiding place. That gamy Flycatcher actually clung to the Woodpecker's back until he reached the other end of the meadow. I cannot be sure, but he seemed to be holding to the Woodpecker's dorsal feathers with his bill. Then, bantam fellow that he was, he dashed back to the orchard with a loud chippering of exultation. 'Ah, ha!' he flung across to the blushing Woodpecker, 'stay away the next time, if you don't fancy being converted into a beast of burden?'" Eggs three to six, usually four, white to creamy white, thinly spotted with purple to dark reddish brown, varying greatly in size. [Illustration: ARKANSAS KING-BIRD.] QUEER RELATIONS. ---- AN English terrier, despoiled of her litter of puppies, wandered around quite inconsolable. A brood of ducklings one day attracted her attention. Notwithstanding their quacks of protest, she seized them in her mouth, bore them to her kennel, and with the most affectionate anxiety followed them about, giving them, in her own fashion, a mother's care. When the ducklings at length took to water, her alarm knew no bounds. "You dreadful children," her sharp barks seemed to say when they returned to land, and taking them in her mouth bore them one by one back to safety, as she thought, to the kennel. The year following, when again deprived of her puppies, she adopted two cock-chickens, rearing them with the same care she had bestowed upon the ducklings. Their voices, however, when they grew older, greatly annoyed her, and by various means their foster-mother endeavored to stifle their crowing. ---- A hen that had selected an unused manger in which to lay her eggs, and rear her brood, found that the barn cat had also selected the same place in which to pass her hours of repose. The hen made no objection to the presence of Mrs. Tabby, and _vice-verse_, so that a strong frendship in time grew up between the two. Things went on very smoothly, the hen placidly sitting on her eggs, while Mrs. Tabby came and went at will, spending at least half her time beside her companion as friendly as though she were a sister cat. Vainly did the hen sit, vainly did she turn her eggs. All the warmth in the world would not have hatched a chick from the stale eggs beneath her. Mrs. Tabby, however, had better luck. To the hen's amazement she found beneath her very nose one morning five squirming furry little creatures which might have been chicks but were not. Certainly they were young of some sort, she reflected, and with true motherly instinct she lent her aid to their proper bringing up. The kittens thrived, but unfortunately, when still of tender age were deprived, by death of their mother. All but one of her offspring found comfortable homes elsewhere, and that one received the devoted attention of the hen during the whole of that summer. "To see it going between the house and barn clucking for the kitten," says Dr. Beadner in _Our Animal Friends_, "was indeed a funny sight, and quite as remarkable to see the kitten run to her when she made the peculiar call that chickens understand means something to eat. At night and during the resting hours of the daytime, kittie would crawl under the warm wings of her foster mother; and the brooding hen and her nestling kitten were happy and contented, little dreaming and caring less that they were so far from being related to each other." ---- ONE AUDUBON SOCIETY. ---- FIVE hundred invitations were sent out for a novel reception by the Wisconsin Audubon Society a while ago. One of the directors lent a large, handsome house, and six milliners were invited to send hats unadorned with aigrettes or birds. Ostrich plumes, quills and cock's-tails were not disbarred. Twenty-five other milliners applied for space, "everybody" went, and a great many tastefully trimmed hats were sold. People who had never before heard of the Audubon Society became, through the newspaper reports of the affair, greatly interested in its object, and the society itself greatly encouraged through the fact that by their hats and bonnets many of the "best" people of Milwaukee were ready to proclaim it no longer good form to wear the plumes or bodies of wild birds. "Certificates of heartlessness," a writer in _Our Dumb Animals_ calls them and we know of no better appellation to apply. Women of fashion, says the same writer, have been urged to use the power which they possess--and it is a power greater than that of law--to bring this inhumanity to an instant stop. The appeals for the most part were in vain. Birds continue to be slaughtered by millions upon millions, simply for the gratification of a silly vanity of which intelligent women should be ashamed. Whole species of the most beautiful denizens of field and forest, woodland and shore, have been almost or quite exterminated. Song birds have been driven further and further from the dwellings of men; our country is stripped of one of its least costly and most charming delights and all that women may deck themselves in conformity with a fad. A bill for the protection of birds was passed on March 24, by the Senate of the United States, introduced into the House of Representatives on March 25, and referred to the Committee on Agriculture. It is entitled "An Act for the Protection of Song Birds." We confess, says the same writer, to a feeling of humiliation when reading this bill, because it seems a just indictment of the women of America on a charge of willful, wanton, reckless inhumanity. That such legislation should be made necessary, through vanity alone, ought in our estimation, to bring the blush of shame to every good woman's cheek. "I didn't think," is the usual reply of the fair sex, when approached on the subject. "I didn't think." Aye you didn't think, but that plea can no longer avail when press and pulpit, in the name of humanity, so earnestly and eloquently plead with you to spare the birds. If compassion for the little creature whose life went out in agony, to supply that ornament above your brow does not move you to abstain from wearing such in the future, then the knowledge that some of the "best" people in the country consider it "bad form," perhaps will. --E. K. M. The lady has surely a beautiful face, She has surely a queenly air; The bonnet had flowers and ribbon and lace; But the bird has added the crowning grace-- It is really a charming affair. Is the love of a bonnet supreme over all, In a lady so faultlessly fair? The Father takes heed when the Sparrows fall, He hears when the starving nestlings call-- Can a tender woman _not care_? --SUSAN E. GAMMONS, _Our Dumb Animals_. [Illustration: EGGS.] 1. Cat Bird. 2. Robin. 3. Chickadee. 4. Long-billed Marsh Wren. 5. Brown Thrasher. 6. Yellow Warbler. 7. Red-eyed Vireo. 8. Loggerhead Shrike. 9. Cedar Waxwing. 10. Cliff Swallow. 11. Martin. 12. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 13. Scarlet Tanager. 14. Towhee. 15. Song Sparrow. 16. Chipping Sparrow. 17. Vesper Sparrow. 18. Great-tailed Grackle. 19. Bronzed Grackle. 20. Baltimore Oriole. 21. Orchard Oriole. 22. Meadow Lark. 23. Red-winged Blackbird. 24. Blue Jay. 25. Prairie Horned Lark. 26. Wood Pewee. ---- THE YOUTH OF BUDDHA. From "THE LIGHT OF ASIA." ---- ... In mid-play the boy would oft-times pause, Letting the deer pass free; would oft-times yield His half-won race because the laboring steeds Fetched painful breath; or if his princely mates Saddened to lose, or if some wistful dream Swept o'er his thoughts. And ever with the years Waxed this compassionateness of our Lord, Even as a great tree grows from two soft leaves To spread its shades afar; but hardly yet Knew the young child of sorrow, pain, or tears, Save as strange names for things not felt by kings, Nor ever to be felt. But it befell In the royal garden on a day of spring, A flock of wild Swans passed, voyaging north To their nest-places on Himâla's breast. Calling in love-notes down their snowy line The bright birds flew, by fond love piloted; And Devadatta, cousin of the prince, Pointed his bow, and loosed a willful shaft Which found the wide wing of the foremost Swan Broad-spread to glide upon the free blue road, So that it fell, the bitter arrow fixed, Bright scarlet blood-gouts staining the pure plumes. Which seeing, Prince Siddârtha took the bird Tenderly up, rested it in his lap-- Sitting with knees crossed, as Lord Buddha sits-- And, soothing with a touch the wild thing's fright, Composed its ruffled vans, calmed its quick heart, Caressed it into peace with light kind palms As soft as plantain leaves an hour unrolled; And while the left hand held, the right hand drew The cruel steel forth from the wound, and laid Cool leaves and healing honey on the smart. ---- SUMMARY. ---- Page 206. BRUNNICH'S MURRE.--_Uria lomvia._ RANGE--Coasts and islands of the north Atlantic and eastern Arctic oceans, south on the Atlantic coast of North America to New Jersey. NEST--On the bare rock, often on the narrow shelves of cliffs. EGGS--One. ---- Page 210. CANADA GOOSE.--_Branta canadensis._ Other names: "Common Wild Goose," "Grey Goose," "Honker." RANGE--North America at large. NEST--Of dried grasses, raised about twelve inches from the ground; has been found in trees. EGGS--Generally five, of a pale dull greenish color. ---- Page 214. BROWN CREEPER.--_Certhia familiaris americana._ RANGE--Eastern North America, breeding from northern border of United States northward. NEST--In holes of trees lined with dry grass, moss, and feathers. EGGS--Five to eight. ---- Page 218. DOWNY WOODPECKER.--_Dryobates pubescens._ Other name: "Little or Lesser Sapsucker." This, however, is a misnomer. RANGE--Northern and eastern North America, and sporadically the western portions--Colorado, Utah, Nevada, California, etc. NEST--In an excavation in a tree. EGGS--Four or five, rarely six, pure glossy white. ---- Page 223. OLD SQUAW DUCK.--_Clangula hyemalis._ Other names: South Southerly; Long-tailed Duck; Swallow-tailed Duck; Old Injun (Mass. and Conn.) Old Molly; Old Billy; Scolder (New Hampshire and Massachusetts.) RANGE--Northern hemisphere; south in winter to nearly the southern border of the United States. NEST--On the margins of lakes and ponds, among low bushes or low grass, warmly lined with down and feathers. EGGS--From six to twelve, of pale, dull grayish pea-green. ---- Page 227. WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS.--_Plegadis autumnalis._ RANGE--Tropical and sub-tropical regions generally; rare and of local distribution in the southeastern United States and West Indies. NEST--Of rushes, plant stems, etc., in reedy swamps on low bushes. EGGS--Three, rather deep, dull blue. ---- Page 231. ARKANSAS KINGBIRD.--_Tyrannus verticalis._ Other name: Arkansas Flycatcher. RANGE--Western United States from the plains to the Pacific, and from British Columbia south through Lower California and western Mexico to Guatemala. NEST--On branches of trees, in open and exposed situations, six to twenty feet from the ground; built of stems of weeds and grasses. EGGS--Three to six, white, thinly spotted with purple to dark redish-brown. ---- VOLUME III. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1898. INDEX. Apple Blossom Time, 153 Audubon Society, One, 234 Aviaries, 121-2 Birds, Foreign Song Birds in Oregon, 123 Birds, in the Schools, 20 Birds, Hints on the Study of Winter, 109 Birds, Interesting Facts About, 100 Birds' Answer, The, 83 Bird Study, The Fascinations of, 164 Birds, Let Us All Protect the Eggs of the, 154 Birds, Pairing in Spring, 189 Bird, Only a, 73 Bird Superstitions and Winged Portents, 172 Bird Day, 82 Birds, a Friend of, 43 Bird, The Mound, 114 Bird Lovers, Some, 81 Bittern, Least, _Botaurus exilis_, 46-47 Bob White, _Colinus virginianus_, 16-18-19-34 Buddha, The Youth of, 237 Christmas, Where Missouri Birds Spend, 84 Cockatoo, Rose, _Cacatua leadbeateri_, 29-30-31 Coot, American, _Fulica americana_, 96-98-99 Contentment, 163 Crane, Queer doings of a, 44 Creeper, Brown, _Certhia familiaris americana_, 212-214-215 Dickcissel, _Spiza americana_, 146-147-149 Duck, Bald Pate, _Anas americana_, 48-50-51 Duck, Black, _Anas obscura_, 86-87 Duck, Pintail, _Dafila acuta_, 176-8-9 Duck, Old Squaw, _Clangula hyemalis_, 223-5 Duck Farms, Eider, 113 Egg, What is An, 60 Eggs, 155-195-235 Feathers or Flowers?, 180 Finch, Purple, _Carpodacus purpureus_, 54-55 Flycatcher, Arkansas, _Tyrannus verticalis_, 230-231 Gnat-catcher, Blue-gray, _Polioptila caerulea_, 94-95 Goose, Canada, _Branta canadensis_, 208-210-211 Goose That Takes a Hen Sailing, 194 Grouse, Dusky, _Dendragapus obscurus_, 150-151 Hawk, Sparrow, _Falco sparverius_, 105-6-7 Heron, Great Blue, _Ardea herodias_, 190-1-3 Ibis, White-Faced Glossy, _Plegadis guarauna_, 226-7 I Can but Sing, 186 June, 201-202 Kindness, a Foster Brother's, 194 Kingbird, Arkansas, _Tyrannus verticalis_, 230 March, 82 Memory, Bird Songs of, 124 Murre, Brunnich's, _Uria lomvia_, 206-7 Music, Color in, 161-2 Nature, Some Lovers of, 229 Neighbor, Our, 203 Nests, Birds', 204 Nest, Life in the, 69 Nightingale, _Motacilla luscinia_, 136-8-9 Nightingale, To a, 141 Ovenbird, _Seiurus aurocapillus_, 126-7 Owl, The Early, 12 Owl, Saw-Whet, _Nyctala acadica_, 61-2-3 Owl, Short-eared, _Asio accipitrinus_, 25-6-7 Paradise, Birds of, 140 Partridge, Mountain, _Oreortyx pictus_, 34-35 Parrot, Double Yellow Headed, _Conurus mexicanus_, 181-2-3 Partnership, a Forced, 60 Partridge, Scaled, _Callipepla squamata_, 114-115 Petrel, The Stormy, _Oceanites oceanicus_, 88-90-91-92 Pheasant, Silver, _Phasianus nycthemerus_, 110-111 Pigeons, The, 4 Pigeon, Crowned, _Columbidæ goura_, 6-7 Pigeon, Passenger, _Ectopistes migratorius_, 21-22-23 Pleas for the Speechless, 33 Plover, Snowy, _Aegialitis nivosa_, 70-71 Prairie Hen, Lesser, _Tympanuchus pallidicinctus_, 74-75 Queer Relations, 233 Rhea, South American, _Rhea americana_, 166-7-8 Sandpiper, Bartramian, _Bartramia longicauda_, 134-5 Sparrow, English, 175 Sparrow, Fox, _Passerella iliaca_, 14-15 Spoonbill, Roseate, _Ajaja ajaja_, 142-3-5 Spring Thoughts, 185 Stilt, Black-necked, _Himantopus mexicanus_, 174-5 Summary, 40-80-120-160-200-238 Superstitions, Irish Bird, 132 Swan, Black, _Cygnus_, 65-66-67 Tenants, The New, 37-77-117-157-197-220 Thoughts, 146 Vireo, Red-Eyed, _Vireo olivaceus_, 8-10-11 Warbler, Bay-breasted, _Dendroica castanea_, 170-171 Warbler, Magnolia, _Dendroica maculosa_, 186-187 Woodpecker, Arctic Three-toed, _Picoides arcticus_, 128-130-131 Woodpecker, Downy, _Dryobates pubescens_, 216-218-219 Woodpecker, Ivory-billed, _Campephilus principalis_, 101-102-103 Woodpecker, Red-bellied, _Melanerpes carolinus_, 56-58-59 White, Gilbert, and "Selbourne", 41 Wooing Birds' Odd Ways, 52 
30523	----	BIRDS A MONTHLY SERIAL ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE VOLUME II. CHICAGO. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1897 BY NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO. INTRODUCTION. This is the second volume of a series intended to present, in accurate colored portraiture, and in popular and juvenile biographical text, a very considerable portion of the common birds of North America, and many of the more interesting and attractive specimens of other countries, in many respects superior to all other publications which have attempted the representation of birds, and at infinitely less expense. The appreciative reception by the public of Vol. I deserves our grateful acknowledgement. Appearing in monthly parts, it has been read and admired by thousands of people, who, through the life-like pictures presented, have made the acquaintance of many birds, and have since become enthusiastic observers of them. It has been introduced into the public schools, and is now in use as a text book by hundreds of teachers, who have expressed enthusiastic approval of the work and of its general extension. The faithfulness to nature of the pictures, in color and pose, have been commended by such ornithologists and authors as Dr. Elliott Coues, Mr. John Burroughs, Mr. J. W. Allen, editor of _The Auk_, Mr. Frank M. Chapman, Mr. J. W. Baskett, and others. The general text of BIRDS--the biographies--has been conscientiously prepared from the best authorities by a careful observer of the feather-growing denizens of the field, the forest, and the shore, while the juvenile autobiographies have received the approval of the highest ornithological authority. The publishers take pleasure in the announcement that the general excellence of BIRDS will be maintained in subsequent volumes. The subjects selected for the third and fourth volumes--many of them--will be of the rare beauty in which the great Audubon, the limner _par excellence_ of birds, would have found "the joy of imitation." NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. II. JULY NO. 1 ================================ BIRD SONG. It should not be overlooked by the young observer that if he would learn to recognize at once any particular bird, he should make himself acquainted with the song and call notes of every bird around him. The identification, however, of the many feathered creatures with which we meet in our rambles has heretofore required so much patience, that, though a delight to the enthusiast, few have time to acquire any great intimacy with them. To get this acquaintance with the birds, the observer has need to be prepared to explore perilous places, to climb lofty trees, and to meet with frequent mishaps. To be sure if every veritable secret of their habits is to be pried into, this pursuit will continue to be plied as patiently as it has ever been. The opportunity, however, to secure a satisfactory knowledge of bird song and bird life by a most delightful method has at last come to every one. A gentleman who has taken a great interest in BIRDS from the appearance of the first number, but whose acquaintance with living birds is quite limited, visited one of our parks a few days ago, taking with him the latest number of the magazine. His object, he said, was to find there as many of the living forms of the specimens represented as he could. "Seating myself amidst a small grove of trees, what was my delight at seeing a Red Wing alight on a telegraph wire stretching across the park. Examining the picture in BIRDS I was somewhat disappointed to find that the live specimen was not so brilliantly marked as in the picture. Presently, however, another Blackbird alighted near, who seemed to be the veritable presentment of the photograph. Then it occured to me that I had seen the Red Wing before, without knowing its name. It kept repeating a rich, juicy note, _oncher-la-ree-e!_ its tail tetering at quick intervals. A few days later I observed a large number of Red Wings near the Hyde Park water works, in the vicinity of which, among the trees and in the marshes, I also saw many other birds unknown to me. With BIRDS in my hands, I identified the Robin, who ran along the ground quite close to me, anon summoning with his beak the incautious angle worm to the surface. The Jays were noisy and numerous, and I observed many new traits in the Wood Thrush, so like the Robin that I was at first in some doubt about it. I heard very few birds sing that day, most of them being busy in search of food for their young." [CONTINUED ON PAGE 17.] THE BALD-HEADED EAGLE. Dear Boys and Girls: I had hoped to show you the picture of the eagle that went through the war with the soldiers. They called him "Old Abe." You will find on page 35 a long story written about him. Ask some one to read it to you. I could not get "Old Abe," or you should now be looking at his picture. He is at present in Wisconsin, and his owner would not allow him to be taken from home. I did the next best thing, and found one that was very much like him. They are as near alike as two children of a family. Old Abe's feathers are not quite so smooth, though. Do you wonder, after having been through the war? He is a veteran, isn't he? The picture is that of a Bald-headed Eagle. He is known, also, by other names, such as White-headed Eagle, Bird of Washington, Sea Eagle. You can easily see by the picture that he is not bald-headed. The name White-headed would seem a better name. It is because at a distance his head and neck appear as though they were covered with a white skin. He is called "Sea Eagle" because his food is mostly fish. He takes the fish that are thrown upon the shores by the waves, and sometimes he robs the Fish Hawk of his food. This mighty bird usually places his large nest in some tall tree. He uses sticks three to five feet long, large pieces of sod, weeds, moss, and whatever he can find. The nest is sometimes five or six feet through. Eagles use the same nest for years, adding to it each year. Young eagles are queer looking birds. When hatched, they are covered with a soft down that looks like cotton. Their parents feed them, and do not allow them to leave the nest until they are old enough to fly. When they are old enough, the mother bird pushes them out of the nest. She must be sure that they can fly, or she would not dare do this. Don't you think so? [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. AMERICAN BALD EAGLE.] THE BALD-HEADED EAGLE. This mighty bird of lofty flight is a native of the whole of North America, and may be seen haunting the greater portions of the sea coasts, as well as the mouths of large rivers. He is sometimes called the White-headed Eagle, the American Sea Eagle, the Bird of Washington, the Washington Eagle, and the Sea Eagle. On account of the snowy white of his head and neck, the name Bald Eagle has been applied to him more generally than any other. Sea-faring men are partial to young Eagles as pets, there being a well established superstition among them that the ship that carries the "King of Birds" can never go down. The old Romans, in selecting the Eagle as an emblem for their imperial standard, showed this superstitious belief, regarding him as the favorite messenger of Jupiter, holding communion with heaven. The Orientals, too, believed that the feathers of the Eagle's tail rendered their arrows invincible. The Indian mountain tribes east of Tennessee venerated the Eagle as their bird of war, and placed a high value on his feathers, which they used for headdresses and to decorate their pipes of peace. The United States seems to have an abiding faith in the great bird, as our minted dollars show. The nest of the Bald Eagle is usually placed upon the top of a giant tree, standing far up on the side of a mountain, among myriads of twining vines, or on the summit of a high inaccessible rock. The nest in the course of years, becomes of great size as the Eagle lays her eggs year after year in the same nest, and at each nesting season adds new material to the old nest. It is strongly and comfortably built with large sticks and branches, nearly flat, and bound together with twining vines. The spacious interior is lined with hair and moss, so minutely woven together as to exclude the wind. The female lays two eggs of a brownish red color, with many dots and spots, the long end of the egg tapering to a point. The parents are affectionate, attend to their young as long as they are helpless and unfledged, and will not forsake them even though the tree on which they rest be enveloped in flames. When the Eaglets are ready to fly, however, the parents push them from the perch and trust them to the high atmospheric currents. They turn them out, so to speak, to shift for themselves. The Bald Eagle has an accommodating appetite, eating almost anything that has ever had life. He is fond of fish, without being a great fisher, preferring to rob the Fish-hawk of the fruits of his skillful labor. Sitting upon the side of a mountain his keen vision surveys the plain or valley, and detects a sheep, a young goat, a fat turkey or rooster, a pig, a rabbit or a large bird, and almost within an eye-twinkle he descends upon his victim. A mighty grasp, a twist of his talons, and the quarry is dead long before the Eagle lays it down for a repast. The impetuosity and skill with which he pursues, overtakes and robs the Fish-hawk, and the swiftness with which the Bald Eagle darts down upon and seizes the booty, which the Hawk has been compelled to let go, is not the least wonderful part of this striking performance. The longevity of the Eagle is very great, from 80 to 160 years. THE SEMI-PALMATED RING PLOVER. In their habits the Plovers are usually active; they run and fly with equal facility, and though they rarely attempt to swim, are not altogether unsuccessful in that particular. The Semi-palmated Ring Plover utters a plaintive whistle, and during the nesting season can produce a few connected pleasing notes. The three or four pear-shaped, variagated eggs are deposited in a slight hollow in the ground, in which a few blades of grass are occasionally placed. Both parents assist in rearing the young. Worms, small quadrupeds, and insects constitute their food. Their flesh is regarded as a delicacy, and they are therefore objects of great attraction to the sportsman, although they often render themselves extremely troublesome by uttering their shrill cry and thus warning their feathered companions of the approach of danger. From this habit they have received the name of "tell-tales." Dr. Livingstone said of the African species: "A most plaguey sort of public spirited individual follows you everywhere, flying overhead, and is most persevering in his attempts to give fair warning to all animals within hearing to flee from the approach of danger." The American Ring Plover nests as far north as Labrador, and is common on our shores from August to October, after which it migrates southward. Some are stationary in the southern states. It is often called the Ring Plover, and has been supposed to be identical with the European Ringed Plover. It is one of the commonest of shore birds. It is found along the beaches and easily identified by the complete neck ring, white upon dark and dark upon light. Like the Sandpipers the Plovers dance along the shore in rhythm with the wavelets, leaving sharp half-webbed footprints on the wet sand. Though usually found along the seashore, Samuels says that on their arrival in spring, small flocks follow the courses of large rivers, like the Connecticut. He also found a single pair building on Muskeget, the famous haunt of Gulls, off the shore of Massachusetts. It has been found near Chicago, Illinois, in July. [Illustration: RING PLOVER.] THE RING PLOVER. Plovers belong to a class of birds called Waders. They spend the winters down south, and early in the spring begin their journey north. By the beginning of summer they are in the cold north, where they lay their eggs and hatch their young. Here they remain until about the month of August, when they begin to journey southward. It is on their way back that we see most of them. While on their way north, they are in a hurry to reach their nesting places, so only stop here and there for food and rest. Coming back with their families, we often see them in ploughed fields. Here they find insects and seeds to eat. The Ring Plover is so called from the white ring around its neck. These birds are not particular about their nests. They do not build comfortable nests as most birds do. They find a place that is sheltered from the north winds, and where the sun will reach them. Here they make a rude nest of the mosses lying around. The eggs are somewhat pointed, and placed in the nest with the points toward the center. In this way the bird can more easily cover the eggs. We find, among most birds, that after the nest is made, the mother bird thinks it her duty to hatch the young. The father bird usually feeds her while she sits on the eggs. In some of the bird stories, you have read how the father and mother birds take turns in building the nest, sitting on the nest, and feeding the young. Some father birds do all the work in building the nest, and take care of the birds when hatched. Among plovers, the father bird usually hatches the young, and lets the wife do as she pleases. After the young are hatched they help each other take care of them. Plovers have long wings, and can fly very swiftly. The distance between their summer and winter homes is sometimes very great. THE MALLARD DUCK. We should probably think this the most beautiful of ducks, were the Wood Duck not around. His rich glossy-green head and neck, snowy white collar, and curly feathers of the tail are surely marks of beauty. But Mr. Mallard is not so richly dressed all of the year. Like a great many other birds, he changes his clothes after the holiday season is over. When he does this, you can hardly tell him from his mate who wears a sober dress all the year. Most birds that change their plumage wear their bright, beautiful dress during the summer. Not so with Mr. Mallard. He wears his holiday clothes during the winter. In the summer he looks much like his mate. Usually the Mallard family have six to ten eggs in their nest. They are of a pale greenish color--very much like the eggs of our tame ducks that we see about the barnyards. Those who have studied birds say that our tame ducks are descendants of the Mallards. If you were to hear the Mallard's _quack_, you could not tell it from that of the domestic duck. The Mallard usually makes her nest of grass, and lines it with down from her breast. You will almost always find it on the ground, near the water, and well sheltered by weeds and tall grasses. It isn't often you see a duck with so small a family. It must be that some of the ducklings are away picking up food. Do you think they look like young chickens? [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. MALLARD DUCK.] THE MALLARD DUCK. The Mallard Duck is generally distributed in North America, migrating south in winter to Panama, Cuba, and the Bahamas. In summer the full grown male resembles the female, being merely somewhat darker in color. The plumage is donned by degrees in early June, and in August the full rich winter dress is again resumed. The adult males in winter plumage vary chiefly in the extent and richness of the chestnut of the breast. The Mallard is probably the best known of all our wild ducks, being very plentiful and remarkable on account of its size. Chiefly migrant, a few sometimes remain in the southern portion of Illinois, and a few pairs sometimes breed in the more secluded localities where they are free from disturbance. Its favorite resorts are margins of ponds and streams, pools and ditches. It is an easy walker, and can run with a good deal of speed, or dive if forced to do so, though it never dives for food. It feeds on seeds of grasses, fibrous roots of plants, worms, shell fish, and insects. In feeding in shallow water the bird keeps the hind part of its body erect, while it searches the muddy bottom with its bill. When alarmed and made to fly, it utters a loud quack, the cry of the female being the louder. "It feeds silently, but after hunger is satisfied, it amuses itself with various jabberings, swims about, moves its head backward and forward, throws water over its back, shoots along the surface, half flying, half running, and seems quite playful. If alarmed, the Mallard springs up at once with a bound, rises obliquely to a considerable height, and flies off with great speed, the wings producing a whistling sound. The flight is made by repeated flaps, without sailing, and when in full flight its speed is hardly less than a hundred miles an hour." Early in spring the male and female seek a nesting place, building on the ground, in marshes or among water plants, sometimes on higher ground, but never far from water. The nest is large and rudely made of sedges and coarse grasses, seldom lined with down or feathers. In rare instances it nests in trees, using the deserted nests of hawks, crows, or other large birds. Six or eight eggs of pale dull green are hatched, and the young are covered over with down. When the female leaves the nest she conceals the eggs with hay, down, or any convenient material. As soon as hatched the chicks follow the mother to the water, where she attends them devotedly, aids them in procuring food, and warns them of danger. While they are attempting to escape, she feigns lameness to attract to herself the attention of the enemy. The chicks are wonderfully active little fellows, dive quickly, and remain under water with only the bill above the surface. On a lovely morning, before the sun has fairly indicated his returning presence, there can be no finer sight than the hurrying pinions, or inspiring note than the squawk, oft repeated, of these handsome feathered creatures, as they seek their morning meal in the lagoons and marshes. THE AMERICAN AVOCET. White Snipe, Yelper, Lawyer, and Scooper are some of the popular names applied in various localities to this remarkably long-legged and long and slender-necked creature, which is to be found in temperate North America, and, in winter, as far south as Cuba and Jamaica. In north-eastern Illinois the Avocet generally occurs in small parties the last of April and the first of May, and during September and the early part of October, when it frequents the borders of marshy pools. The bird combines the characteristics of the Curlew and the Godwit, the bill being recurved. The cinnamon color on the head and neck of this bird varies with the individual; sometimes it is dusky gray around the eye, especially in the younger birds. The Avocet is interesting and attractive in appearance, without having any especially notable characteristics. He comes and goes and is rarely seen by others than sportsmen. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. AMERICAN AVOCET.] BIRD SONG--Continued from page 1. Many of our singing birds may be easily identified by any one who carries in his mind the images which are presented in our remarkable pictures. See the birds at home, as it were, and hear their songs. Those who fancy that few native birds live in our parks will be surprised to read the following list of them now visible to the eyes of so careful an observer as Mr. J. Chester Lyman. "About the 20th of May I walked one afternoon in Lincoln Park with a friend whose early study had made him familiar with birds generally, and we noted the following varieties: 1 Magnolia Warbler. 2 Yellow Warbler. 3 Black Poll Warbler. 4 Black-Throated Blue Warbler. 5 Black-Throated Queen Warbler. 6 Blackburnian Warbler. 7 Chestnut-sided Warbler. 8 Golden-crowned Thrush. 9 Wilson's Thrush. 10 Song Thrush. 11 Catbird. 12 Bluebird. 13 Kingbird. 14 Least Fly Catcher. 15 Wood Pewee Fly Catcher. 16 Great Crested Fly Catcher. 17 Red-eyed Vireo. 18 Chimney Swallow. 19 Barn Swallow. 20 Purple Martin. 21 Red Start. 22 House Wren. 23 Purple Grackle. 24 White-throated Sparrow. 25 Song Sparrow. 26 Robin. 27 Blue Jay. 28 Red-Headed Woodpecker. 29 Kingfisher. 30 Night Hawk. 31 Yellow-Billed Cuckoo. 32 Scarlet Tanager, Male and Female. 33 Black and White Creeper. 34 Gull, or Wilson's Tern. 35 The Omni-present English Sparrow. "On a similar walk, one week earlier, we saw about the same number of varieties, including, however, the Yellow Breasted Chat, and the Mourning, Bay Breasted, and Blue Yellow Backed Warblers." The sweetest songsters are easily accessible, and all may enjoy their presence. C. C. MARBLE. [TO BE CONTINUED.] THE CANVAS-BACK DUCK. White-Back, Canard Cheval, (New Orleans,) Bull-Neck, and Red-Headed Bull-Neck, are common names of the famous Canvas-Back, which nests from the northern states, northward to Alaska. Its range is throughout nearly all of North America, wintering from the Chesapeake southward to Guatemala. "The biography of this duck," says Mabel Osgood Wright, "belongs rather to the cook-book than to a bird list," even its most learned biographers referring mainly to its "eatable qualities," Dr. Coues even taking away its character in that respect when he says "there is little reason for squealing in barbaric joy over this over-rated and generally under-done bird; not one person in ten thousand can tell it from any other duck on the table, and only then under the celery circumstances," referring to the particular flavor of its flesh, when at certain seasons it feeds on vallisneria, or "water celery," which won its fame. This is really not celery at all, but an eel-grass, not always found through the range of the Canvas-Back. When this is scarce it eats frogs, lizards, tadpoles, fish, etc., so that, says Mrs. Osgood, "a certificate of residence should be sold with every pair, to insure the inspiring flavor." The opinion held as to the edible qualities of this species varies greatly in different parts of the country. No where has it so high a reputation as in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay, where the alleged superiority of its flesh is ascribed to the abundance of "water celery." That this notion is erroneous is evident from the fact that the same plant grows in far more abundance in the upper Mississippi Valley, where also the Canvas-Back feeds on it. Hence it is highly probable that fashion and imagination, or perhaps a superior style of cooking and serving, play a very important part in the case. In California, however, where the "water celery" does not grow, the Canvas-Back is considered a very inferior bird for the table. It has been hunted on Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries with such inconsiderate greed that its numbers have been greatly reduced, and many have been driven to more southern waters. In and about Baltimore, the Canvas-Back, like the famous terrapin, is in as high favor for his culinary excellence, as are the women for beauty and hospitality. To gratify the healthy appetite of the human animal this bird was doubtless sent by a kind Providence, none the less mindful of the creature comforts and necessities of mankind than of the purely aesthetic senses. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. CANVAS-BACK DUCK.] [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. WOOD DUCK.] THE WOOD DUCK. A great many people think that this is the most beautiful bird of North America. It is called Wood Duck because it usually makes its nest in the hollow of a tree that overhangs the water. If it can find a squirrel's or woodpecker's hole in some stump or tree, there it is sure to nest. A gentleman who delighted in watching the Wood Duck, tells about one that built her nest in the hollow of a tree that hung over the water. He was anxious to see how the little ones, when hatched, would get down. In a few days he knew that the ducklings were out, for he could hear their _pee, pee, pee_. They came to the edge of the nest, one by one, and tumbled out into the water. You know a duck can swim as soon as it comes out of the egg. Sometimes the nest is in the hollow of a tree that is a short distance from the water. Now how do you suppose the ducklings get there as they do? If the nest is not far from the ground, the mother bird lets them drop from it on the dried grass and leaves under the tree. She then carries them in her bill, one by one, to the water and back to the nest. If the nest should be far from the ground, she carries them down one by one. This same gentleman says that he once saw a Wood Duck carry down thirteen little ones in less than ten minutes. She took them in her bill by the back of the neck or the wing. When they are a few days old she needs only to lead the way and the little ones will follow. The Wood Duck is also called Summer Duck. This is because it does not stay with us during the winter, as most ducks do. It goes south to spend the winter and comes back north early in the spring. THE WOOD DUCK. Quite the most beautiful of the native Ducks, with a a richness of plumage which gives it a bridal or festive appearance, this bird is specifically named _Spousa_, which means betrothed. It is also called Summer Duck, Bridal Duck, Wood Widgeon, Acorn Duck and Tree Duck. It is a fresh water fowl, and exclusively so in the selection of its nesting haunts. It inhabits the whole of temperate North America, north to the fur countries, and is found in Cuba and sometimes in Europe. Its favorite haunts are wooded bottom-lands, where it frequents the streams and ponds, nesting in hollows of the largest trees. Sometimes a hole in a horizontal limb is chosen that seems too small to hold the Duck's plump body, and occasionally it makes use of the hole of an Owl or Woodpecker, the entrance to which has been enlarged by decay. Wilson visited a tree containing a nest of a Wood or Summer Duck, on the banks of Tuckahoe river, New Jersey. The tree stood on a declivity twenty yards from the water, and in its hollow and broken top, about six feet down, on the soft decayed wood were thirteen eggs covered with down from the mother's breast. The eggs were of an exact oval shape, the surface smooth and fine grained, of a yellowish color resembling old polished ivory. This tree had been occupied by the same pair, during nesting time, for four successive years. The female had been seen to carry down from the nest thirteen young, one by one, in less than ten minutes. She caught them in her bill by the wing or back of the neck, landed them safely at the foot of the tree, and finally led them to the water. If the nest be directly over the water, the little birds as soon as hatched drop into the water, breaking their fall by extending their wings. Many stories are told of their attachment to their nesting places. For several years one observer saw a pair of Wood Ducks make their nest in the hollow of a hickory which stood on the bank, half a dozen yards from a river. In preparing to dam the river near this point, in order to supply water to a neighboring city, the course of the river was diverted, leaving the old bed an eighth of a mile behind, notwithstanding which the ducks bred in the old place, the female undaunted by the distance which she would have to travel to lead her brood to the water. While the females are laying, and afterwards when sitting, the male usually perches on an adjoining limb and keeps watch. The common note of the drake is _peet-peet_, and when standing sentinel, if apprehending danger, he makes a noise not unlike the crowing of a young cock, _oe-eek_. The drake does not assist in sitting on the eggs, and the female is left in the lurch in the same manner as the Partridge. The Wood Duck has been repeatedly tamed and partially domesticated. It feeds freely on corn meal soaked in water, and as it grows, catches flies with great dexterity. [Illustration: From col. F. C. Baker. ANHINGA OR SNAKE BIRD.] THE ANHINGA OR SNAKE BIRD. The Snake Bird is very singular indeed in appearance, and interesting as well in its habits. Tropical and sub-tropical America, north to the Carolinas and Southern Illinois, where it is a regular summer resident, are its known haunts. Here it is recognized by different names, as Water Turkey, Darter, and Snake Bird. The last mentioned seems to be the most appropriate name for it, as the shape of its head and neck at once suggest the serpent. In Florida it is called the Grecian Lady, at the mouth of the Mississippi, Water Crow, and in Louisiana, Bec a Lancette. It often swims with the body entirely under water, its head and long neck in sight like some species of water snakes, and has no doubt more than once left the impression on the mind of the superstitious sailor that he has seen a veritable sea serpent, the fear of which lead him to exaggerate the size of it. This bird so strange in looks and action is common in summer in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, frequenting the almost impenetrable swamps, and is a constant resident of Florida. As a diver the Snake Bird is the most wonderful of all the Ducks. Like the Loon it can disappear instantly and noiselessly, swim a long distance and reappear almost in an opposite direction to that in which naturally it would be supposed to go. And the ease with which, when alarmed, it will drop from its perch and leave scarcely a ripple on the surface of the water, would appear incredible in so large a bird, were it not a well known fact. It has also the curious habit of sinking like a Grebe. The nests of the Anhinga are located in various places, sometimes in low bushes at a height from the ground of only a few feet, or in the upper branches of high trees, but always over water. Though web footed, it is strong enough to grasp tightly the perch on which it nests. This gives it a great advantage over the common Duck which can nest only on the ground. Sometimes Snake Birds breed in colonies with various species of Herons. From three to five eggs, bluish, or dark greenish white, are usually found in the nest. Prof. F. C. Baker, secretary of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, to whom we are indebted for the specimen presented here, captured this bird at Micco, Brevard Co., Florida, in April, 1889. He says he found a peculiar parasite in the brain of the Anhinga. The Anhingas consist of but one species, which has a representative in the warmer parts of each of the great divisions of the earth. The number seen together varies from eight or ten to several hundred. The hair-like feathers on the neck form a sort of loose mane. When asleep the bird stands with its body almost erect. In rainy weather it often spends the greater part of the day in an erect attitude, with its neck and head stretched upward, remaining perfectly motionless, so that the water may glide off its plumage. The fluted tail is very thick and beautiful and serves as a propeller as well as a rudder in swimming. THE AMERICAN WOODCOCK. Isn't this American Woodcock, or indeed any member of the family, a comical bird? His head is almost square, and what a remarkable eye he has! It is a seeing eye, too, for he does not require light to enable him to detect the food he seeks in the bogs. He has many names to characterize him, such as Bog-sucker, Mud Snipe, Blind Snipe. His greatest enemies are the pot hunters, who nevertheless have nothing but praise to bestow upon him, his flesh is so exquisitely palatable. Even those who deplore and deprecate the destruction of birds are not unappreciative of his good qualities in this respect. The Woodcock inhabits eastern North America, the north British provinces, the Dakotas, Nebraska and Kansas, and breeds throughout the range. Night is the time when the Woodcock enjoys life. He never flies voluntarily by day, but remains secluded in close and sheltered thickets till twilight, when he seeks his favorite feeding places. His sight is imperfect by day, but at night he readily secures his food, assisted doubtless by an extraordinary sense of smell. His remarkably large and handsome eye is too sensitive for the glare of the sun, and during the greater part of the day he remains closely concealed in marshy thickets or in rank grass. In the morning and evening twilight and on moonlight nights, he seeks his food in open places. The early riser may find him with ease, but the first glow from the rays of the morning sun will cause his disappearance from the landscape. He must be looked for in swamps, and in meadows with soft bottoms. During very wet seasons he seeks higher land--usually cornfields--and searches for food in the mellow plowed ground, where his presence is indicated by holes made by his bill. In seasons of excessive drought the Woodcock resorts in large numbers to tide water creeks and the banks of fresh water rivers. So averse is he to an excess of water, that after continued or very heavy rains he has been known suddenly to disappear from widely extended tracts of country. A curious habit of the Woodcock, and one that is comparatively little known, is that of carrying its young in order to remove them from danger. So many trustworthy naturalists maintain this to be true that it must be accepted as characteristic of this interesting bird. She takes her young from place to place in her toe grasps as scarcity of food or safety may require. As in the case of many birds whose colors adapt them to certain localities or conditions of existence, the patterns of the beautiful chestnut parts of the Woodcock mimic well the dead leaves and serve to protect the female and her young. The whistle made by their wings when flying is a manifestation of one of the intelligences of nature. The male Woodcock, it is believed, when he gets his "intended" off entirely to himself, exhibits in peculiar dances and jigs that he is hers and hers only, or rises high on the wing cutting the most peculiar capers and gyrations in the air, protesting to her in the grass beneath the most earnest devotion, or advertising to her his whereabouts. [Illustration From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. AMERICAN WOODCOCK.] THE WOODCOCK. Here is a bird that is not often seen in the daytime. During the day he stays in the deep woods or among the tall marsh grasses. It is at twilight that you may see him. He then comes out in search of food. Isn't he an odd-looking bird? His bill is made long so that he can bore into the soft ground for earthworms. You notice his color is much like the Ruffed Grouse in June "BIRDS." This seems to be the color of a great many birds whose home is among the grasses and dried leaves. Maybe you can see a reason for this. Those who have watched the Woodcock carefully, say that he can move the tip end of the upper part of his bill. This acts like a finger in helping him to draw his food from the ground. What a sight it must be to see a number of these queer looking birds at work getting their food. If they happen to be in a swampy place, they often find earthworms by simply turning over the dead leaves. If there should be, near by, a field that has been newly plowed, they will gather in numbers, at twilight, and search for worms. The Woodcock has short wings for his size. He seems to be able to fly very fast. You can imagine how he looks while flying--his long bill out in front and his legs hanging down. THE AMERICAN SCOTER. The specimen we give of the American Scoter is one of unusual rarity and beauty of plumage. It was seen off the government pier, in Chicago, in November, 1895, and has been much admired. The Scoter has as many names as characteristics, being called the Sea Coot, the Butter-billed, and the Hollow-billed Coot. The plumage of the full grown male is entirely black, while the female is a sooty brown, becoming paler below. She is also somewhat smaller. This Duck is sometimes found in great numbers along the entire Atlantic coast where it feeds on small shell fish which it secures by diving. A few nest in Labrador, and in winter it is found in New Jersey, on the Great Lakes, and in California. The neighborhoods of marshes and ponds are its haunts, and in the Hudson Bay region the Scoter nests in June and July. The nest is built on the ground near water. Coarse grass, feathers, and down are commonly used to make it comfortable, while it is well secreted in hollows in steep banks and cliffs. The eggs are from six to ten, of a dull buff color. Prof. Cooke states that on May 2, 1883, fifty of these ducks were seen at Anna, Union county, Illinois, all busily engaged in picking up millet seed that had just been sown. If no mistake of identification was made in this case, the observation apparently reveals a new fact in the habits of the species, which has been supposed to feed exclusively in the water, and to subsist generally on fishes and other aquatic animal food. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. WHITE-WINGED SCOTER.] OLD ABE. "I'd rather capture Old Abe," said Gen. Sterling Price, of the Confederate Army, "than a whole brigade." "Old Abe" was the live war Eagle which accompanied the Eighth Wisconsin regiment during the War of the Rebellion. Much of a more or less problematical character has been written about him, but what we regard as authentic we shall present in this article. Old Abe was a fine specimen of the Bald Eagle, very like the one figured in this number of BIRDS. Various stories are told of his capture, but the most trustworthy account is that Chief Sky, a Chippewa Indian, took him from the nest while an Eaglet. The nest was found on a pine tree in the Chippewa country, about three miles from the mouth of the Flambeau, near some rapids in the river. He and another Indian cut the tree down, and, amid the menaces of the parent birds, secured two young Eagles about the size of Prairie Hens. One of them died. The other, which lived to become historical, was sold to Daniel McCann for a bushel of corn. McCann carried it to Eau Claire, and presented it to a company then being organized as a part of the Eighth Wisconsin Infantry. What more appropriate emblem than the American Bald-headed Bird could have been thus selected by the patriots who composed this regiment of freemen! The Golden Eagle (of which we shall hereafter present a splendid specimen,) with extended wings, was the ensign of the Persian monarchs, long before it was adopted by the Romans. And the Persians borrowed the symbol from the Assyrians. In fact, the symbolical use of the Eagle is of very remote antiquity. It was the insignia of Egypt, of the Etruscans, was the sacred bird of the Hindoos, and of the Greeks, who connected him with Zeus, their supreme deity. With the Scandinavians the Eagle is the bird of wisdom. The double-headed Eagle was in use among the Byzantine emperors, "to indicate their claims to the empire of both the east and the west." It was adopted in the 14th century by the German emperors. The arms of Prussia were distinguished by the Black Eagle, and those of Poland by the White. The great Napoleon adopted it as the emblem of Imperial France. Old Abe was called by the soldiers the "new recruit from Chippewa," and sworn into the service of the United States by encircling his neck with red, white, and blue ribbons, and by placing on his breast a rosette of colors, after which he was carried by the regiment into every engagement in which it participated, perched upon a shield in the shape of a heart. A few inches above the shield was a grooved crosspiece for the Eagle to rest upon, on either end of which were three arrows. When in line Old Abe was always carried on the left of the color bearer, in the van of the regiment. The color bearer wore a belt to which was attached a socket for the end of the staff, which was about five feet in length. Thus the Eagle was high above the bearer's head, in plain sight of the column. A ring of leather was fastened to one of the Eagle's legs to which was connected a strong hemp cord about twenty feet long. Old Abe was the hero of about twenty-five battles, and as many skirmishes. Remarkable as it may appear, not one bearer of the flag, or of the Eagle, always shining marks for the enemy's rifles, was ever shot down. Once or twice Old Abe suffered the loss of a few feathers, but he was never wounded. The great bird enjoyed the excitement of carnage. In battle he flapped his wings, his eyes blazed, and with piercing screams, which arose above the noise of the conflict, seemed to urge the company on to deeds of valor. David McLane, who was the first color bearer to carry him into battle, said: "Old Abe, like all old soldiers, seemed to dread the sound of musketry but with the roll of artillery he appeared to be in his glory. Then he screamed, spread his wings at every discharge, and reveled in the roar and smoke of the big guns." A correspondent who watched him closely said that when a battle had fairly begun Old Abe jumped up and down on his perch with such wild and fearful screams as an eagle alone can utter. The louder the battle, the fiercer and wilder were his screams. Old Abe varied his voice in accord with his emotions. When surprised he whistled a wild melody of a melancholy softness; when hovering over his food he gave a spiteful chuckle; when pleased to see an old friend he seemed to say: "How do you do?" with a plaintive cooing. In battle his scream was wild and commanding, a succession of five or six notes with a startling trill that was inspiring to the soldiers. Strangers could not approach or touch him with safety, though members of the regiment who treated him with kindness were cordially recognized by him. Old Abe had his particular friends, as well as some whom he regarded as his enemies. There were men in the company whom he would not permit to approach him. He would fly at and tear them with his beak and talons. But he would never fight his bearer. He knew his own regiment from every other, would always accompany its cheer, and never that of any other regiment. Old Abe more than once escaped, but was always lured by food to return. He never seemed disposed to depart to the blue empyrean, his ancestral home. Having served three years, a portion of the members of Company C were mustered out, and Old Abe was presented to the state of Wisconsin. For many years, on occasions of public exercise or review, like other illustrious veterans, he excited in parade universal and enthusiastic attention. He occupied pleasant quarters in the State Capitol at Madison, Wisconsin, until his death at an advanced age. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SNOWY HERON OR LITTLE EGRET. CHICAGO COLORTYPE CO.] THE SNOWY HERON. "What does it cost this garniture of death? It costs the life which God alone can give; It costs dull silence where was music's breath, It costs dead joy, that foolish pride may live. Ah, life, and joy, and song, depend upon it, Are costly trimmings for a woman's bonnet!" --MAY RILEY SMITH. Temperate and tropical America, from Long Island to Oregon, south to Buenos Ayres, may be considered the home of the Snowy Heron, though it is sometimes seen on the Atlantic coast as far as Nova Scotia. It is supposed to be an occasional summer resident as far north as Long Island, and it is found along the entire gulf coast and the shores of both oceans. It is called the Little White Egret, and is no doubt the handsomest bird of the tribe. It is pure white, with a crest composed of many long hair-like feathers, a like plume on the lower neck, and the same on the back, which are recurved when perfect. Snowy Herons nest in colonies, preferring willow bushes in the marshes for this purpose. The nest is made in the latter part of April or early June. Along the gulf coast of Florida, they nest on the Mangrove Islands, and in the interior in the willow ponds and swamps, in company with the Louisiana and Little Blue Herons. The nest is simply a platform of sticks, and from two to five eggs are laid. Alas, plume hunters have wrought such destruction to these lovely birds that very few are now found in the old nesting places. About 1889, according to Mr. F. M. Woodruff, this bird was almost completely exterminated in Florida, the plume hunters transferring their base of operation to the Texas coast of the Gulf, and the bird is now in a fair way to be utterly destroyed there also. He found them very rare in 1891 at Matagorda Bay, Texas. This particular specimen is a remarkably fine one, from the fact that it has fifty-two plumes, the ordinary number being from thirty to forty. Nothing for some time has been more commonly seen than the delicate airy plumes which stand upright in ladies' bonnets. These little feathers, says a recent writer, were provided by nature as the nuptial adornment of the White Heron. Many kind-hearted women who would not on any account do a cruel act, are, by following this fashion, causing the continuance of a great cruelty. If ladies who are seemingly so indifferent to the inhumanity practiced by those who provide them with this means of adornment would apply to the Humane Education Committee, Providence, R. I., for information on the subject, they would themselves be aroused to the necessity of doing something towards the protection of our birds. Much is, however, being done by good men and women to this end. The Little Egret moves through the air with a noble and rapid flight. It is curious to see it pass directly overhead. The head, body and legs are held in line, stiff and immovable, and the gently waving wings carry the bird along with a rapidity that seems the effect of magic. An old name of this bird was Hern, or Hernshaw, from which was derived the saying, "He does not know a Hawk from a Hernshaw." The last word has been corrupted into "handsaw," rendering the proverb meaningless. SUMMARY Page 3. #BALD EAGLE.#--_Haliæetus leucocephalus._ Other names: "White-headed Eagle," "Bird of Washington," "Gray Eagle," "Sea Eagle." Dark brown. Head, tail, and tail coverts white. Tarsus, naked. Young with little or no white. RANGE--North America, breeding throughout its range. NEST--Generally in tall trees. EGGS--Two or three, dull white. * * * * * Page 8. #SEMI-PALMATED PLOVER.#--_�gialitis semi-palmata._ Other names: "American Ring Plover," "Ring Neck," "Beach Bird." Front, throat, ring around neck, and entire under parts white; band of deep black across the breast; upper parts ashy brown. Toes connected at base. RANGE--North America in general, breeding in the Arctic and sub-arctic districts, winters from the Gulf States to Brazil. NEST--Depression in the ground, with lining of dry grass. EGGS--Three or four; buffy white, spotted with chocolate. * * * * * Page 11. #MALLARD DUCK.#--_Anas boschas._ Other names: "Green-head," "Wild Duck." Adult male, in fall, winter, and spring, beautifully colored; summer, resembles female--sombre. RANGE--Northern parts of Northern Hemisphere. NEST--Of grasses, on the ground, usually near the water. EGGS--Six to ten; pale green or bluish white. * * * * * Page 15. #AMERICAN AVOCET.#--_Recurvirostra americana._ Other names: "White Snipe," "Yelper," "Lawyer," "Scooper." RANGE--Temperate North America. NEST--A slight depression in the ground. EGGS--Three or four; pale olive or buffy clay color, spotted with chocolate. * * * * * Page 20. #CANVAS-BACK.#--_Aythya vallisneria._ Other names: "White-Back," "Bull-Neck," "Red-Headed Bull-Neck." RANGE--North America. Breeds only in the interior, from northwestern states to the Arctic circle; south in winter to Guatemala. NEST--On the ground, in marshy lakesides. EGGS--Six to ten; buffy white, with bluish tinge. * * * * * Page 21. #WOOD DUCK.#--_Aix sponsa._ Coloring varied; most beautiful of ducks. Other names: "Summer Duck," "Bridal Duck," "Wood Widgeon," "Tree Duck." RANGE--North America. Breeds from Florida to Hudson's Bay; winters south. NEST--Made of grasses, usually placed in a hole in tree or stump. EGGS--Eight to fourteen; pale, buffy white. * * * * * Page 26. #SNAKE BIRD.#--_Anhinga anhinga._ Other names: "Water Turkey," "Darter," "Water Crow," "Grecian Lady." RANGE--Tropical and sub-tropical America. NEST--Of sticks, lined with moss, rootlets, etc., in a bush or tree over the water. EGGS--Two to four; bluish white, with a chalky deposit. * * * * * Page 30. #AMERICAN WOODCOCK.#--_Philohela minor._ Other names: "Bog-sucker," "Mud Snipe," "Blind Snipe." RANGE--Eastern North America, breeding throughout its range. NEST--Of dried leaves, on the ground. EGGS--Four; buffy, spotted with shades of rufous. * * * * * Page 33. #WHITE-WINGED SCOTER.#--_Oidemia deglandi._ Other names: "American Velvet Scoter," "White-winged Coot," "Uncle Sam Coot." RANGE--Northern North America; breeding in Labrador and the fur countries; south in winter. NEST--On the ground, beneath bushes. EGGS--Six to ten; pale, dull buff. * * * * * Page 38. #SNOWY HERON.#--_Ardea candidissima._ Other names: "Little Egret," "White-crested Egret," "White Poke." RANGE--Tropical and temperate America. NEST--A platform of sticks, in bushes, over water. EGGS--Three to five; pale, dull blue. 
30103	----	Transcriber's Note: Title added. * * * * * BIRDS ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY Vol. One MARCH, 1897 No. 3 * * * * * FROM: THE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. _STATE OF NEW YORK_ _Department of Public Instruction_ _SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE_ _Albany_ December 26, 1896. [Illustration: (seal)] _Stenographic Letter_ Dictated by __________ W. E. Watt, President &c., Fisher Building, 277 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. My dear Sir: Please accept my thanks for a copy of the first publication of "Birds." Please enter my name as a regular subscriber. It is one of the most beautiful and interesting publications yet attempted in this direction. It has other attractions in addition to its beauty, and it must win its way to popular favor. Wishing the handsome little magazine abundant prosperity, I remain Yours very respectfully, [signature] State Superintendent. * * * * * _"The KING can do no wrong"_ [Illustration] MONARCH BICYCLES ARE FAULTLESS MONARCH CYCLE MF'G CO. CHICAGO, NEW YORK, LONDON. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. +----------------------------+ | #A. REED & SONS PIANOS.# | +----------------------------+ Manufactured under patents granted by the governments of the United States, England, Germany, France and Canada. #A New and Scientific Method of Piano Construction# FREE SOUNDING BOARD, VIBRATION BAR, STRINGS RESTING ON ALUMINUM WHEELS, ANTI-MOISTURE PIN BLOCK, LATERAL PEDALS #Grand Diploma and Medal of Honor# Awarded at Columbian World's Exposition, 1893 Only American Piano receiving mention in the Official Report to the German Government #A. REED & SONS# No. 5 Adams Street ... CHICAGO Illustrated Catalogues ... containing full explanation Mailed Free. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. #Every Teacher# finds daily in her work some new and perplexing problem to solve. With The Teacher's Practical Library at hand for consultation the answer may always be found. 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The "OLD Reliable" House of #"ANDREWS"# FURNISHES Everything for Schools Rugby School Desks, Teachers' Desks and Chairs, Blackboards, Erasers, Dustless Crayons, Globes, Maps, Charts, Apparatus, etc., etc. #The Jones Model of the Earth# shows the reliefs of the land surface and ocean bed, 20 inches diameter. Used by the Royal Geographical Society, Cornell University. Normal, and other schools of various forms and grades. #The Deep Sea Globe.# This new 12 in. globe shows all that is seen on the common globe, but in addition the varying depths of the ocean bed, by color shading, also 500 soundings by figures. #The A. H. Andrews Co.# CHICAGO. (Next Auditorium) 300 WABASH AVE. Also Manufactures Office, Church and Bank Furniture. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. * * * * * LITTLE BOY BLUE. Boys and girls, don't you think that is a pretty name? I came from the warm south, where I went last winter, to tell you that Springtime is nearly here. When I sing, the buds and flowers and grass all begin to whisper to one another, "Springtime is coming for we heard the Bluebird say so," and then they peep out to see the warm sunshine. I perch beside them and tell them of my long journey from the south and how I knew just when to tell them to come out of their warm winter cradles. I am of the same blue color as the violet that shows her pretty face when I sing, "Summer is coming, and Springtime is here." I do not like the cities for they are black and noisy and full of those troublesome birds called English Sparrows. I take my pretty mate and out in the beautiful country we find a home. We build a nest of twigs, grass and hair, in a box that the farmer puts up for us near his barn. Sometimes we build in a hole in some old tree and soon there are tiny eggs in the nest. I sing to my mate and to the good people who own the barn. I heard the farmer say one day, "Isn't it nice to hear the Bluebird sing? He must be very happy." And I am, too, for by this time there are four or five little ones in the nest. Little Bluebirds are like little boys--they are always hungry. We work hard to find enough for them to eat. We feed them nice fat worms and bugs, and when their little wings are strong enough, we teach them how to fly. Soon they are large enough to hunt their own food, and can take care of themselves. The summer passes, and when we feel the breath of winter we go south again, for we do not like the cold. * * * THE BLUE BIRD. I know the song that the Bluebird is singing Out in the apple tree, where he is swinging. Brave little fellow! the skies may be dreary, Nothing cares he while his heart is so cheery. Hark! how the music leaps out from his throat, Hark! was there ever so merry a note? Listen a while, and you'll hear what he's saying, Up in the apple tree swinging and swaying. "Dear little blossoms down under the snow, You must be weary of winter, I know; Hark! while I sing you a message of cheer, Summer is coming, and springtime is here!" "Dear little snow-drop! I pray you arise; Bright yellow crocus! come open your eyes; Sweet little violets, hid from the cold, Put on our mantles of purple and gold; Daffodils! daffodils! say, do you hear, Summer is coming! and springtime is here!" [Illustration: BLUE BIRD.] THE BLUE BIRD. Winged lute that we call a blue bird, You blend in a silver strain The sound of the laughing waters, The patter of spring's sweet rain, The voice of the wind, the sunshine, And fragrance of blossoming things, Ah! you are a poem of April That God endowed with wings. E. E. R. * * * Like a bit of sky this little harbinger of spring appears, as we see him and his mate househunting in early March. Oftentimes he makes his appearance as early as the middle of February, when his attractive note is heard long before he himself is seen. He is one of the last to leave us, and although the month of November is usually chosen by him as the fitting time for departure to a milder clime, his plaintive note is quite commonly heard on pleasant days throughout the winter season, and a few of the braver and hardier ones never entirely desert us. The Robin and the Blue Bird are tenderly associated in the memories of most persons whose childhood was passed on a farm or in the country village. Before the advent of the English Sparrow, the Blue Bird was sure to be the first to occupy and the last to defend the little box prepared for his return, appearing in his blue jacket somewhat in advance of the plainly habited female, who on her arrival quite often found a habitation selected and ready for her acceptance, should he find favor in her sight. And then he becomes a most devoted husband and father, sitting by the nest and warbling with earnest affection his exquisite tune, and occasionally flying away in search of food for his mate and nestlings. The Blue Bird rears two broods in the season, and, should the weather be mild, even three. His nest contains three eggs. In the spring and summer when he is happy and gay, his song is extremely soft and agreeable, while it grows very mournful and plaintive as cold weather approaches. He is mild of temper, and a peaceable and harmless neighbor, setting a fine example of amiability to his feathered friends. In the early spring, however, he wages war against robins, wrens, swallows, and other birds whose habitations are of a kind to take his fancy. A celebrated naturalist says: "This bird seems incapable of uttering a harsh note, or of doing a spiteful, ill-tempered thing." Nearly everybody has his anecdote to tell of the Blue Bird's courage, but the author of "Wake Robin" tells his exquisitely thus: "A few years ago I put up a little bird house in the back end of my garden for the accommodation of the wrens, and every season a pair have taken up their abode there. One spring a pair of Blue Birds looked into the tenement, and lingered about several days, leading me to hope that they would conclude to occupy it. But they finally went away. Late in the season the wrens appeared, and after a little coquetting, were regularly installed in their old quarters, and were as happy as only wrens can be. But before their honeymoon was over, the Blue Birds returned. I knew something was wrong before I was up in the morning. Instead of that voluble and gushing song outside the window, I heard the wrens scolding and crying out at a fearful rate, and on going out saw the Blue Birds in possession of the box. The poor wrens were in despair and were forced to look for other quarters." THE SWALLOW. "Come, summer visitant, attach To my reedroof thy nest of clay, And let my ear thy music catch, Low twitting underneath the thatch, At the gray dawn of day." Sure harbingers of spring are the Swallows. They are very common birds, and frequent, as a rule, the cultivated lands in the neighborhood of water, showing a decided preference for the habitations of man. "How gracefully the swallows fly! See them coursing over the daisy-bespangled grass fields; now they skim just over the blades of grass, and then with a rapid stroke of their long wings mount into the air and come hovering above your head, displaying their rich white and chestnut plumage to perfection. Now they chase each other for very joyfulness, uttering their sharp twittering notes; then they hover with expanded wings like miniature Kestrels, or dart downwards with the velocity of the sparrowhawk; anon they flit rapidly over the neighboring pool, occasionally dipping themselves in its calm and placid waters, and leaving a long train of rings marking their varied course. How easily they turn, or glide over the surrounding hedges, never resting, never weary, and defying the eye to trace them in the infinite turnings and twistings of their rapid shooting flight. You frequently see them glide rapidly near the ground, and then with a sidelong motion mount aloft, to dart downwards like an animated meteor, their plumage glowing in the light with metallic splendor, and the row of white spots on the tail contrasting beautifully with the darker plumage." The Swallow is considered a life-paired species, and returns to its nesting site of the previous season, building a new nest close to the old one. His nest is found in barns and outhouses, upon the beams of wood which support the roof, or in any place which assures protection to the young birds. It is cup-shaped and artfully moulded of bits of mud. Grass and feathers are used for the lining. "The nest completed, five or six eggs are deposited. They are of a pure white color, with deep rich brown blotches and spots, notably at the larger end, round which they often form a zone or belt." The sitting bird is fed by her mate. The young Swallow is distinguished from the mature birds by the absence of the elongated tail feathers, which are a mark of maturity alone. His food is composed entirely of insects. Swallows are on the wing fully sixteen hours, and the greater part of the time making terrible havoc amongst the millions of insects which infest the air. It is said that when the Swallow is seen flying high in the heavens, it is a never failing indication of fine weather. A pair of Swallows on arriving at their nesting place of the preceding Summer found their nest occupied by a Sparrow, who kept the poor birds at a distance by pecking at them with his strong beak whenever they attempted to dislodge him. Wearied and hopeless of regaining possession of their property, they at last hit upon a plan which effectually punished the intruder. One morning they appeared with a few more Swallows--their mouths filled with a supply of tempered clay--and, by their joint efforts in a short time actually plastered up the entrance to the hole, thus barring the Sparrow from the home which he had stolen from the Swallows. [Illustration: BARN SWALLOW.] THE BROWN THRUSH. "However the world goes ill, The Thrushes still sing in it." The Mocking-bird of the North, as the Brown Thrush has been called, arrives in the Eastern and Middle States about the 10th of May, at which season he may be seen, perched on the highest twig of a hedge, or on the topmost branch of a tree, singing his loud and welcome song, that may be heard a distance of half a mile. The favorite haunt of the Brown Thrush, however, is amongst the bright and glossy foliage of the evergreens. "There they delight to hide, although not so shy and retiring as the Blackbird; there they build their nests in greatest numbers, amongst the perennial foliage, and there they draw at nightfall to repose in warmth and safety." The Brown Thrasher sings chiefly just after sunrise and before sunset, but may be heard singing at intervals during the day. His food consists of wild fruits, such as blackberries and raspberries, snails, worms, slugs and grubs. He also obtains much of his food amongst the withered leaves and marshy places of the woods and shrubberies which he frequents. Few birds possess a more varied melody. His notes are almost endless in variety, each note seemingly uttered at the caprice of the bird, without any perceptible approach to order. The site of the Thrush's nest is a varied one, in the hedgerows, under a fallen tree or fence-rail; far up in the branches of stately trees, or amongst the ivy growing up their trunks. The nest is composed of the small dead twigs of trees, lined with the fine fibers of roots. From three to five eggs are deposited, and are hatched in about twelve days. They have a greenish background, thickly spotted with light brown, giving the whole egg a brownish appearance. The Brown Thrush leaves the Eastern and Middle States, on his migration South, late in September, remaining until the following May. * * * THE THRUSH'S NEST. "Within a thick and spreading hawthorn bush That overhung a molehill, large and round, I heard from morn to morn a merry thrush Sing hymns of rapture while I drank the sound With joy--and oft an unintruding guest, I watched her secret toils from day to day; How true she warped the moss to form her nest, And modeled it within with wood and clay. And by and by, with heath-bells gilt with dew, There lay her shining eggs as bright as flowers, Ink-spotted over, shells of green and blue: And there I witnessed, in the summer hours, A brood of nature's minstrels chirp and fly, Glad as the sunshine and the laughing sky." THE BROWN THRUSH. Dear Readers: My cousin Robin Redbreast told me that he wrote you a letter last month and sent it with his picture. How did you like it? He is a pretty bird--Cousin Robin--and everybody likes him. But I must tell you something of myself. Folks call me by different names--some of them nicknames, too. The cutest one of all is Brown Thrasher. I wonder if you know why they call me Thrasher. If you don't, ask some one. It is really funny. Some people think Cousin Robin is the sweetest singer of our family, but a great many like my song just as well. Early in the morning I sing among the bushes, but later in the day you will always find me in the very top of a tree and it is then I sing my best. Do you know what I say in my song? Well, if I am near a farmer while he is planting, I say: "Drop it, drop it--cover it up, cover it up--pull it up, pull it up, pull it up." One thing I very seldom do and that is, sing when near my nest. Maybe you can tell why. I'm not very far from my nest now. I just came down to the stream to get a drink and am watching that boy on the other side of the stream. Do you see him? One dear lady who loves birds has said some very nice things about me in a book called "Bird Ways." Another lady has written a beautiful poem about my singing. Ask your mamma or teacher the names of these ladies. Here is the poem: There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree. He is singing to me! He is singing to me! And what does he say--little girl, little boy? "Oh, the world's running over with joy! Hush! Look! In my tree, I am as happy as happy can be." And the brown thrush keeps singing, "A nest, do you see, And five eggs, hid by me in the big cherry tree? Don't meddle, don't touch--little girl, little boy-- Or the world will lose some of its joy! Now I am glad! now I am free! And I always shall be, If you never bring sorrow to me." So the merry brown thrush sings away in the tree To you and to me--to you and to me; And he sings all the day--little girl, little boy-- "Oh, the world's running over with joy! But long it won't be, Don't you know? don't you see? Unless we're good as good can be." [Illustration: BROWN THRASHER.] [Illustration: JAPAN PHEASANT.] THE JAPAN PHEASANT. Originally the Pheasant was an inhabitant of Asia Minor but has been by degrees introduced into many countries, where its beauty of form, plumage, and the delicacy of its flesh made it a welcome visitor. The Japan Pheasant is a very beautiful species, about which little is known in its wild state, but in captivity it is pugnacious. It requires much shelter and plenty of food, and the breed is to some degree artificially kept up by the hatching of eggs under domestic hens and feeding them in the coop like ordinary chickens, until they are old and strong enough to get their own living. The food of this bird is extremely varied. When young it is generally fed on ants' eggs, maggots, grits, and similar food, but when it is full grown it is possessed of an accommodating appetite and will eat many kinds of seeds, roots, and leaves. It will also eat beans, peas, acorns, berries, and has even been known to eat the ivy leaf, as well as the berry. This Pheasant loves the ground, runs with great speed, and always prefers to trust to its legs rather than to its wings. It is crafty, and when alarmed it slips quickly out of sight behind a bush or through a hedge, and then runs away with astonishing rapidity, always remaining under cover until it reaches some spot where it deems itself safe. The male is not domestic, passing an independent life during a part of the year and associating with others of its own sex during the rest of the season. The nest is very rude, being merely a heap of leaves and grass on the ground, with a very slight depression. The eggs are numerous, about eleven or twelve, and olive brown in color. In total length, though they vary considerably, the full grown male is about three feet. The female is smaller in size than her mate, and her length a foot less. The Japan Pheasant is not a particularly interesting bird aside from his beauty, which is indeed brilliant, there being few of the species more attractive. THE FLICKER. A great variety of names does this bird possess. It is commonly known as the Golden Winged Woodpecker, Yellow-shafted Flicker, Yellow Hammer, and less often as High-hole or High-holer, Wake-up, etc. In suitable localities throughout the United States and the southern parts of Canada, the Flicker is a very common bird, and few species are more generally known. "It is one of the most sociable of our Woodpeckers, and is apparently always on good terms with its neighbors. It usually arrives in April, occasionally even in March, the males preceding the females a few days, and as soon as the latter appear one can hear their voices in all directions." The Flicker is an ardent wooer. It is an exceedingly interesting and amusing sight to see a couple of males paying their addresses to a coy and coquettish female; the apparent shyness of the suitors as they sidle up to her and as quickly retreat again, the shy glances given as one peeps from behind a limb watching the other--playing bo-peep--seem very human, and "I have seen," says an observer, "few more amusing performances than the courtship of a pair of these birds." The defeated suitor takes his rejection quite philosophically, and retreats in a dignified manner, probably to make other trials elsewhere. Few birds deserve our good will more than the Flicker. He is exceedingly useful, destroying multitudes of grubs, larvæ, and worms. He loves berries and fruit but the damage he does to cultivated fruit is very trifling. The Flicker begins to build its nest about two weeks after the bird arrives from the south. It prefers open country, interspersed with groves and orchards, to nest in. Any old stump, or partly decayed limb of a tree, along the banks of a creek, beside a country road, or in an old orchard, will answer the purpose. Soft wood trees seem to be preferred, however. In the prairie states it occasionally selects strange nesting sites. It has been known to chisel through the weather boarding of a dwelling house, barns, and other buildings, and to nest in the hollow space between this and the cross beams; its nests have also been found in gate posts, in church towers, and in burrows of Kingfishers and bank swallows, in perpendicular banks of streams. One of the most peculiar sites of his selection is described by William A. Bryant as follows: "On a small hill, a quarter of a mile distant from any home, stood a hay stack which had been placed there two years previously. The owner, during the winter of 1889-90, had cut the stack through the middle and hauled away one portion, leaving the other standing, with the end smoothly trimmed. The following spring I noticed a pair of flickers about the stack showing signs of wanting to make it a fixed habitation. One morning a few days later I was amused at the efforts of one of the pair. It was clinging to the perpendicular end of the stack and throwing out clipped hay at a rate to defy competition. This work continued for a week, and in that time the pair had excavated a cavity twenty inches in depth. They remained in the vicinity until autumn. During the winter the remainder of the stack was removed. They returned the following spring, and, after a brief sojourn, departed for parts unknown." From five to nine eggs are generally laid. They are glossy white in color, and when fresh appear as if enameled. The young are able to leave the nest in about sixteen days; they crawl about on the limbs of the tree for a couple of days before they venture to fly, and return to the nest at night. [Illustration: FLICKER.] THE BOBOLINK. "When Nature had made all her birds, And had no cares to think on, She gave a rippling laugh, And out there flew a Bobolinkon." No American ornithologist omits mention of the Bobolink, and naturalists generally have described him under one of the many names by which he is known. In some States he is called the Rice Bird, in others Reed Bird, the Rice or Reed Bunting, while his more familiar title, throughout the greater part of America, is Bobolink, or Bobolinkum. In Jamaica, where he gets very fat during his winter stay, he is called the Butter Bird. His title of Rice Troopial is earned by the depredations which he annually makes upon the rice crops, though his food "is by no means restricted to that seed, but consists in a large degree of insects, grubs, and various wild grasses." A migratory bird, residing during the winter in the southern parts of America, he returns in vast multitudes northward in the early Spring. According to Wilson, their course of migration is as follows: "In April, or very early in May, the Rice Buntings, male and female, arrive within the southern boundaries of the United States, and are seen around the town of Savannah, Georgia, sometimes in separate parties of males and females, but more generally promiscuously. They remain there but a short time, and about the middle of May make their appearance in the lower part of Pennsylvania. While here the males are extremely gay and full of song, frequenting meadows, newly plowed fields, sides of creeks, rivers, and watery places, feeding on May flies and caterpillars, of which they destroy great quantities. In their passage, however, through Virginia at this season, they do great damage to the early wheat and barley while in their milky state. About the 20th of May they disappear on their way to the North. Nearly at the same time they arrive in the State of New York, spread over the whole of the New England States, as far as the river St. Lawrence, and from Lake Ontario to the sea. In all of these places they remain during the Summer, building their nests and rearing their young." The Bobolink's song is a peculiar one, varying greatly with the occasion. As he flys southward, his cry is a kind of clinking note; but the love song addressed to his mate is voluble and fervent. It has been said that if you should strike the keys of a pianoforte haphazard, the higher and the lower singly very quickly, you might have some idea of the Bobolink's notes. In the month of June he gradually changes his pretty, attractive dress and puts on one very like the females, which is of a plain rusty brown, and is not reassumed until the next season of nesting. The two parent birds in the plate represent the change from the dark plumage in which the bird is commonly known in the North as the Bobolink, to the dress of yellowish brown by which it is known throughout the South as the Rice or Reed Bird. His nest, small and a plain one, too, is built on the ground by his industrious little wife. The inside is warmly lined with soft fibers of whatever may be nearest at hand. Five pretty white eggs, spotted all over with brown are laid, and as soon "As the little ones chip the shell And five wide mouths are ready for food, 'Robert of Lincoln' bestirs him well, Gathering seeds for this hungry brood." BOBOLINK. Other birds may like to travel alone, but when jolly Mr. Bobolink and his quiet little wife come from the South, where they have spent the winter, they come with a large party of friends. When South, they eat so much rice that the people call them Rice Birds. When they come North, they enjoy eating wheat, barley, oats and insects. Mr. and Mrs. Bobolink build their simple little nest of grasses in some field. It is hard to find on the ground, for it looks just like dry grass. Mrs. Bobolink wears a dull dress, so she cannot be seen when she is sitting on the precious eggs. She does not sing a note while caring for the eggs. Why do you think that is? Mr. Bob-Linkum does not wear a sober dress, as you can see by his picture. He does not need to be hidden. He is just as jolly as he looks. Shall I tell you how he amuses his mate while she is sitting? He springs from the dew-wet grass with a sound like peals of merry laughter. He frolics from reed to post, singing as if his little heart would burst with joy. Don't you think Mr. and Mrs. Bobolink look happy in the picture? They have raised their family of five. Four of their children have gone to look for food; one of them--he must surely be the baby--would rather stay with his mamma and papa. Which one does he look like? Many birds are quiet at noon and in the afternoon. A flock of Bobolinks can be heard singing almost all day long. The song is full of high notes and low, soft notes and loud, all sung rapidly. It is as gay and bright as the birds themselves, who flit about playfully as they sing. You will feel like laughing as merrily as they sing when you hear it some day. [Illustration: BOBOLINKS.] THE BLUE BIRD. "Drifting down the first warm wind That thrills the earliest days of spring, The Bluebird seeks our maple groves And charms them into tasselling." "He sings, and his is Nature's voice-- A gush of melody sincere From that great fount of harmony Which thaws and runs when Spring is here." "Short is his song, but strangely sweet To ears aweary of the low Dull tramps of Winter's sullen feet, Sandalled in ice and muffled in snow." * * * "Think, every morning, when the sun peeps through The dim, leaf-latticed windows of the grove, How jubilant the happy birds renew Their old, melodious madrigals of love! And when you think of this, remember, too, 'Tis always morning somewhere, and above The awakening continents, from shore to shore, Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. "Think of your woods and orchards without birds! Of empty nests that cling to boughs and beams As in an idiot's brain remembered words Hang empty 'mid the cobwebs of his dreams! Will bleat of flocks or bellowing of herds Make up for the lost music, when your teams Drag home the stingy harvest, and no more The feathered gleaners follow to your door?" FROM "THE BIRDS OF KILLINGSWORTH." THE CROW. Caw! Caw! Caw! little boys and girls. Caw! Caw! Caw! Just look at my coat of feathers. See how black and glossy it is. Do you wonder I am proud of it? Perhaps you think I look very solemn and wise, and not at all as if I cared to play games. I do, though; and one of the games I like best is hide-and-seek. I play it with the farmer in the spring. He hides, in the rich, brown earth, golden kernels of corn. Surely he does it because he knows I like it, for sometimes he puts up a stick all dressed like a man to show where the corn is hidden. Sometimes I push my bill down into the earth to find the corn, and at other times I wait until tiny green leaves begin to show above the ground, and then I get my breakfast without much trouble. I wonder if the farmer enjoys this game as much as I do. I help him, too, by eating worms and insects. During the spring and summer I live in my nest on the top of a very high tree. It is built of sticks and grasses and straw and string and anything else I can pick up. But in the fall, I and all my relations and friends live together in great roosts or rookeries. What good times we do have--hunting all day for food and talking all night. Wouldn't you like to be with us? The farmer who lives in the house over there went to the mill to-day with a load of corn. One of the ears dropped out of the wagon and it didn't take me long to find it. I have eaten all I can possibly hold and am wondering now what is the best thing to do. If you were in my place would you leave it here and not tell anybody and come back to-morrow and finish it? Or would you fly off and get Mrs. Crow and some of the children to come and finish it? I believe I'll fly and get them. Good-bye. Caw! Caw! Caw! [Illustration: COMMON CROW.] THE COMMON CROW. "The crow doth sing as merry as the lark, When neither is attended." Few birds have more interesting characteristics than the Common Crow, being, in many of his actions, very like the Raven, especially in his love for carrion. Like the Raven, he has been known to attack game, although his inferior size forces him to call to his assistance the aid of his fellows to cope with larger creatures. Rabbits and hares are frequently the prey of this bird which pounces on them as they steal abroad to feed. His food consists of reptiles, frogs, and lizards; he is a plunderer of other birds' nests. On the seashore he finds crabs, shrimps and inhabited shells, which he ingeniously cracks by flying with them to a great height and letting them fall upon a convenient rock. The crow is seen in single pairs or in little bands of four or five. In the autumn evenings, however, they assemble in considerable flocks before going to roost and make a wonderful chattering, as if comparing notes of the events of the day. The nest of the Crow is placed in some tree remote from habitations of other birds. Although large and very conspicuous at a distance, it is fixed upon one of the topmost branches quite out of reach of the hand of the adventurous urchin who longs to secure its contents. It is loosely made and saucer shaped. Sticks and softer substances are used to construct it, and it is lined with hair and fibrous roots. Very recently a thrifty and intelligent Crow built for itself a summer residence in an airy tree near Bombay, the material used being gold, silver, and steel spectacle frames, which the bird had stolen from an optician of that city. Eighty-four frames had been used for this purpose, and they were so ingeniously woven together that the nest was quite a work of art. The eggs are variable, or rather individual, in their markings, and even in their size. The Crow rarely uses the same nest twice, although he frequently repairs to the same locality from year to year. He is remarkable for his attachment to his mate and young, surpassing the Fawn and Turtle Dove in conjugal courtesy. The Somali Arabs bear a deadly hatred toward the Crow. The origin of their detestation is the superstition that during the flight of Mohammed from his enemies, he hid himself in a cave, where he was perceived by the Crow, at that time a bird of light plumage, who, when he saw the pursuers approaching the spot, perched above Mohammed's hiding place, and screamed, "Ghar! Ghar!" (cave! cave!) so as to indicate the place of concealment. His enemies, however, did not understand the bird, and passed on, and Mohammed, when he came out of the cave, clothed the Crow in perpetual black, and commanded him to cry "Ghar" as long as Crows should live. And he lives to a good old age. Instances are not rare where he has attained to half a century, without great loss of activity or failure of sight. At Red Bank, a few miles northeast of Cincinnati, on the Little Miami River, in the bottoms, large flocks of Crows congregate the year around. A few miles away, high upon Walnut Hills, is a Crow roost, and in the late afternoons the Crows, singly, in pairs, and in flocks, are seen on the wing, flying heavily, with full crops, on the way to the roost, from which they descend in the early morning, crying "Caw! Caw!" to the fields of the newly planted, growing, or matured corn, or corn stacks, as the season may provide. THE RETURN OF THE BIRDS. "Everywhere the blue sky belongs to them and is their appointed rest, and their native country, and their own natural home which they enter unannounced as lords that are certainly expected, and yet there is a silent joy at their arrival." The return of the birds to their real home in the North, where they build their nests and rear their young, is regarded by all genuine lovers of earth's messengers of gladness and gayety as one of the most interesting and poetical of annual occurrences. The naturalist, who notes the very day of each arrival, in order that he may verify former observation or add to his material gathered for a new work, does not necessarily anticipate with greater pleasure this event than do many whose lives are brightened by the coming of the friends of their youth, who alone of early companions do not change. First of all--and ever the same delightful warbler--the Bluebird, who, in 1895, did not appear at all in many localities, though here in considerable numbers last year, betrays himself. "Did he come down out of the heaven on that bright March morning when he told us so softly and plaintively that, if we pleased, spring had come?" Sometimes he is here a little earlier, and must keep his courage up until the cold snap is over and the snow is gone. Not long after the Bluebird, comes the Robin, sometimes in March, but in most of the northern states April is the month of his arrival. With his first utterance the spell of winter is broken, and the remembrance of it afar off. Then appears the Woodpecker in great variety, the Flicker usually arriving first. He is always somebody's old favorite, "announcing his arrival by a long, loud call, repeated from the dry branch of some tree, or a stake in the fence--a thoroughly melodious April sound." Few perhaps reflect upon the difficulties encountered by the birds themselves in their returning migrations. A voyager sometimes meets with many of our common birds far out at sea. Such wanderers, it is said, when suddenly overtaken by a fog, completely lose their sense of direction and become hopelessly lost. Humming birds, those delicately organized, glittering gems, are among the most common of the land species seen at sea. The present season has been quite favorable to the protection of birds. A very competent observer says that not all of the birds migrated this winter. He recently visited a farm less than an hour's ride from Chicago, where he found the old place, as he relates it, "chucked full of Robins, Blackbirds, and Woodpeckers," and others unknown to him. From this he inferred they would have been in Florida had indications predicted a severe winter. The trees of the south parks of Chicago, and those in suburban places, have had, darting through their branches during the months of December and January, nearly as many members of the Woodpecker tribe as were found there during the mating season in May last. Alas, that the Robin will visit us in diminished numbers in the approaching spring. He has not been so common for a year or two as he was formerly, for the reason that the Robins died by thousands of starvation, owing to the freezing of their food supply in Tennessee during the protracted cold weather in the winter of 1895. It is indeed sad that this good Samaritan among birds should be defenseless against the severity of Nature, the common mother of us all. Nevertheless the return of the birds, in myriads or in single pairs, will be welcomed more and more, year by year, as intelligent love and appreciation of them shall possess the popular mind. [Illustration: BLACK TERN. Mother and Young with Eggs.] THE BLACK TERN. "The Tern," says Mr. F. M. Woodruff, of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, "is the only representative of the long-winged swimmers which commonly nests with us on our inland fresh water marshes, arriving early in May in its brooding plumage of sooty black. The color changes in the autumn to white, and a number of the adult birds may be found, in the latter part of July, dotted and streaked here and there with white. On the first of June, 1891, I found a large colony of Black Terns nesting on Hyde Lake, Cook County, Illinois. As I approached the marsh a few birds were seen flying high in the air, and, as I neared the nesting site, the flying birds gave notes of alarm, and presently the air was filled with the graceful forms of this beautiful little bird. They circled about me, darting down to within a few feet of my head, constantly uttering a harsh, screaming cry. As the eggs are laid upon the bare ground, which the brownish and blackish markings so closely resemble, I was at first unable to find the nests, and discovered that the only way to locate them was to stand quietly and watch the birds. When the Tern is passing over the nest it checks its flight, and poises for a moment on quivering wings. By keeping my eyes on this spot I found the nest with very little trouble. The complement of eggs, when the bird has not been disturbed, is usually three. These are laid in a saucer shaped structure of dead vegetation, which is scraped together, from the surface of the wet, boggy ground. The bird figured in the plate had placed its nest on the edge of an old muskrat house, and my attention was attracted to it by the fact that upon the edge of the rat house, where it had climbed to rest itself, was the body of a young dabchick, or piedbilled grebe, scarcely two and one-half inches long, and not twenty-four hours out of the egg, a beautiful little ball of blackish down, striped with brown and white. From the latter part of July to the middle of August large flocks of Black Terns may be seen on the shores of our larger lakes on their annual migration southward." The Rev. P. B. Peabody, in alluding to his observation of the nests of the Tern, says: "Amid this floating sea of aquatic nests I saw an unusual number of well constructed homes of the Tern. Among these was one that I count a perfect nest. It rested on the perfectly flat foundation of a small decayed rat house, which was about fourteen inches in diameter. The nest, in form, is a truncated cone (barring the cavity), was about eight inches high and ten inches in diameter. The hollow--quite shallow--was about seven inches across, being thus unusually large. The whole was built up of bits of rushes, carried to the spot, these being quite uniform in length--about four inches." After daily observation of the Tern, during which time he added much to his knowledge of the bird, he pertinently asks: "Who shall say how many traits and habits yet unknown may be discovered through patient watching of community-breeding birds, by men enjoying more of leisure for such delightful studies than often falls to the lot of most of us who have bread and butter to earn and a tiny part of the world's work to finish?" THE MEADOW LARK. "Not an inch of his body is free from delight. Can he keep himself still if he would? Oh, not he! The music stirs in him like wind through a tree." The well known Meadow or Old Field Lark is a constant resident south of latitude 39, and many winter farther north in favorite localities. Its geographical range is eastern North America, Canada to south Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario to eastern Manitoba; west to Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, eastern Kansas, the Indian Territory, and Texas; south to Florida and the Gulf coast, in all of which localities, except in the extreme north, it usually rears two or three broods in a season. In the Northern States it is only a summer resident, arriving in April and remaining until the latter part of October and occasionally November. Excepting during the breeding season, small flocks may often be seen roving about in search of good feeding grounds. Major Bendire says this is especially true in the fall of the year. At this time several families unite, and as many as two dozen may occasionally be flushed in a field, over which they scatter, roaming about independently of each other. When one takes wing all the others in the vicinity follow. It is a shy bird in the East, while in the middle states it is quite the reverse. Its flight is rather laborious, at least in starting, and is continued by a series of rapid movements of the wings, alternating with short distances of sailing, and is rarely protracted. On alighting, which is accompanied with a twitching of its tail, it usually settles on some fence rail, post, boulder, weedstock, or on a hillock in a meadow from which it can get a good view of the surroundings, and but rarely on a limb of a tree. Its favorite resorts are meadows, fallow fields, pastures, and clearings, but in some sections, as in northern Florida, for instance, it also frequents the low, open pine woods and nests there. The song of the Meadow Lark is not much varied, but its clear, whistling notes, so frequently heard in the early spring, are melodious and pleasing to the ear. It is decidedly the farmers' friend, feeding, as it does, on noxious insects, caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers, spiders, worms and the like, and eating but little grain. The lark spends the greater part of its time on the ground, procuring all its food there. It is seldom found alone, and it is said remains paired for life. Nesting begins in the early part of May and lasts through June. Both sexes assist in building the nest, which is always placed on the ground, either in a natural depression, or in a little hollow scratched out by the birds, alongside a bunch of grass or weeds. The nest itself is lined with dry grass, stubble, and sometimes pine needles. Most nests are placed in level meadows. The eggs and young are frequently destroyed by vermin, for the meadow lark has many enemies. The eggs vary from three to seven, five being the most common, and both sexes assist in the hatching, which requires about fifteen or sixteen days. The young leave the nest before they are able to fly--hiding at the slightest sign of danger. The Meadow Lark does not migrate beyond the United States. It is a native bird, and is only accidental in England. The eggs are spotted, blotched, and speckled with shades of brown, purple and lavender. A curious incident is told of a Meadow Lark trying to alight on the top mast of a schooner several miles at sea. It was evidently very tired but would not venture near the deck. [Illustration: MEADOW LARK.] THE MEADOW LARK. I told the man who wanted my picture that he could take it if he would show my nest and eggs. Do you blame me for saying so? Don't you think it makes a better picture than if I stood alone? Mr. Lark is away getting me some breakfast, or he could be in the picture, too. After a few days I shall have some little baby birds, and then won't we be happy. Boys and girls who live in the country know us pretty well. When they drive the cows out to pasture, or when they go out to gather wild flowers, we sit on the fences by the roadside and make them glad with our merry song. Those of you who live in the city cannot see us unless you come out into the country. It isn't very often that we can find such a pretty place for a nest as we have here. Most of the time we build our nest under the grass and cover it over, and build a little tunnel leading to it. This year we made up our minds not to be afraid. The people living in the houses over there do not bother us at all and we are so happy. You never saw baby larks, did you? Well, they are queer little fellows, with hardly any feathers on them. Last summer we had five little birdies to feed, and it kept us busy from morning till night. This year we only expect three, and Mr. Lark says he will do all the work. He knows a field that is being plowed, where he can get nice, large worms. Hark! that is he singing. He will be surprised when he comes back and finds me off the nest. He is so afraid that I will let the eggs get cold, but I won't. There he comes, now. THE LONG-EARED OWL. The name of the Long-Eared Owl is derived from the great length of his "ears" or feather-tufts, which are placed upon the head, and erect themselves whenever the bird is interested or excited. It is the "black sheep" of the owl family, the majority of owls being genuine friends of the agriculturist, catching for his larder so many of the small animals that prey upon his crops. In America he is called the Great Horned Owl--in Europe the Golden Owl. Nesting time with the owl begins in February, and continues through March and April. The clown-like antics of both sexes of this bird while under the tender influence of the nesting season tend somewhat to impair their reputation for dignity and wise demeanor. They usually have a simple nest in a hollow tree, but which seems seldom to be built by the bird itself, as it prefers to take the deserted nest of some other bird, and to fit up the premises for its own use. They repair slightly from year to year the same nest. The eggs are white, and generally four or five in number. While the young are still in the nest, the parent birds display a singular diligence in collecting food for them. If you should happen to know of an owl's nest, stand near it some evening when the old birds are rearing their young. Keep quiet and motionless, and notice how frequently the old birds feed them. Every ten minutes or so the soft flap, flap of their wings will be heard, the male and female alternately, and you will obtain a brief glimpse of them through the gloom as they enter the nesting place. They remain inside but a short time, sharing the food equally amongst their brood, and then are off again to hunt for more. All night, were you to have the inclination to observe them, you would find they pass to and fro with food, only ceasing their labors at dawn. The young, as soon as they reach maturity, are abandoned by their parents; they quit the nest and seek out haunts elsewhere, while the old birds rear another, and not infrequently two more broods, during the remainder of the season. The habits of the Long-Eared Owl are nocturnal. He is seldom seen in the light of day, and is greatly disturbed if he chance to issue from his concealment while the sun is above the horizon. The facial disk is very conspicuous in this species. It is said that the use of this circle is to collect the rays of light, and throw them upon the eye. The flight of the owl is softened by means of especially shaped, recurved feather-tips, so that he may noiselessly steal upon his prey, and the ear is also so shaped as to gather sounds from below. The Long-Eared Owl is hardly tameable. The writer of this paragraph, when a boy, was the possessor, for more than a year, of a very fine specimen. We called him Judge. He was a monster, and of perfect plumage. Although he seemed to have some attachment to the children of the family who fed him, he would not permit himself to be handled by them or by any one in the slightest. Most of his time he spent in his cage, an immense affair, in which he was very comfortable. Occasionally he had a day in the barn with the rats and mice. The owl is of great usefulness to gardener, agriculturist, and landowner alike, for there is not another bird of prey which is so great a destroyer of the enemies of vegetation. [Illustration: GREAT HORNED OWL.] THE OWL. We know not alway Who are kings by day, But the king of the night is the bold brown owl! I wonder why the folks put my picture last in the book. It can't be because they don't like me, for I'm sure I never bother them. I don't eat the farmer's corn like the crow, and no one ever saw me quarrel with other birds. Maybe it is because I can't sing. Well, there are lots of good people that can't sing, and so there are lots of good birds that can't sing. Did you ever see any other bird sit up as straight as I do? I couldn't sit up so straight if I hadn't such long, sharp claws to hold on with. My home is in the woods. Here we owls build our nests--most always in hollow trees. During the day I stay in the nest or sit on a limb. I don't like day time for the light hurts my eyes, but when it begins to grow dark then I like to stir around. All night long I am wide awake and fly about getting food for my little hungry ones. They sleep most of the day and it keeps me busy nearly all night to find them enough to eat. I just finished my night's work when the man came to take my picture. It was getting light and I told him to go to a large stump on the edge of the woods and I would sit for my picture. So here I am. Don't you think I look wise? How do you like my large eyes? If I could smile at you I would, but my face always looks sober. I have a great many cousins and if you really like my picture, I'll have some of them talk to you next month. I don't think any of them have such pretty feathers though. Just see if they have when they come. Well, I must fly back to my perch in the old elm tree. Good-bye. THE OWL. In the hollow tree, in the old gray tower, The spectral owl doth dwell; Dull, hated, despised in the sunshine hour, But at dusk he's abroad and well! Not a bird of the forest e'er mates with him; All mock him outright by day; But at night, when the woods grow still and dim, The boldest will shrink away! O! when the night falls, and roosts the fowl, Then, then, is the reign of the Horned Owl! And the owl hath a bride, who is fond and bold, And loveth the wood's deep gloom; And, with eyes like the shine of the moonstone cold, She awaiteth her ghastly groom. Not a feather she moves, not a carol she sings, As she waits in her tree so still, But when her heart heareth his flapping wings, She hoots out her welcome shrill! O! when the moon shines, and dogs do howl, Then, then, is the joy of the Horned Owl! Mourn not for the owl, nor his gloomy plight! The owl hath his share of good-- If a prisoner he be in the broad daylight, He is lord in the dark greenwood! Nor lonely the bird, nor his ghastly mate, They are each unto each a pride; Thrice fonder, perhaps, since a strange, dark fate Hath rent them from all beside! So, when the night falls, and dogs do howl, Sing, Ho! for the reign of the Horned Owl! We know not alway Who are kings by day, But the King of the Night is the bold Brown Owl! BRYAN W. PROCTER (Barry Cornwall.) * * * * * THE Racycle NARROW TREAD THE VERDICT IS IN [Illustration] Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to advertisers. TESTIMONIALS. FRANKFORT, KY., February 3, 1897. W. J. BLACK, Vice-President, Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: I have a copy of your magazine entitled "Birds," and beg to say that I consider it one of the finest things on the subject that I have ever seen, and shall be pleased to recommend it to county and city superintendents of the state. Very respectfully, W. J. DAVIDSON, State Superintendent Public Instruction. * * * SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., January 27, 1897. W. J. BLACK, ESQ., Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: I am very much obliged for the copy of "Birds" that has just come to hand. It should be in the hands of every primary and grammar teacher. I send herewith copy of "List of San Francisco Teachers." Very respectfully, M. BABCOCK. * * * LINCOLN, NEB., February 9, 1897. W. J. BLACK, Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: The first number of your magazine, "Birds," is upon my desk. I am highly pleased with it. It will prove a very serviceable publication--one that strikes out along the right lines. For the purpose intended, it has, in my opinion, no equal. It is clear, concise, and admirably illustrated. Very respectfully, W. R. JACKSON, State Superintendent Public Instruction. * * * NORTH LIMA, OHIO, February 1, 1897. MR. W. E. WATT, Dear Sir: Sample copy of "Birds" received. All of the family delighted with it. We wish it unbounded success. It will be an excellent supplement to "In Birdland" in the Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle, and I venture Ohio will be to the front with a good subscription list. I enclose list of teachers. Very truly, C. M. L. ALTDOERFFER, Township Superintendent. * * * MILWAUKEE, January 30, 1897. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY, 227 Dearborn Street, Chicago. Gentlemen: I acknowledge with pleasure the receipt of your publication, "Birds," with accompanying circulars. I consider it the best on the subject in existence. I have submitted the circulars and publication to my teachers, who have nothing to say but praise in behalf of the monthly. JULIUS TORNEY, Principal 2nd Dist. Primary School, Milwaukee, Wis. OUR PREMIUM A picture of wonderful beauty of the Golden Pheasant almost life size in a natural scene, plate 12x18 inches, on card 19x25 inches, is given as a premium to yearly subscribers. Our price on this picture in Art Stores is $3.50. 
30552	----	Transcriber's Note: Title page added. * * * * * BIRDS A MONTHLY SERIAL ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE VOLUME II. CHICAGO. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1897 BY NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO. BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. II. OCTOBER NO. 4 ================================ BIRDS IN CAPTIVITY. It was our intention in this article to give a number of instances of a pathetic nature concerning the sufferings of the various species of birds which it has been, and still is, a habit with many people to keep confined in cages totally inadequate for any other purpose than that of cruelty. The argument that man has no moral right to deprive an innocent creature of liberty will always be met with indifference by the majority of people, and an appeal to their intelligence and humanity will rarely prove effective. To capture singing birds for any purpose is, in many states, prohibited by statute. But the law is violated. Occasionally an example is made of one or more transgressors, but as a rule the officers of the law, whose business it should be to prevent it, manifest no interest whatever in its execution. The bird trappers as well know that it is against the law, but so long as they are unmolested by the police, they will continue the wholesale trapping. A contemporary recently said: "It seems strange that this bird-catching industry should increase so largely simultaneously with the founding of the Illinois Audubon Society. The good that that society has done in checking the habit of wearing birds in bonnets, seems to have been fairly counterbalanced by the increase in the number of songsters captured for cage purposes. These trappers choose the nesting season as most favorable for their work, and every pair of birds they catch means the loss of an entire family in the shape of a set of eggs or a nestful of young left to perish slowly by starvation." This is the way the trappers proceed. They are nearly all Germans. Bird snaring is a favorite occupation in Germany and the fondness for the cruel work was not left behind by the emigrants. More's the pity. These fellows fairly swarm with their bird limes and traps among the suburbs, having an eye only to the birds of brightest plumage and sweetest song. "They use one of the innocents as a bait to lure the others to a prison." "Two of the trappers," says one who watched them, "took their station at the edge of an open field, skirted by a growth of willows. Each had two cage traps. The device was divided into two parts by wires running horizontally and parallel to the plane of the floor. In the lower half of each cage was a male American Goldfinch. In the roof of the traps were two little hinged doors, which turned backward and upward, leaving an opening. Inside the upper compartment of the trap, and accessible through the doorway in the roof, was a swinging perch. The traps were placed on stumps among the growth of thistles and dock weed, while the trappers hid behind the trees. The Goldfinches confined in the lower sections of the traps had been the victims of the trappers earlier in the season, and the sight of their familiar haunts, the sunlight, the breeze, and the swaying willow branches, where so often they had perched and sung, caused them to flutter about and to utter pathetically the call note of their days of freedom. It is upon this yearning for liberty and its manifestation that the bird trappers depend to secure more victims. No sooner does the piping call go forth from the golden throats of the little prisoners, than a reply comes from the thistle tops, far down the field. A moment more and the traps are surrounded with the black and yellow beauties. The fact that one of their own kind is within the curious little house which confronts them seems to send all their timidity to the winds and they fairly fall over one another in their endeavor to see what it all means. Finally one finds the doorway in the roof and drops upon the perch within. Instantly the doors close and a Goldfinch is a prisoner." Laurence Sterne alone, of sentimental writers, has put in adequate language something of the feeling that should stir the heart of the sympathetic, at least, on seeing the unjust confinement of innocent birds. The Starling, which is the subject of his elevated sentiment, will appear in an early number of BIRDS. Sterne had just been soliloquizing somewhat favorably of the Bastile, when a voice, which he took to be that of a child, complained "it could not get out." "I looked up and down the passage, and seeing neither man, woman, nor child, I went out without further attention. In my return back through the passage, I heard the same words repeated twice over, and looking up, I saw it was a Starling hung in a little cage. 'I can't get out, I can't get out,' said the Starling. I stood looking at the Bird, and to every person who came through the passage, it ran fluttering to the side, towards which they approached it, with the same lamentation of its captivity. 'I can't get out,' said the Starling. 'God help thee!' said I, 'but I'll let thee out, cost what it will;' so I turned about the cage to get the door. It was twisted and double-twisted so fast with wire, there was no getting it open without pulling the cage to pieces. I took both hands to it. The bird flew to the place where I was attempting its deliverance, and thrusting his head through the trellis, pressed his breast against it as if impatient. 'I fear, poor creature,' said I, 'I can't set thee at liberty.' 'No,' said the Starling, 'I can't get out,' 'I can't get out,' said the Starling. I vow I never had my affections more tenderly awakened; or do I remember an incident in my life where the dissipated spirits, to which my reason had been a bubble, were so suddenly called home. Mechanical as the notes were, yet so true in tune to Nature were they chanted, that disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, 'Slavery,' said I, 'still thou art a bitter draught; and though thousands in all ages have been made to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account. No, thou thrice sweet and gracious goddess liberty, whose taste is grateful, and ever will be so, till nature herself shall change; no tint of woods can spot thy snowy mantle.'" The bird in his cage pursued Sterne into his room, where he composed his apostrophe to liberty. It would be well indeed, if a sentiment could be aroused which would prohibit absolutely the caging of birds, as well as their wanton destruction, and if the children are taught that "tenderness which is the charm of youth," another generation will see it accomplished. C. C. MARBLE. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER. If the children had had the naming of birds we venture to say that it would have been more appropriately done, and "Blackburnian," as many other names of Warblers, would have had no place in literature. There are about seventy-five well known Warblers, nearly all with common names indicating the most characteristic colors or habits, or partly descriptive of the bird itself. The common names of this beautiful Warbler are Orange-throated Warbler and Hemlock Warbler. Some one has suggested that it should be called the Torch Bird, for "half a dozen of them as they flash about in the pines, raising their wings and jerking their tails, make the darkest shadows seem breaking into little tongues of flame." The Orange-throat is only migratory in Illinois, passing through in spring and fall, its summer home being chiefly if not wholly, to the northward, while it passes the winter in Central America and northern South America. It is found in New York and in portions of Massachusetts, frequenting the coniferous forests, and building its nest in bushes or small trees a few feet above the ground. Dr. C. Hart Merriam found a pair of these birds nesting in a grove of large white pines in Lewis County, New York. In the latter part of May the female was observed building, and on the second of June the nest contained four fresh eggs of the Warbler and one of the Cow bird. The nest was saddled on the horizontal limb about eight feet from the ground and about ten feet from the trunk. Nests have been found in pine trees in Southern Michigan at an elevation of forty feet. In all cases the nests are placed high in hemlocks or pines, which are the bird's favorite resorts. From all accounts the nests of this species are elegantly and compactly made, consisting of a densely woven mass of spruce twigs, soft vegetable down, rootlets, and fine shreds of bark. The lining is often intermixed with horse hairs and feathers. Four eggs of greenish-white or very pale bluish-green, speckled or spotted, have usually been found in the nests. The autumnal male Warblers resemble the female. They have two white bands instead of one; the black stripes on the side are larger; under parts yellowish; the throat yellowish, passing into purer yellow behind. Few of our birds are more beautiful than the full plumaged male of this lovely bird, whose glowing orange throat renders it a conspicuous object among the budding and blossoming branches of the hemlocks. Chapman says, coming in May, before the woods are fully clad, he seems like some bright plumaged tropical bird who has lost his way and wandered to northern climes. The summer is passed among the higher branches in coniferous forests, and in the early fall the bird returns to surroundings which seem more in keeping with its attire. Mr. Minot describes the Blackburnian Warbler's summer song as resembling the syllables _wee-see-wee-see_, while in the spring its notes may be likened to _wee-see-wee-see, tsee, tsee, tsee_, repeated, the latter syllables being on ascending scale, the very last shrill and fine. THE LOST MATE. Shine! Shine! Shine! Pour down your warmth, great Sun! While we bask--we two together. Two together! Winds blow south, or winds blow north, Day come white, or night come black, Home, or rivers and mountains from home, Singing all time, minding no time, If we two but keep together. Till of a sudden, May be killed, unknown to her mate, One forenoon the she-bird crouched not on the nest, Nor returned that afternoon, nor the next, Nor ever appeared again. And thence forward, all summer, in the sound of the sea, And at night, under the full of moon, in calmer weather, Over the hoarse surging of the sea, Or flitting from briar to briar by day, I saw, I heard at intervals, the remaining one. Blow! blow! blow! Blow up, sea-winds, along Paumanok's shore! I wait and I wait, till you blow my mate to me. --WALT WHITMAN. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. GOLDFINCH. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE AMERICAN GOLDFINCH. "Look, Mamma, look!" cried a little boy, as one day late in June my mate and I alighted on a thistle already going to seed. "Such a lovely bird! How jolly he looks, with that black velvet hat drawn over his eyes!" "That's a Goldfinch," replied his mamma; "sometimes called the Jolly Bird, the Thistle Bird, the Wild Canary, and the Yellow Bird. He belongs to the family of Weed Warriors, and is very useful." "He sings like a Canary," said Bobbie. "Just hear him talking to that little brown bird alongside of him." That was my mate, you see, who _is_ rather plain looking, so to please him I sang my best song, "_Per-chic-o-ree, per-chic-o-ree_." "That sounds a great deal better," said Bobbie; "because it's not sung by a little prisoner behind cage bars, I guess." "It certainly is wilder and more joyous," said his mamma. "He is very happy just now, for he and his mate are preparing for housekeeping. Later on, he will shed his lemon-yellow coat, and then you won't be able to tell him from his mate and little ones." "How they are gobbling up that thistle-down," cried Bobbie. "Just look!" "Yes," said his mamma, "the fluff carries the seed, like a sail to which the seed is fastened. By eating the seed, which otherwise would be carried by the wind all over the place, these birds do a great amount of good. The down they will use to line their nests." "How I should like to peep into their nest," said Bobbie; "just to peep, you know; not to rob it of its eggs, as boys do who are not well brought up." My mate and I were so pleased at that, we flew off a little way, chirping and chattering as we went. "Up and down, up and down," said Bobbie; "how prettily they fly." "Yes," said his mamma; "that is the way you can always tell a Goldfinch when in the air. A dip and a jerk, singing as he flies." "What other seeds do they eat, mamma?" presently asked Bobbie. "The seeds of the dandelion, the sunflower, and wild grasses generally. In the winter, when these are not to be had, the poor little fellows have a very hard time. People with kind hearts, scatter canary seed over their lawns to the merry birds for their summer songs, and for keeping down the weeds." THE GOLDFINCH. According to one intelligent observer, the Finches are, in Nature's economy, entrusted with the task of keeping the weeds in subjection, and the gay and elegant little Goldfinch is probably one of the most useful, for its food is found to consist, for the greater part, of seeds most hurtful to the works of man. "The charlock that so often chokes his cereal crops is partly kept in bounds by his vigilance, and the dock, whose rank vegetation would, if allowed to cast all its seeds, spread barrenness around, is also one of his store houses, and the rank grasses, at their seeding time, are his chief support." Another writer, whose study of this bird has been made with care, calls our American Goldfinch one of the loveliest of birds. With his elegant plumage, his rhythmical, undulatory flight, his beautiful song, and his more beautiful soul, he ought to be one of the best beloved, if not one of the most famous; but he has never yet had half his deserts. He is like the Chickadee, and yet different. He is not so extremely confiding, nor should I call him merry. But he is always cheerful, in spite of his so-called plaintive note, from which he gets one of his names, and always amiable. So far as I know, he never utters a harsh sound; even the young ones asking for food, use only smooth, musical tones. During the pairing season, his delight often becomes rapturous. To see him then, hovering and singing,--or, better still, to see the devoted pair hovering together, billing and singing,--is enough to do even a cynic good. The happy lovers! They have never read it in a book, but it is written on their hearts: "The gentle law that each should be The other's heaven and harmony." In building his nest, the Goldfinch uses much ingenuity, lichens and moss being woven so deeply into the walls that the whole surface is quite smooth. Instead of choosing the forks of a bough, this Finch likes to make its nest near the end of a horizontal branch, so that it moves about and dances up and down as the branch is swayed by the wind. It might be thought that the eggs would be shaken out by a tolerably sharp breeze, and such would indeed be the case, were they not kept in their place by the form of the nest. On examination, it will be seen to have the edge thickened and slightly turned inward, so that when the nest is tilted on one side by the swaying of the bough, the eggs are still retained within. It is lined with vegetable down, and on this soft bed repose five pretty eggs, white, tinged with blue, and diversified with small grayish purple spots. * * * A curious story is told of a caged Goldfinch, which in pleasant weather always hung in a window. One day, hearing strange bird voices, the owner looked up from her seat and saw a Catbird trying to induce the Finch to eat a worm it had brought for it. By dint of coaxing and feeding the wild bird, she finally induced it to come often to the window, and one day, as she sat on the porch, the Catbird brought a berry and tried to put it into her mouth. We have often seen sparrows come to the window of rooms where canaries were imprisoned, but it has uniformly been to get food and not to administer it. The Catbird certainly thus expressed its gratitude. [Illustration: From col. Eugene Bliss. CHIMNEY SWIFT. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE CHIMNEY SWIFT. Chief Pokagon, of the Pottawattamie Indians, in an article in _The Osprey_, writes delightfully of the Chimney Swift, and we quote a portion of it describing a peculiar habit of the bird. The chief was a youth when he made the observation, and he writes in the second person: "As you look, you see the head of the young chief is turning slowly around, watching something high in air above the stream; you now begin to look in the same direction, catching glimpses every now and then, of the segment of a wild revolving ring of small unnumbered birds circling high above the trees. Their twittering notes and whizzing wings create a musical, but wild, continued roar. You now begin to realize he is determined to understand all about the feathered bees, as large as little birds, the village boy had seen. The circle continues to decrease in size, but increases the revolution until all the living, breathing ring swings over the stream in the field of your vision, and you begin to enquire what means all this mighty ingathering of such multitude of birds. The young chief in admiration claps his hands, leaping towards the stream. The twittering, whizzing roar continues to increase; the revolving circle fast assumes a funnel shape, moving downward until the point reaches the hollow in the stub, pouring its living mass therein until the last bird dropped out of sight. Rejoicing in wonder and admiration, the youth walks round the base of the stub, listening to the rumbling roar of fluttering wings within. Night comes on, he wraps his blanket closer about him, and lies down to rest until the coming day, that he may witness the swarming multitudes pass out in early morning. But not until the hour of midnight does he fall asleep, nor does he wake until the dawn of day, when, rising to his feet, he looks upward to the skies. One by one the stars disappear. The moon grows pale. He listens. Last night's familiar roar rings in his ears. He now beholds swarming from out the stub the living, breathing mass, forming in funnel shape, revolving like a top, rising high in air, then sweeping outward into a wide expanding ring, until the myriads of birds are scattered wide, like leaves before the whirlwind." And then what do they do? Open the mouth of a swallow that has been flying, and turn out the mass of small flies and other insects that have been collected there. The number packed into its mouth is almost incredible, for when relieved from the constant pressure to which it is subjected, the black heap begins to swell and enlarge, until it attains nearly double its former size. Chimney Swallow is the name usually applied to this Swift. The habit of frequenting chimneys is a recent one, and the substitution of this modern artificial home for hollow trees illustrates the readiness with which it adapts itself to a change in surroundings. In perching, they cling to the side of the chimney, using the spine-pointed tails for a support. They are most active early in the morning and late in the afternoon, when one may hear their rolling twitter as they course about overhead. The question whether Chimney Swifts break off twigs for their nests with their feet is now being discussed by ornithologists. Many curious and interesting observations have been made, and the momentous question will no doubt in time be placed beyond peradventure. THE LARK. Up with me! up with me into the clouds! For thy song, Lark, is strong; Up with me! Up with me into the clouds! Singing, singing, With clouds and sky about thee ringing. Lift me, guide me till I find That spot which seems so to thy mind. I have walked through wildernesses dreary, And to-day my heart is weary; Had I now the wings of a Fairy Up to thee would I fly. There is madness about thee, and joy divine In that song of thine; Lift me, guide me high and high To thy banqueting place in the sky. --WORDSWORTH. SHORE LARK. If the variety of names by which this Lark is known is any indication of its popularity, its friends must be indeed numerous. Snow Lark, Snowbird, Prairie Lark, Sky Lark, American Sky Lark, Horned Lark, are a few of them. There is only one American Species, so far as known. It breeds in northeastern North America and Greenland, wintering in the United States. It also inhabits northern portions of the old world. The common name is derived from the tufts of black feathers over each ear, which the birds have the power of erecting at will like the so-called horns of some owls. In the Eastern States, during the winter months, flocks of Horned Larks, varying in size from a dozen to those of a hundred or more, may be seen frequenting open plains, old fields, dry shores of bays, and the banks of rivers. According to Davie, as there are a number of geographical varieties of the Horned Lark, the greatest uncertainty has always attended their identification even by experts, and the breeding and winter ranges of the various subspecies do not yet seem to be clearly defined. Audubon found this species on the low, mossy and sheltered hills along the dreary coast of Labrador. In the midst of the mosses and lichens that covered the rocks the bird imbedded its nest, composed of fine grasses, arranged in a circular form and lined with the feathers of grouse and other birds. Chapman says these Larks take wing with a sharp, whistled note, and seek fresh fields or, hesitating, finally swing about and return to near the spot from which they were flushed. They are sometimes found associated with Snowflakes. The pinkish grey coloring is very beautiful, but in the Middle and Eastern States this bird is rarely seen in his spring garb, says an observer, and his winter plumage lacks the vivid contrasts and prime color. As a singer the Shore Lark is not to be despised, especially in his nesting haunts. He has a habit of singing as he soars in the air, after the manner of the European Skylark. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. HORNED LARK. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER. When the veins of the birch overflow in the spring, Then I sharpen my bill and make the woods ring, Till forth gushes--rewarding my tap, tap, tap! The food of us Suckers--the rich, juicy sap. --C. C. M. Many wild birds run up and down trees, and it seems to make little difference which end up they are temporarily, skirmishing ever to the right and left, whacking the bark with their bills, then quiet a brief moment, and again skirmishing around the tree. Sometimes an apple tree, says a recent writer, will have a perfect circle, not seldom several rings or holes round the tree--holes as large as a buck shot. The little skirmisher makes these holes, and the farmer calls it a Sapsucker. And such it is. Dr. Coues, however, says it is not a bird, handsome as it is, that you would care to have come in great numbers to your garden or orchard, for he eats the sap that leaks out through the holes he makes in the trees. When a great many holes have been bored near together, the bark loosens and peels off, so that the tree is likely to die. The Sapsucker also eats the soft inner bark which is between the rough outside bark and the hard heart-wood of the tree, which is very harmful. Nevertheless the bird does much good in destroying insects which gather to feed on the oozing sap. It sweeps them up in its tongue, which is not barbed, like that of other woodpeckers, but has a little brush on the end of it. It lacks the long, extensile tongue which enables the other species to probe the winding galleries of wood-eating larvæ. Mr. William Brewster states that throughout the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and in most sections of Northern Maine, the Yellow-Bellied Woodpeckers outnumber all the other species in the summer season. Their favorite nesting sites are large dead birches, and a decided preference is manifested for the vicinity of water, though some nests occur in the interior of woods. The average height of the nesting hole from the ground is about forty feet. Many of the nests are gourd-like in shape, with the ends very smoothly and evenly chiseled, the average depth being about fourteen inches. The labors of excavating the nest and those of rearing the young are shared by both sexes. While this Sapsucker is a winter resident in most portions of Illinois, and may breed sparingly in the extreme northern portion, no record of it has been found. A walk in one of our extensive parks is nearly always rewarded by the sight of one or more of these interesting and attractive birds. They are usually so industriously engaged that they seem to give little attention to your presence, and hunt away, tapping the bole of the tree, until called elsewhere by some more promising field of operations. Before taking flight from one tree to another, they stop the insect search and gaze inquisitively toward their destination. If two of them meet, there is often a sudden stopping in the air, a twisting upward and downward, followed by a lively chase across the open to the top of a dead tree, and then a sly peeping round or over a limb, after the manner of all Woodpeckers. A rapid drumming with the bill on the tree, branch or trunk, it is said, serves for a love-song, and it has a screaming call note. THE WARBLING VIREO. The Vireos are a family of singers and are more often heard than seen, but the Warbler has a much more musical voice, and of greater compass than any other member of the family. The song ripples like a brook, floating down from the leafiest tree-tops. It is not much to look at, being quite plainly dressed in contrast with the red-eyed cousin, the largest of the Vireos. In nesting time it prefers seclusion, though in the spring and mid-summer, when the little ones have flown, and nesting cares have ceased, it frequents the garden, singing in the elms and birches, and other tall trees. It rambles as well through the foliage of trees in open woodland, in parks, and in those along the banks of streams, where it diligently searches the under side of leaves and branches for insect life, "in that near-sighted way peculiar to the tribe." It is a very stoic among birds, and seems never surprised at anything, "even at the loud report of a gun, with the shot rattling about it in the branches, and, if uninjured, it will stand for a moment unconcerned, or move along, peering on every side amongst the foliage, warbling its tender, liquid strains." The nest of this species is like that of the Red-eyed Vireo--a strong, durable, basket-like fabric, made of bark strips, lined with fine grasses. It is suspended by the brim in slender, horizontal forks of branches, at a great height from the ground. The Vireo is especially numerous among the elms of Boston Common, where at almost any hour of the day, from early in the month of May, until long after summer has gone, may be heard the prolonged notes of the Warbling species, which was an especial favorite of Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, author of "History of North American Birds." Its voice is not powerful, but its melody, it is said, is flute-like and tender, and its song is perhaps characterized more by its air of happy contentment, than by any other special quality. No writer on birds has grown enthusiastic on the subject, and Bradford Torrey alone among them does it scant justice, when he says this Vireo "is admirably named; there is no one of our birds that can more properly be said to warble. He keeps further from the ground than the others, and shows a strong preference for the elms of village streets, out of which his delicious music drops upon the ears of all passers underneath. How many of them hear it and thank the singer, is unhappily another question." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. WARBLING VIREO. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE SAPSUCKER. My Dear Young Friends: During the long summer days, when you were enjoying golden vacation hours, I often took a peep at you from some dead tree limb or the side of a hemlock or beech. You saw me, perhaps, and were surprised at my courage; for other small birds whose voices you heard, but whose tiny bodies escaped your young eyes, appeared very timid in comparison. But I am not so brave, after all, and know full well when my red hat is in danger. I am a good flyer, too, and can soon put a wide space between myself and certain wicked boys, who, I hope, by next vacation time will have learned so much about us that they will love every little feathered creature, and not seek to do them any harm. Can you guess why I have such a queer name? I really ought to be popular in Illinois, for they tell me it is called the Sucker State, and that the people are proud of it. Well, I am called Sapsucker because much, if not most, of my food consists of the secret juices which flow through the entire body of the tree which you probably saw me running up and down and around. But you saw me, you say, very often on dead branches of trees, and surely they had no sap in them? No, but if you will look closely into my actions, you will see that I destroy many insects which drill their way into the wood and deposit their eggs. In my opinion, I do far more good than harm, though you will find some people who think otherwise. Then, again, if there is utility in beauty, surely I am a benefit to every one. One day I heard a lady say that she never saw my head pop up from behind an old stump without bursting into laughter, I looked so funny. Now I took that as a compliment; for to give pleasure to those around us, I have heard, is one of our highest duties. Next summer when you seek the pleasant places where I dwell,--in the old deadening where the trees wear girdles around them; in the open groves, where I flit from tree to tree; in the deep wooded districts, whence one hears the tinkling ripple of running waters, you may, if good and gentle, see pop up behind a stump the red hat of SAPSUCKER. THE WOOD PEWEE. The listening Dryads hushed the woods; The boughs were thick, and thin and few The golden ribbons fluttering through; Their sun-embroidered leafy hoods The lindens lifted to the blue; Only a little forest-brook The farthest hem of silence shook; When in the hollow shades I heard-- Was it a spirit or a bird? Or, strayed from Eden, desolate, Some Peri calling to her mate, Whom nevermore her mate would cheer? "Pe-ri! Pe-ri! Peer!" * * * To trace it in its green retreat I sought among the boughs in vain; And followed still the wandering strain So melancholy and so sweet, The dim-eyed violets yearned with pain. * * * Long drawn and clear its closes were-- As if the hand of Music through The sombre robe of Silence drew A thread of golden gossamer; So pure a flute the fairy blue. Like beggared princes of the wood, In silver rags the birches stood; The hemlocks, lordly counselors, Were dumb; the sturdy servitors, In beechen jackets patched and gray, Seemed waiting spellbound all the day That low, entrancing note to hear-- "Pe-wee! Pe-wee! Peer!" * * * "Dear bird," I said, "what is thy name?" And thrice the mournful answer came, So faint and far, and yet so near, "Pe-wee! Pe-wee! Peer!" --J. T. TROWBRIDGE. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. WOOD PEWEE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE WOOD PEWEE. I am called the Wood Pewee, but I don't always stay in the woods. If you have an orchard or a nice garden, you will hear me singing there in June. People think I am not a happy bird, because my song seems so sad. They are very much mistaken. I am just as happy as any other little fellow dressed in feathers, and can flirt and flutter with the best of them. _Pewee! Pewee! Peer!_ That is my song, and my mate thinks it is beautiful. She is never far away, and always comes at my call. Always, did I say? No; one day, when we were busy building our nest--which is very pretty, almost as dainty as that of our neighbor the Humming Bird--she flew away to quite a distance to find some soft lining-stuff on which to lay her eggs. I had been fetching and carrying all day the lichens to put round the nest, which was hidden among the thick leaves on the bough of a tree, and was resting by the side of it. _Pewee! Pewee! Peer!_ "She will hear that," thought I, and again I sang it as loud as I could. "I'll bring that fellow down, too," said a boy, who surely had never heard anything about our happy, innocent lives, and as I peered down at him, he flung a large stone, which struck the bough on which I sat. Oh, how frightened I was, and how quickly I flew away! "He has killed my little mate," I thought. Still, I called in my plaintive way, _Pewee! Pewee! Peer!_ A faint, low cry led me to the foot of a large tree, and there on the ground lay my mate, struggling to rise and fly to me. "I think my wing is broken," she sobbed. "Oh, that wicked, wicked boy!" I petted her with my broad, flat beak, and after a while she was able to fly with me to our nest; but it was days and days before she was out of pain. I am sure if that boy sees my story in BIRDS, he will never give such an innocent _little_ creature misery again. I dress plainly, in a coat of olive and brown, and they _do_ say my manners are stiff and abrupt. But my voice is very sweet, and there is something about it which makes people say: "Dear little bird, sad little bird! what may your name be?" Then I answer: _Pewee! Pewee! Peer!_ THE WOOD PEWEE. Although one of the most abundant species, common all over the United States, the retiring habits, plainness of dress, and quiet manners of this little bird have caused it to be comparatively little known. Dr. Brewer says that if noticed at all, it is generally confounded with the common Pewee, or Phoebe bird, though a little observation is sufficient to show how very distinct they are. The Wood Pewee will sit almost motionless for many minutes in an erect position, on some dead twig or other prominent perch, patiently watching for its insect prey. While its position is apparently so fixed, however, its eyes are constantly on the alert, and close watching will show that the bird now and then turns its head as its glance follows the course of some distant insect, while anon the feathers of the crown are raised, so as to form a sort of blunt pyramidal crest. This sentinel-like attitude of the Wood Pewee is in marked contrast to the restless motion of the Phoebe, who, even if perched, keeps its tail constantly in motion, while the bird itself seldom remains long in a fixed position. The notes of the two species (see August BIRDS) are as different as their habits, those of the Wood Pewee being peculiarly plaintive--a sort of wailing _pe-e-e-e-i, wee_, the first syllable emphasized and long drawn out, and the tone, a clear, plaintive, wiry whistle, strikingly different from the cheerful, emphatic notes of the true Pewee. The Wood Pewee, like all of its family, is an expert catcher of insects, even the most minute, and has a remarkably quick perception of their near presence, even when the light of day has nearly gone and in the deep gloom of the thick woods. Dr. Brewer describes it as taking its station at the end of a low dead limb, from which it darts out in quest of insects, sometimes for a single individual, which it seizes with a sharp snap of its bill; and, frequently meeting insect after insect, it keeps up a constant snapping sound as it passes on, and finally returns to its post to resume its watch. While watching it occasionally twitters, with a quivering movement of the head and tail, uttering a feeble call-note, sounding like _pee-e_. The nest of the Wood Pewee, which is always "saddled" and securely attached to a rather stout branch, usually lichen-covered, is said to be one of the most elegant examples of bird architecture. From beneath it so much resembles a natural portion of the limb, but for its betrayal by the owner, it would seldom be discovered. It is saucer-shaped, with thick walls, and the whole exterior is a beautiful "mosaic" of green, gray, and glaucous lichen. The eggs are a rich delicate cream color, ornamented by a "wreath" round the larger end of madder-brown, purple, and lilac spots. The Wood Pewee has many admirers, a more interesting creature to watch while feeding being hard to imagine. Often you will find him in the parks. Sitting in some quiet, shady spot, if you wait, he will soon show himself as he darts from the fence post not far away, to return to it time after time with, possibly, the very insect that has been buzzing about your face and made you miserable. His movements are so quick that even the fly cannot elude him. And to some he is pleasant as a companion. One who loves birds once saw this Flycatcher flying in a circle and repeating breathlessly his emphatic _chebec_. "He sang on the wing, and I have never heard notes which seemed more expressive of happiness." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SNOW BUNTING. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE SNOWFLAKE. Bobbie didn't want to go to school that morning, and he looked very cheerfully out upon the cloudy sky and falling flakes of snow, pretending to shiver a little when the angry gusts of wind blew the snow sharply into people's faces. "I guess it's better for little boys like me to stay at home in such weather as this, mamma," said he, all the while hoping the snow would soon be deep enough for him to ride down the hill on his sled. Before his mamma could reply Bobbie gave a cry of delight which drew her at once to the window. As from the snow clouds, on bold and rapid wing, came whirling down an immense flock of birds, white, streaked with gray and brown, chirping, calling to one another, the whole flock settling upon the open places in a field in front of Bobbie's house. "Oh, the dear little things," said Bobbie, "they looked like little white angels dropping out of the clouds." "Those are our winter neighbors," said his mamma, "the Snow Buntings or Snowflakes--they visit us only in winter, their summer homes being away up North near the Arctic Circle in the region of perpetual snow." "Do they build their nests in trees?" asked Bobbie, who never tired hearing about the birds. "There are no trees in that bleak region, only scrubby bushes," was the answer. "They build a thick, deep grassy nest, well lined with rabbit fur, or Snow Owl feathers, which they tuck under a ledge of rock or bunch of grass." "They chirrup just like sparrows," reflected Bobbie, "can they sing?" "They only sing when up in their Northern home. There a male Snowflake will sing as merrily as his cousin the Goldfinch." "They look like Sparrows, too," said Bobbie, "only whiter and softer, I think." "In the summer they are nearly all white, the brown edges having worn away, leaving them pure black and white. They are very shy and suspicious, and at the least sound you will see them all whirl aloft braving the blasts of winter like little heroes." "Well," said Bobbie, after a while, "if those little soft white birds can go about in such weather, I guess I can too," and in a few minutes with high rubber boots, and a fur cap drawn over his ears, off trudged Bobbie like another little hero to school. THE SNOWFLAKE. This charming bird comes to us at a time when his presence may be truly welcomed and appreciated, nearly all our summer companions of the feathered tribe having departed. He might not inappropriately be named the great Snowflake, though in winter he wears a warm brown cloak, with black stripes, brown collar, and a brown and white vest. In summer, however, he is snow white, with black on the back, wings, and tail. He lives all over northern North America, and in the United States as far south as Georgia. About the first of November, flocks of Snowflakes may be seen arriving, the males chanting a very low and somewhat broken, but very pleasant song. Some call him White Snowbird, and Snow Bunting, according to locality. The birds breed throughout the Arctic regions of both continents, the National Museum at Washington possessing nests from the most northern points of Alaska, (Point Barrow), and from Labrador, as well as from various intermediate localities. These birds are famous seed eaters, and are rarely found in trees. They should be looked for on the ground, in the air, for they are constantly seeking new feeding grounds, in the barn-yard, or about the hay stack, where seeds are plentiful. They also nest on the ground, building a deep, grassy nest, lined with rabbit fur or feathers, under a projecting ledge of rock or thick bunch of grass. It seems curious that few persons readily distinguish them from their sparrow cousins, as they have much more white about them than any other color. Last November multitudes of them invaded Washington Park, settling on the ground to feed, and flying up and scurrying away to successive pastures of promise. With their soft musical voices and gentle manners, they were a pleasing feature of the late Autumn landscape. "Chill November's surly blast" making "field and forest bare," had no terrors for them, but rather spread before them a feast of scattered seeds, winnowed by it from nature's ripened abundance. The Snowflakes disappear with the melting of their namesake, the snow. They are especially numerous in snowy seasons, when flocks of sometimes a thousand are seen in the old fields and meadows. It is unusual, though it has been known to breed in the Northern States. In July, 1831, Audubon found it nesting in the White Mountains, and Dr. J. A. Allen notes a pair as breeding near Springfield, Mass. The Arctic regions are its nesting place however, and these birds were probably belated on their return migration. The Snowflake and Shorelark are so much alike in habits, that the two species occasionally associate. Ernest E. Thompson says: "Apparently the Snowflakes get but little to eat, but in reality they always find enough to keep them in health and spirits, and are as fat as butter balls. In the mid-winter, in the far north, when the thermometer showed thirty degrees below zero, and the chill blizzard was blowing on the plains, I have seen this brave little bird gleefully chasing his fellows, and pouring out, as he flew, his sweet voluble song with as much spirit as ever Skylark has in the sunniest days of June." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. JUNCO. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE SLATE-COLORED JUNCO. Black snowbird, in most of the United States and in Ontario, where it is a common resident, and White Bill, are names more often applied to this species of Sparrow than the one of Junco, by which it is known to ornithologists. It nests in the mountains of northern Pennsylvania, New York, and New England, and is a resident throughout the year in northeastern Ohio, and in Michigan. In all probability, the Snowbird does not breed, even occasionally, anywhere within the limits of the state of Illinois, though individuals may in very rare instances be found several weeks after others have departed for the north, these having probably received some injury which prevents their migration. Prof. Forbes refers to such an instance, which came under his own observation. He saw on a tree in the edge of a wood, in the southern part of the state, an adult specimen of the Junco, and only one, which, he says, astonished him. Mr. William L. Kells states that in Ontario this Junco selects a variety of places for nesting sites, such as the upturned roots of trees, crevices in banks, under the sides of logs and stumps, a cavity under broken sod, or in the shelter of grass or other vegetation. The nest is made of dry grasses, warmly and smoothly lined with hair. The bird generally begins to nest the first week of May, and nests with eggs are found as late as August. A nest of the Junco was found on the rafters of a barn in Connecticut. Almost any time after the first of October, little excursion parties of Juncos may be looked for, and the custom continues all winter long. When you become acquainted with him, as you surely will, during his visit, you will like him more and more for his cheerful habits. He will come to your back door, and present his little food petition, very merrily indeed. He is very friendly with the Chick-a-dee, and they are often seen together about in the barn-yards, and he even ventures within the barn when seeds are frozen to the ground. "The Doctor," in _Citizen Bird_, tells this pretty story of his winter pets: "My flock of Juncos were determined to brave all weathers. First they ate the seeds of all the weeds and tall grasses that reached above the snow, then they cleaned the honeysuckles of their watery black berries. When these were nearly gone, I began to feed them every day with crumbs, and they soon grew very tame. At Christmas an ice storm came, and after that the cold was bitter indeed. For two days I did not see my birds; but on the third day, in the afternoon, when I was feeding the hens in the barn-yard, a party of feeble, half-starved Juncos, hardly able to fly, settled down around me and began to pick at the chicken food. I knew at a glance that after a few hours more exposure all the poor little birds would be dead. So I shut up the hens and opened the door of the straw-barn very wide, scattered a quantity of meal and cracked corn in a line on the floor, and crept behind the door to watch. First one bird hopped in and tasted the food; he found it very good and evidently called his brothers, for in a minute they all went in and I closed the door upon them. And I slept better that night, because I knew that my birds were comfortable. The next afternoon they came back again. I kept them at night in this way for several weeks, and one afternoon several Snowflakes came in with them." (See page 150.) THE KINGBIRD. It is somewhat strange that there should be little unity of opinion concerning a bird as well known as is this charming fellow, who has at least one quality which we all admire--courage. We will quote a few of the opinions of well-known observers as to whether his other characteristics are admirable, and let the reader form his own conclusion. John Burroughs says of him: "The exquisite of the family, and the braggart of the orchard, is the Kingbird, a bully that loves to strip the feathers off its more timid neighbors like the Bluebird, that feeds on the stingless bees of the hive, the drones, and earns the reputation of great boldness by teasing large hawks, while it gives a wide berth to the little ones." Decidedly, this classifies him with the English Sparrow. But we will hear Dr. Brewer: "The name, Kingbird, is given it on the supposition that it is superior to all other birds in the reckless courage with which it will maintain an unequal warfare. My own observations lead me to the conclusion that writers have somewhat exaggerated the quarrelsome disposition of this bird. I have never, or very rarely, known it to molest or attack any other birds than those which its own instinct prompts it to drive away in self-defense, such as Hawks, Owls, Eagles, Crows, Jays, Cuckoos, and Grackles." That Dr. Coues is a friend of the Kingbird, his language amply proves: "The Kingbird is not quarrelsome--simply very lively. He is the very picture of dash and daring in defending his home, and when he is teaching his youngsters how to fly. He is one of the best of neighbors, and a brave soldier. An officer of the guild of Sky Sweepers, also a Ground Gleaner and Tree Trapper killing robber-flies, ants, beetles, and rose-bugs. A good friend to horses and cattle, because he kills the terrible gadflies. Eats a little fruit, but chiefly wild varieties, and only now and then a bee." If you now have any difficulty in making up your verdict, we will present the testimony of one other witness, who is, we think, an original observer, as well as a delightful writer, Bradford Torrey. He was in the country. "Almost, I could have believed myself in Eden," he says. "But, alas, even the birds themselves were long since shut out of that garden of innocence, and as I started back toward the village a Crow went hurrying past me, with a Kingbird in hot pursuit. The latter was more fortunate than usual, or more plucky, actually alighting on the Crow's back, and riding for some distance. I could not distinguish his motions--he was too far away for that--but I wished him joy of his victory, and grace to improve it to the full. For it is scandalous that a bird of the Crow's cloth should be a thief; and so, although I reckon him among my friends--in truth, _because_ I do so--I am always able to take it patiently when I see him chastised for his fault." The Kingbird is a common bird in Eastern United States, but is rare west of the Rocky Mountains. It is perhaps better known by the name of Beebird or Bee-martin. The nest is placed in an orchard or garden, or by the roadside, on a horizontal bough or in the fork at a moderate height; sometimes in the top of the tallest trees along streams. It is bulky, ragged, and loose, but well capped and brimmed, consisting of twigs, grasses, rootlets, bits of vegetable down, and wool firmly matted together, and lined with feathers, hair, etc. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. KING BIRD. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE KINGBIRD. You think, my young friends, because I am called Kingbird I should be large and fine looking. Well, when you come to read about Kings in your history-book you will find that size has nothing to do with Kingliness. I have heard, indeed, that some of them were very puny little fellows, in mind as well as in body. If it is courage that makes a king then I have the right to be called Kingbird. They say I have a reckless sort of courage, because I attack birds a great deal larger than myself. I would not call it courage to attack anything smaller than myself, would you? A big man finds it easy to shoot a little bird in the air; and a big boy does not need to be brave to kill or cripple some poor little animal that crosses his path. He only needs to be a coward to do that! I only attack my enemies,--the Hawks, Owls, Eagles, Crows, Jays, and Cuckoos. They would destroy my young family if I did not drive them away. Mr. Crow especially is a great thief. When my mate is on her nest I keep a sharp lookout, and when one of my enemies approaches I give a shrill cry, rise in the air, and down I pounce on his back; I do this more than once, and how I make the feathers fly! The little hawks and crows I never attack, and yet they call me a bully. Sometimes I do go for a Song-bird or a Robin, but only when they come too near my nest. People wonder why I never attack the cunning Catbird. I'll never tell them, you may be sure! To what family do I belong? To a large family called Flycatchers. Because some Kings are tyrants I suppose, they call me the Tyrant Flycatcher. Look for me next summer on top of a wire fence or dead twig of a tree, and watch me, every few minutes, dash into the air, seize a passing insect, and then fly back to the same perch again. Any other names? Yes, some folks call me the Bee Bird or Bee Martin. Once in awhile I change my diet and do snap up a bee! but it is always a drone, not a honey-bee. Some ill-natured people say I choose the drones because they can't sting, and not because they are tramp bees and will not work. Sing? Yes, when my mate is on her nest I please her with a soft pretty song, at other times my call-note is a piercing Kyrie-K-y-rie! I live with you only in the summer. When September comes I fly away to a warmer climate. SUMMARY Page 123. #BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER.#--_Dendroica blackburniæ._ RANGE--Eastern North America; breeds from northern Minnesota and southern Maine northward to Labrador and southward along the Alleghenies to South Carolina; winters in the tropics. NEST--Of fine twigs and grasses, lined with grasses and tendrils, in coniferous trees, ten to forty feet up. EGGS--Four, grayish white or bluish white, distinctly and obscurely spotted, speckled, and blotched with cinnamon brown or olive brown. * * * * * Page 128. #AMERICAN GOLDFINCH.#--_Spinus tristis._ Other names: "Yellow-bird," "Thistle-bird." RANGE--Eastern North America; breeds from South Carolina to southern Labrador; winters from the northern United States to the Gulf. NEST--Externally, of fine grasses, strips of bark and moss, thickly lined with thistle down; in trees or bushes, five to thirty feet up. EGGS--Three to six, pale bluish white. * * * * * Page 131. #CHIMNEY SWIFT.#--_Chætura pelagica._ Other name: "Chimney Swallow." RANGE--Eastern North America; breeds from Florida to Labrador; winters in Central America. NEST--A bracket-like basket of dead twigs glued together with saliva, attached to the wall of a chimney, generally about ten feet from the top, by the gummy secretions of the bird's salivary glands. EGGS--Four to six, white. * * * * * Page 135. #HORNED LARK.#--_Otocoris alpestris._ Other name: "Shore Lark." RANGE--Breeds in northern Europe, Greenland, Newfoundland, Labrador, and Hudson Bay region; southward in winter into eastern United States to about latitude 35°. NEST--Of grasses, on the ground. EGGS--Three or four, pale bluish or greenish white, minutely and evenly speckled with pale grayish brown. * * * * * Page 140. #SAPSUCKER, YELLOW-BELLIED.#--_Sphyrapicus varius._ RANGE--Eastern North America; breeds from Massachusetts northward, and winters from Virginia to Central America. NEST--About forty feet from the ground. EGGS--Five to seven. * * * * * Page 141. #WARBLING VIREO.#--_Vireo gilvus._ Other name: "Yellow-throated Vireo." RANGE--North America; breeds as far north as the Hudson Bay region; winters in the tropics. NEST--Pensile, of grasses and plant fibres, firmly and smoothly interwoven, lined with fine grasses, suspended from a forked branch eight to forty feet up. EGGS--Three or four, white, with a few specks or spots of black umber, or rufous-brown, chiefly about the larger end. * * * * * Page 146. #WOOD PEWEE.#--_Contopus Virens._ RANGE--Eastern North America; breeds from Florida to Newfoundland; winters in Central America. NEST--Compact and symmetrical, of fine grasses, rootlets and moss, thickly covered with lichens, saddled on a limb, twenty to forty feet up. EGGS--Three or four, white, with a wreath of distinct and obscure markings about the larger end. * * * * * Page 150. #SNOWFLAKE.#--_Plectrophenax nivalis._ Other name: "Snow Bunting." RANGE--Northern parts of northern hemisphere, breeding in the arctic regions; in North America, south in Winter into the northern United States, irregularly to Georgia, southern Illinois, and Kansas. NEST--Of grasses, rootlets, and moss, lined with finer grasses and feathers, on the ground. EGGS--Four to seven, pale bluish white, thinly marked with umber or heavily spotted or washed with rufous-brown. * * * * * Page 153. #JUNCO#--_Junco hyemalis._ Other name: "Snowbird." RANGE--North America; breeds from northern Minnesota to northern New York and southward along the summits of the Alleghenies to Virginia; winters southward to the Gulf States. NEST--Of grasses, moss, and rootlets, lined with fine grasses and long hairs, on or near the ground. EGGS--Four or five, white or bluish white, finely or evenly speckled or spotted, sometimes heavily blotched at the larger end with rufous-brown. * * * * * Page 158. #KINGBIRD.#--_Tyrannus tyrannus._ RANGE--North America north to New Brunswick and Manitoba; rare west of the Rocky Mountains; winters in Central and South America. NEST--Compact and symmetrical, of weed-stocks, grasses, and moss, lined with plant down, fine grasses, and rootlets, generally at the end of a branch fifteen to twenty-five feet from the ground. EGGS--Three to five, white, spotted with umber. 
34165	----	BIRDS A MONTHLY SERIAL ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE VOLUME III. CHICAGO. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. --------------------------- COPYRIGHT, 1897 BY NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO. --------------------------- INTRODUCTION. With the January number of BIRDS, we enter upon a new year with the satisfaction of having pleased our readers, as well as rendered an actual service to the cause of education, ornithological literature, and art. Among the hundreds of testimonials from competent judges, (many of them scientists), which we have received, we will permit ourselves the use of one only, as exemplifying the excellence which we have sought to attain and the rightful claim which we may make for the future. The writer says: "I find BIRDS an everlasting source of pleasure to the children, not less than to myself. I have one of the few almost absolutely _fresh_ copies of 'Audubon's Birds,' for which I have refused $3,000, besides later works, and I will say that the pictures of birds given in your magazine are infinitely more true to life, and more pleasing, everyway, than any of those presented in either work. The other day I compared some of your pictures with the birds mounted by myself, notably a Wood-duck and a Wood-cock, and every marking co-incided. The photographs might have been taken from my own specimens, so accurately were they delineated, attesting the truth of your work." Some of our subscribers, unaware of the prodigality with which nature has scattered birds throughout the world, have asked whether the supply of specimens may not soon be exhausted. Our answer is, that there are many thousands of rare and attractive birds, all of them interesting for study, from which, for years to come, we might select many of the loveliest forms and richest plumage. Of North American birds alone there are more than twelve hundred species. The success of BIRDS is due to its superior color illustrations and the unique treatment of the text. Popular and yet scientific, it is interesting to old and young alike. The classification and nomenclature followed are those adopted by the American Ornithological Union in 1895. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. THE PIGEONS. Under the big nursery table Are Sue, Don, Harold, and Mabel, All playing, with joy and delight, That pigeons they are, dressed in white. Don't you hear their gentle "coo, coo"? Ah, now they fly out in full view! And over the meadow they go-- 'Tis their own dear nursery, you know-- Where, quick to the tops of the trees They fly, with lightness and ease; There each birdie is glad to be Perched high upon a big chair-tree. But to their home in swiftest flight They haste, ere day has changed to night; Then in they go, with cooing sweet, And find their home a blest retreat. And now they tell just where they've been, And all the wondrous sights they've seen. Then with their "coo, coo," soft and low, Each pigeon goes to sleep, I trow. --EMMA G. SAULSBURY. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. CROWNED PIGEON. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. III. JANUARY, 1898. NO. 1. ================================ THE CROWNED PIGEON. We regret that a full monograph of this remarkable bird cannot be given in this number. It is the giant among Pigeons and has some characteristics, on account of its great size, not common to the family. Very little has been written about it, and it would be a real service to ornithology if some one familiar with the subject would communicate his knowledge to the public. These birds pair for life, and the loss or death of a mate is in many cases mourned and grieved over, the survivor frequently refusing to be consoled. The Pigeon family is an exceedingly interesting one, of great variety of form and color, undergoing constant change by inter-breeding. There are about three hundred known species of Pigeons and Doves, about one third of which number are found in the New World. In North America but twelve species occur, a family small enough to find room in BIRDS to sit for their pictures. Some of these birds, says Chapman, are arboreal, others are strictly terrestrial. Some seek the forests and others prefer the fields and clearings. Some nest in colonies, others in isolated pairs, but most species are found in flocks of greater or less size after the nesting season. When drinking, they do not raise the head as others do to swallow, but keep the bill immersed until the draught is finished. The young are born naked and are fed by regurgitation. Living specimens of this the largest species of Pigeons may some day be brought to the United States and made to increase as the Ring-necked English Pheasant has already been domesticated in their own country. It has been suggested that their introduction among us would be a comparatively easy matter. THE RED-EYED VIREO. "A bird with red eyes! look, mamma," said Bobby. "How funny!" "And how beautiful," replied his mamma. "Not plainly dressed, like his cousin, the Warbling Vireo, whose picture you saw in the October number of BIRDS." "The Yellow-Throated, in the June number," said Bobbie, who has a remarkable memory, "was a lovely bird, too, mamma. Can Mr. Red-eye sing?" "No, you can't call his note a song; it is more like a chatter, which he keeps up from morning till night." "Like some children," said Bobbie, with a sage nod of the head, "who talk all day long." "Yes," smiled his mamma, "without saying very much, either. But this little bird works while he chatters." "I reckon he stops at noon time," said Bobbie, "as other birds do." "No, even then the silence of the woods is broken by the Red-eyed Vireo's voice. He is such a busy little fellow, he can't find time for a nap." "Hm!" remarked Bobbie; "the other birds must find him a tiresome fellow, I think. "Has he any other names, mamma?" "Yes, he is called the Red-eyed Greenlet or Red-eyed Fly-catcher. One gentleman calls him 'The Preacher.' To him the bird seems to say, '_You see it; you know it; do you hear me? do you believe it?_'" "I'm going to look out for that red-eyed preacher next summer," said Bobby, with a laugh. "One lady who makes a study of birds thinks he says, '_I know it! would you think it? musn't touch it; you'll rue it!_' He makes a pause, as you see, after each sentence." "Tell me something about their nests?" said Bobbie, deeply interested. "They are made of bark fibers, cobwebs, bits of paper, and scraps of hornets' nests, in the form of a little pocket. This is suspended from the fork of two or more twigs high up in the tree, making a sort of cradle for the little ones." "Rock-a-by, baby, on the tree top, When the wind blows, the cradle will rock." hummed Bobby. "How jolly!" "Yes," said mamma; "and they take care that it is under some green leaves, which act as an umbrella to keep the sun out of the mother's eyes while she sits on the four pretty white eggs." "And out of the little ones' red eyes, too," laughed Bobbie. "How cute!" [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. RED-EYED VIREO. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE RED EYED VIREO. Red-eyed Vireo, Red-eyed Greenlet, and Red-eyed Fly-catcher are the names variously applied to this pretty representative of his family, of which there are about fifty species. The Red-eye is an inhabitant of Central America and Mexico, its northern limit being the lower Rio Grande valley in Texas. The exquisite little creature is tinted even more delicately than the Wax-wing, but with much the same glossy look and elegant air. The ruby-tinted eye, and the conspicuous white line above it, with its border, are good characteristics by which to distinguish it from its relatives. The Red-eyed Vireo is found alike in the shade trees of lawns, in orchards or woodlands, and is especially fond of sycamore groves along streams. The male is a tireless songster, and even at noon-tide of a sultry summer-day, when all other warblers are silent, his monotonous song will be heard. _He-ha-wha_, or _he, ha, whip_, in rising inflection, and _he, ha, whee_, in falling cadence. He has also a _chip_, a chatter like a miniature of the Oriole's scold, heard only in the season of courtship, and a peculiarly characteristic querulous note which, like others, can not be described with accuracy. "The Preacher," a name which Wilson Flagg has given this Vireo, exactly reflects the character of the bird and its song. "His style of preaching is not declamation," says the writer. "Though constantly talking, he takes the part of a deliberate orator who explains his subject in a few words and then makes a pause for his hearers to reflect upon it. We might suppose him to be repeating moderately, with a pause between each sentence, 'You see it--You know it--Do you hear me?--Do you believe it?' All these strains are delivered with a rising inflection at the close, and with a pause, as if waiting for an answer." From morning till night this cheery bird sings as he works, from May to September. "His tender and pathetic utterances," says Brewer, "are in striking contrast to the apparent indifference or unconsciousness of the little vocalist who, while thus delighting the ear of the listener, seems to be all the while bent on procuring its daily food, which it pursues with unabated ardor." As noxious and destructive insects constitute the Vireo's chief food he may properly be classed among the beneficent birds. Seeking for these is his constant occupation, as he hops along a branch, now peering into some crevice of the bark or nook among the foliage, ever uttering his pretty song during the interval between swallowing the last worm and finding the next. The nest of the Red-eye is built in a horizontal branch of a tree, usually in a small sapling that responds to all the caprices of the wind, thus acting as a cradle for the little ones within. The nest is cup-like in shape, and always dependent from small twigs, around which its upper edges are firmly bound, with a canopy of leaves overhead. It is woven of a variety of materials, fine strips of bark, fibres of vegetables, and webs of spiders and caterpillars. It is said that two nests of the same species are rarely found alike. Some are built of paper fibres, and bits of hornets' nests, and another may be a perfect collection of scraps of all sorts. The eggs are three or four, white with a few black or umber specks about the larger end. It was in the nest of the Red-eyed Vireo that Hamilton Gibson found twisted a bit of newspaper, whose single legible sentence read: "* * * have in view the will of God."* THE EARLY OWL. An Owl once lived in a hollow tree, And he was as wise as wise could be. The branch of learning he didn't know Could scarce on the tree of knowledge grow, He knew the tree from branch to root, And an owl like that can afford to hoot. And he hooted--until, alas! one day, He chanced to hear, in a casual way, An insignificant little bird Make use of a term he had never heard. He was flying to bed in the dawning light When he heard her singing with all her might, "Hurray! hurray! for the early worm!" "Dear me," said the owl, "what a singular term! I would look it up if it weren't so late, I must rise at dusk to investigate. Early to bed and early to rise Makes an owl healthy, and stealthy, and wise!" So he slept like an honest owl all day, And rose in the early twilight gray, And went to work in the dusky light To look for the early worm at night. He searched the country for miles around, But the early worm was not to be found; So he went to bed in the dawning light And looked for the "worm" again next night. And again and again, and again and again, He sought and he sought, but all in vain, Till he must have looked for a year and a day For the early worm in the twilight gray. At last in despair he gave up the search, And was heard to remark as he sat on his perch By the side of his nest in the hollow tree: "The thing is as plain as night to me-- Nothing can shake my conviction firm. There's no such thing as the early worm." --O. HERFORD. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. FOX SPARROW. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE FOX-COLORED SPARROW. In "Wood Notes Wild," S. P. Cheney says this song-loving Sparrow has a sweet voice and a pleasing song, which he has set to music. No Sparrow, he says, sings with a better quality of tone. A distinguished musician himself, no one was better qualified to give a final opinion upon the subject. Others have spoken in praise of it, Burroughs characterizing it as "a strong, richly modulated whistle, the finest Sparrow note I have ever heard." Baird says, "in the spring the male becomes quite musical, and is one of our sweetest and most remarkable singers. His voice is loud, clear, and melodious; his notes full, rich, and varied; and his song is unequalled by any of this family that I have ever heard." Mr. Torrey finds a "Thrush-like" quality in the song of the Fox Sparrow. In his "Birds in the Bush" Mr. Torrey describes an interesting contest as follows: "One afternoon I stood still while a Fox Sparrow and a Song Sparrow sang alternately on either side of me, both exceptionally good vocalists, and each doing his best. The songs were of about equal length, and as far as theme was concerned were not a little alike; but the Fox Sparrow's tone was both louder and more mellow than the others, while his notes were longer,--more sustained,--and his voice was 'carried' from one pitch to another. On the whole, I had no hesitation about giving him the palm; but I am bound to say that his rival was a worthy competitor." The Fox-colored Sparrow is also one of the largest and finest of his tribe, breeding from the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Labrador north into Alaska; in winter it is met with south over the whole of the eastern United States to the Gulf coast. Audubon found it nesting in Labrador from the middle of June to the 5th of July. Its nest has been found in trees and on the ground in the Arctic regions, on the Yukon river in July. According to many observers, the nests are, for the most part, placed on the ground, usually concealed by the drooping branches of evergreens. They are made of grass and moss, lined with fine grass and feathers. Some nests are three or four inches in depth, strong, compact, and handsome. The eggs are three or five, oval in form, of a clayey greenish ground color, dotted with dull reddish brown and chocolate. They vary in coloration. In the early spring the Fox Sparrow is often seen associated with small parties of Juncos, in damp thickets and roadside shrubbery; later, according to Mr. Bicknell, it takes more to woodsides, foraging on leaf-strewn slopes where there is little or no undergrowth. In the autumn it is found in hedgerows, thickets and weedy grainfields, rarely however, straying far from some thickety cover. It is a great scratcher among dead leaves, and "can make the wood rubbish fly in a way which, in proportion to its size, a barn-yard fowl could scarcely excel." The Sparrows are worthy of close study, many of them possessing habits of great beauty and interest. BOB WHITE! I'm a game bird, not a song bird with beautiful feathers, flitting all day from tree to tree, but just a plain-looking little body, dressed in sober colors, like a Quaker. It wouldn't do for me to wear a red hat, and a green coat, and a yellow vest. Oh, no!, that would be very foolish of me, indeed. What a mark I would be for every man and boy who can fire a gun or throw a stone, as I run along the ground in clearings and cultivated fields. That's the reason I wear so plain a coat. At the first glance you would take me for a bunch of dried grass or a bit of earth, but at the first movement, off I go, running for dear life to some thickly wooded cover, where I hide till danger is passed. Cute! Yes, I think so. You would have to be sharp, too, if you were a game bird. Through the summer we don't have much trouble, but just as soon as cold weather sets in, and our broods have grown to an eatable size, "pop" go the guns, and "whirr" go our wings as we fly through the air. It is only at such times we take wing, sometimes seeking refuge in a tree from our enemies. I'm sorry we are such nice birds--to eat--for really we like to stay around farmhouses, and barn-yards, eating with the chickens and other fowl. We are easily tamed, and the farmers often thank us for the injurious insects we eat, and the seeds of weeds. How do we know they thank us? Why, we must know that, when they scatter seed for us on the snow. Kind deeds speak louder than words, for in the winter we suffer a great deal. Sometimes when it is very cold we burrow down under the snow, in snow-houses, as it were, to keep warm. That is risky, though; for when it rains and then freezes over, we are in a trap. A great many Quail die in this way during a hard winter. Is Quail another name for Bob White? Yes, but people like Bob White better. Did you ever hear me whistle? If not, come out in the country in the spring, and hear me call to my mate. I sit on a fence rail, and, to let her know where I am, I whistle, _Bob White! Bob White!_ and if she pretends to be bashful, and doesn't answer me at once, I whistle again, _Bob, Bob White!_ POOR _Bob White!_ She takes pity on me then, and comes at my call. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. BOB WHITE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] BOB WHITE. Bob White is a plump, fine-looking fellow, known in the New England and Middle States as the Quail and in the Southern States as the Partridge. It is said, however, that these names belong to other and quite different birds, and at the suggestion of Prof. Baird, Bob White, which is its call note, has become its accepted and present name. In the language of Mr. N. S. Goss these birds appear to thrive best in the presence of man, and were they protected during our cold winters, would soon become quite tame. They often nest near our dwellings. "In the spring of 1867," says Mr. Goss, "I was shown on Owl Creek, Woodson County, Kansas, a nest containing nineteen eggs. It was placed in the dooryard, and not over twenty-five yards from the house; several dogs were running about the yard, and the house cat was purring near the doorway. Fearing the eggs would be destroyed, I suggested the building of a high, tight fence round the nest. 'Oh,' said the farmer, 'that is not necessary; our cats and dogs will not harm them, for they know them well, as they have for a long time run about with the chickens, and feed with them from food thrown from the doorstep.' I am confident that if man were as friendly to the birds as they are to man, they would soon become thoroughly domesticated. Trapped and hunted as they are with dog and gun it is not strange that as a whole they remain timid and mistrustful, and were they not naturally birds of civilization would rapidly disappear with the settlement of the country. As it is, they seem to realize that man is only at times their enemy, and that his cultivated fields afford them a safe refuge from many other enemies, and insure a more certain and bountiful supply of food than found elsewhere." Quails destroy injurious insects and seeds of weeds, upon which they largely feed. When startled they rise with a loud whirring sound, their flight being very swift, low, and direct, a rather laborious effort. They move about in small coveys or family groups, pairing during the nesting season, and share alike in the duties of protecting and rearing the young. The nest is placed on the ground, in a depression, usually in the grass upon the prairies, sometimes in a thicket, under a low bush. It is usually arched over with grass, with entrance on the side. From fifteen to twenty pure white eggs are usually laid. S. P. Cheney pleasantly says: "Familiar as I have been with almost all parts of Vermont for more than thirty years, I have seen only one Quail in the state, and he was evidently a 'tramp.' I heard him just at night, the first day of July, 1884. Did not get sight of him till the next morning, when he came out into the sun, stood on the top rail of a fence, warmed himself, and whistled his spirited, forceful tune, his solid little body swelling and throbbing at every note, especially when he rose to the tonic. I was prepared for him, and made an exact copy of what he gave: _Bob, Bob, White! Bob White! Bob, Bob, White!_ After the performance he stood, evidently listening for a reply; none came, and without another note he disappeared, to be seen no more." BIRDS IN THE SCHOOLS. The movement to protect the birds of America and prevent them from being transformed into millinery in such prodigious numbers, is having a marked revival in many parts of the country, especially in the state of New York. In New York City there was recently held a large public meeting, under the auspices of the Audubon Society and the American Museum of Natural History, to protest against the wholesale and indiscriminate destruction of native birds for personal adornment. State Superintendent of Schools Skinner of that state has established a "bird day" in the public schools in connection with Arbor Day, in which the pupils will be taught the great value of birds to mankind. Mr. Skinner also has in preparation a manual upon the subject, 100,000 copies of which he will have distributed among the New York state schools. Public ignorance regarding the value of birds in the economy of nature and especially to human life is so great as to be almost incomprehensible. A number of estimates recently made by Morris K. Jesup, President of the American Museum of Natural History, show how important it is that a stronger safe-guard, in the shape of public sentiment, should be thrown about our feathered benefactors. In a late interview upon this subject, Mr. Jesup said: "Among the birds most worn this winter are the Herons, which are killed for their aigrettes; the Terns, or Sea Swallows and Gulls; in short mostly marsh and maritime birds." It is known that the killing of a great number of these shore birds has been followed by an increase in human mortality among the inhabitants of the coast, the destroyed birds having formerly assisted in keeping the beaches and bayous free from decaying animal matter. New Orleans had a plague of bugs about the middle of September, just when the yellow fever began, and, strange as it may seem, the bugs proved far more troublesome than the disease, and certainly the annoyance was more immediate. The people called it a mystery, but the scientists said it was merely the result of man's improvidence in destroying the birds. The destruction has been going on in Louisiana, particularly on the Gulf coast, for years, and has been carried on by professional hunters, who kill the birds solely for millinery purposes. Nature revenged herself on New Orleans, as she will on every place where birds are destroyed for fashionable purposes. Would it not be a good thing to increase the intelligence of the present and rising generation respecting the value of birds by introducing into the schools of every state in the Union the idea which has been adopted by State Superintendent Skinner? And we respectfully suggest that the use of this magazine by teachers, through the wise co-operation of school boards, everywhere, as a text book, would quickly supply the knowledge of bird-life and utility so sadly needed by the community. We present some of the innocent creatures each month in accurate outline and color, and the dullest pupil cannot fail to be impressed by their beauty and the necessity for their protection. "Our schools, public and private, can hardly be criticised as instructors in the common branches of learning, but they could also teach the rising generation the equally important truths relating to the material world with which we are encircled." In Colorado and in some other states Boards of Education have supplied their teachers with BIRDS in sufficient quantities to enable their pupils to study the subjects in the most profitable manner. --C. C. MARBLE. THE PASSENGER PIGEON. If the reader is interested in numbers, he will appreciate the statement written about 1808 by Wilson, who estimated that a flock of Wild Pigeons observed by him near Frankfort, Kentucky, contained at least 2,230,272,000 individuals. If he is also interested in the aspect presented by these birds in flight, cloud-like in form and apparently boundless in extent, he will read the full and graphic descriptions given by Audubon. In 1863, when the writer was a boy, he remembers seeing the birds brought to town in barrels and sold at a price which did not justify transportation to market. What appeared to be a cloud, dark and lowering, was not infrequently seen approaching, soon to shut out the light of the sun, until the birds which composed it, on the way to or from their feeding or roosting places, had passed on. Now hear what Major Bendire, as late as 1892, says: "It looks now as if their total extermination might be accomplished within the present century. The only thing which retards their complete extinction is that it no longer pays to net these birds, they being too scarce for this now, at least in the more settled portions of the country, and also, perhaps, that from constant and unremitting persecution on their breeding grounds, they have changed their habits somewhat, the majority no longer breeding in colonies, but scattering over the country and breeding in isolated pairs." The natural home of the Wild Pigeon is within the wooded lands, and they are seldom met with upon the broad prairies. Audubon observed that it was almost entirely influenced in its migrations by the abundance of its food, that temperature had little to do with it, as they not infrequently moved northward in large columns as early as the 7th of March, with a temperature twenty degrees below the freezing point. "The Wild Pigeons are capable of propelling themselves in long continued flights and are known to move with an almost incredible rapidity, passing over a great extent of country in a very short time." Pigeons have been captured in the state of New York with their crops still filled with the undigested grains of rice that must have been taken in the distant fields of Georgia or South Carolina, apparently proving that they must have passed over the intervening space within a very few hours. Audubon estimated the rapidity of their flight as at least a mile a minute. The Wild Pigeon is remarkable for its ease and grace, whether on the ground or the limbs of trees. Though living, moving, and feeding together in large companies, they mate in pairs. Several broods are reared in a season, nesting beginning very early in the spring. The nests are placed on trees, being a slight platform structure of twigs, without any material for lining whatever. Two white eggs are laid. Mr. Goss says (1891) that the Passenger Pigeon is still to be found in numbers within the Indian Territory and portions of the southern states, and in Kansas a few breed occasionally in the Neosho Valley. THE PASSENGER PIGEON. Some people call us the Wild Pigeon and the Gypsy among birds. We do wander long distances in search of food, and when we have eaten all the beech nuts in one part of the country, take wing, and away we go like a great army to another place. And such an army! We form in a column eight or ten miles long, thousands and thousands of us, our approach sounding like a gale among the rigging of a vessel. Not always in a straight course do we go, but in a winding way looking for all the world, against the sky, like a vast river. Then our leaders give the word, our captains, you know, and we form in a straight line, sweeping along as you have seen regiments of soldiers marching on parade. We are just as fond of forming new figures as they are, and our captains, by their actions, give their orders much in the same way. "Down, Up! Right, Left!" and away we go forming our evolutions in the air. But you should see us when Mr. Hawk attacks our flock. Then, like a torrent, and with a noise like thunder, we rush into one compact mass, each pressing upon the other toward the center. Swiftly we descend almost to the earth, then up again, forming as we do a straight column, twisting, turning, looking, when far up in the air, like a great serpent. At other times we fly straight ahead, very swiftly, going at the rate of a mile a minute. I don't believe any of you little folks have ever traveled as fast as that behind a locomotive. Then our roosting places! Ah, you ought to see us there! There was one in Kentucky, I remember, in a dense forest, where the trees were very large, a forest forty miles long and three wide, larger than many cities. The Pigeons began to collect after sunset, thousands upon thousands, flock after flock continuing to arrive even after midnight. There were not trees enough to go around, and so many of us perched upon one limb that the largest branches broke, killing hundreds of Pigeons in their fall. The noise we made could be heard at the distance of three miles. People who like Pigeon pie came with long poles and guns, and when morning broke, and the Pigeons that could fly had disappeared, there were heaps and heaps of little fellows lying dead upon the ground. We occupied that roost about two weeks. When we left it for good, the forest looked like it had been swept by a tornado. [Illustration: From col. Ruthven Deane. PASSENGER PIGEON. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE SHORT-EARED OWL. "I think," said Bobbie, looking over the present number of BIRDS, "that the Owl, instead of the Red-eyed Vireo, ought to be called 'The Preacher.'" "Why?" said his mamma, always pleased at her boy's fancy. "Because the Owl looks so wise--and--solemn!" said Bobby. Mamma laughed. "He does look solemn," she agreed, "but about his wisdom I am not so certain. Turn to the text and let us see what he does say about himself." "_Hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo!_" "That doesn't sound very wise," said Bobbie, reading aloud, "though Mr. Shouter's preaching sounds like that to me sometimes." "Does it?" replied mamma, suppressing a smile, "well, go on and see what else he says." "I'm not a Screech Owl, nor a Barn Owl, nor a Great Horned Owl, nor a Long-eared Owl, though I am related to each of them. Mr. Screech Owl thinks he is a singer, and so does Mr. Horned Owl. Between you and me, I think both their songs most doleful ditties. One gentleman says Mr. Horned Owl hoots in B flat, another says in F sharp, and another in A flat. I must confess it all sounds very flat to me. I don't pretend to sing at all. Sometimes I feel like saying something, just to hear the sound of my own voice, and then I shout '_Hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo!_' as loud as I can. If there are little Owls in the nest, and anything approaches them, I give a shrill, hollow cry, at the same time snapping my bill spitefully. "I am sometimes called the Marsh Owl, because I frequent the grassy marshes instead of the woods. I don't confine myself to prowling around only in the night time, like some Owls I know, but you will see me about also on dark days, and sometimes even when the sun is shining. "My eyes, you see, are round and yellow just like a cat's, shining in the dark like his. Indeed there is a good deal of the cat in my nature. When stealing on my prey I go about it just as stealthily as he does. Like him I catch mice too, but I also like beetles, gophers, and all sorts of little water birds. "I have only two eyes, but I have two sets of eyelids. One I draw over my eyes in the day time, a thin sort of curtain to keep out the light, and the other a heavy curtain which I pull down when I go to sleep. I'm going to sleep now. Good night! or, rather, good morning!" THE SHORT-EARED OWL. Marsh Owl, Meadow Owl, and Prairie Owl, are some of the names of this species of an interesting family, which is found throughout North America at large, though in greater numbers in the Arctic regions during the nesting season than in the United States. It is believed that no land bird has so extensive a range as this species, occurring, as it does, throughout all the grand divisions of the earth's surface, except Australia. In America it is found everywhere in favorable localities, from Alaska and Greenland to Cape Horn. Truly a cosmopolitan bird, observed by the inhabitants of nearly all countries. The Short-eared Owl is seen in the marshes, the thickets of bottom lands, and Davie says it seems to be particularly common in the tall weeds and grass of fields and meadows. In the west it is found on the extensive prairies, along sloughs, hiding in the day-time among the sage bushes and tall grass. It is a night wanderer, but often hunts its food on dark days, and field mice, moles, shrews, and other small rodents are captured by it while on noiseless wing, or while standing motionless watching for its prey. The nest of the Short-eared Owl is made on the ground in the matted grass of marsh land; sometimes in a depression at the foot of a bush, beside a log, or in a burrow made by a rabbit or a muskrat. A few sticks, soft grasses, and some of its own feathers usually comprise the nest proper, though the eggs are not infrequently laid on the bare ground. These are from four to seven, white and oval. In Ohio they are laid in April, sometimes as early as the latter part of March, or as late as the middle of May, within which dates it doubtless may be found breeding throughout the United States. Mr. Nelson says that this is the most abundant species of the Owl family. They are common everywhere in Illinois during the winter, remaining concealed in a bunch of grass or weeds until almost two o'clock p.m., when they commence flying low over the ground in search of food. When approached, while standing on the ground, they crouch and try to escape observation. They are harmless and are easily tamed, and as a rule, are silent. Mr. Nelson heard one of the birds, in Alaska, utter rapidly a loud cry which sounded like the syllables _Hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo_, in a higher key than the note of the Horned Owl, and in a much less sonorous tone. When alarmed for their young, they have been heard to utter a shrill hollow cry, and at the same time make quite a noise by spitefully snapping their bills. We fancy the Owl family alone will enable BIRDS to furnish a collection of pictures--perhaps forty in number--that will fascinate the bird lover, and make him eager to possess other groups for study, wonder, and delight. [Illustration: From col. O. C. Pagin. SHORT-EARED OWL. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE ROSE COCKATOO. I look like a foreigner, don't I? You may search through the forests of America and you won't find a bird that looks like me. My family live in New Guinea; we speak English when we get among English people, Spanish when we get among Spanish people, and French when we get among French people. If you don't believe it, just say "_Parlez-vous Français, Monsieur?_" and see how quickly I'll open my pretty mouth and answer "_Oui._" If you don't understand that, ask your teacher what it means. I once lived in a French family, you see. You don't think my mouth is pretty, did you say? Well, that is according to taste. I think it is. Of course, my bill turns in like a hook, as Miss Poll Parrot's does, and my tongue is thick like hers, but I fancy I talk much plainer than she does. Anyway I talk louder. Why, if you should happen to hear, without seeing me, you would think it was a man's strong voice talking to a deaf person. And then my laugh! You should hear me laugh when I'm angry. Whew! Have you ever heard a hyena in the Zoo? Well, it sounds something like that. I am a large, handsome bird. My eyes also are large, and so are my feet. That is the reason I not only talk, but walk Spanish, I suppose. But, my cap! That is what distinguishes me. You never saw a common Parrot with a crest like that. When I am angry the feathers stand straight up, opening and closing just like a lady's fan. The next time your mamma or papa takes you to the Zoo, turn to the cage of foreign birds and see if one of our family is not there. Maybe he will talk to you and maybe he'll not. He would if you could get into his cage and stroke his head. I am sure he would laugh if you tell him _Mr. Rose Cockatoo_ sends his love. THE ROSE COCKATOO. The Rose Cockatoo, as may be seen, is a remarkably handsome bird. The species is gregarious, and they are very numerous in South Australia, where they frequent woods and feed on seeds, fruits, and larvae of insects. Their note is harsh and unmusical. The young ones tame readily and some species show remarkable intelligence. They associate in flocks of from one hundred to one thousand and do great damage to newly planted grain, for which reason they are mercilessly destroyed by farmers. Two eggs only, of a pure white color, are laid in the holes of decayed trees or in the fissures of rocks, according to the nature of the locality in which they live. This is a rather large bird, equalling a common fowl in dimensions, and assuming a much larger form when it ruffles up its feathers while under the influence of anger. Many of these birds are fine talkers, and their voice is peculiarly full and loud. An authentic anecdote is told of a Cockatoo which was quite celebrated for its powers of conversation; but as he was moulting at the time, his voice was temporarily silenced, and he sat in a very disconsolate manner on his perch, looking as if he had fallen into a puddle and not had time to arrange his plumage. All the breast and fore-parts of the body were quite bare of feathers and even the beautiful crest had a sodden and woe-begone look. By dint, however, of talking to the bird and rubbing his head, he was induced to say a few words, which were given in a voice as full and rounded as that of a strong voiced man accustomed to talking to deaf people. Presently the spectators were startled with a deafening laugh, not unlike that of the hyena, but even louder and more weird-like. On turning around, they saw the Cockatoo suddenly transformed into a totally different bird, his whole frame literally blazing with excitement, his crest flung forward to the fullest extent, and repeatedly spread and closed like the fan of an angry Spanish lady, every feather standing on end and his eyes sparkling with fury while he volleyed forth the sounds which had so startled them. The cause of this excitement was the presence of two children who had come to look at the bird, and whom he recognized as having formerly excited his ire. He always objected to children, and being naturally irritable from the effect of moulting, his temper became uncontrollable. The Cockatoo is not gifted with the wonderful imitating powers of the true Parrot, and on account of its deafening cries is not an agreeable inhabitant of the house. It is in a state of nature that the birds are most interesting. They are not shy or wary, are very vociferous, and, like the common Parrots, rise up in bodies toward sunset and fly two-and-two to their resting places. It is a superb sight to see thousands of these beautiful creatures flying overhead, low enough to permit a full view of their feathered mantles. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. COCKATOO. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] PLEAS FOR THE SPEECHLESS. Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge.--SHAKESPEARE. If all the birds should die, not a human being could live on earth, for the insects on which the birds live would increase so enormously as to destroy all vegetation.--MICHELET. * * * * * Prof. E. E. Fish estimates that birds save, for agricultural purposes alone, annually, one hundred million dollars in the United States, and we are told that insect life in many places has increased so as to make human life almost unendurable. * * * * * The bravest are ever the most humane, the most gentle, the most kind; and if any one would be truly brave, let him learn to be gentle and tender to everyone and everything about him.--REV. ARTHUR SEWELL. * * * * * "Every first thing continues forever with a child; the first color, the first music, the first flowers paint the foreground of life. The first inner or outer object of love, injustice, or such like, throws a shadow immeasurably far along his after years."--JEAN PAUL RICHTER. * * * * * We have long ago found that the great remedy for all these wrongs lies, not in law and prosecuting officers, but in the public and private schools; that a thousand cases of cruelty can be prevented by kind words and humane education, for every one that can be prevented by prosecution; and that if we are ever going to accomplish anything of permanent value for the protection of those whom our societies are organized to protect, it must be through the kind assistance of the teachers in our public and private schools. We found another important fact, that when children were taught to be kind to animals, to spare in spring-time the mother-bird with its nest full of young, to pat the horses, and play with the dogs, and speak kindly to all harmless living creatures, they became more kind, not only to animals, but also to each other.--GEO. T. ANGELL. * * * * * I am in thorough accord with the proposition to have the birds protected, and my words cannot be clothed in too strong language. We are a nation of vandals. Birds make the choir of the heavens and should be protected.--CARDINAL GIBBONS. THE MOUNTAIN PARTRIDGE. This, one of the most beautiful of the Partridges, is much larger and handsomer than Bob White, though perhaps not so interesting or attractive as a game bird. The pretty plumes are noticeable in the chick just from the egg, in the form of a little tuft of down, and their growth is gradual until the perfect plumage of the adult is obtained. The Mountain Partridge is found breeding along the Pacific coast region from California north into Washington. According to the observer Emerson, it is found nesting in the higher mountain ranges, not below four thousand feet. In some portions of Oregon it is very abundant, and would be sought for by the sportsman with great assiduity were the regions that it inhabits more accessible. As it is, it is not only hard to find but very difficult to secure when once flushed, hiding easily from the dogs, who become discouraged by repeated unsuccessful efforts to find it. The Mountain Partridge deposits its eggs on the ground, on a bed of dead leaves, under a bush or tuft of grass or weeds. Its habits are exceedingly like those of the Bob White. From six to twelve eggs are laid of a cream color, with a reddish tint. They have been described as miniatures of those of the Ruffed Grouse, only distinguishable by their smaller size. This Partridge will usually run before the dog, is flushed only with much trouble, and often takes to the trees after being started. California is comparatively destitute of wood except on inaccessible mountain sites and canons, localities preferred by these birds. It is not known to descend to the valleys. * * * * * BOB WHITE. "I own the country here about," says Bob White; "At early morn I gayly shout, I'm Bob White! From stubble field and stake-rail fence You hear me call, without offense, I'm Bob White! Bob White! Sometimes I think I'll ne'er more say, Bob White; It often gives me quite away, does Bob White; And mate and I, and our young brood, When separate--wandering through the wood, Are killed by sportsmen I invite By my clear voice--Bob White! Bob White! Still, don't you find I'm out of sight While I am saying Bob White, Bob White?" --C. C. M. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. CHICAGO COLORTYPE CO. MOUNTAIN PARTRIDGE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1898, Chicago.] THE NEW TENANTS. BY ELANORA KINSLEY MARBLE. Father and mother are building a nest; They have found in Greenwood the place that is best. They are working so hard through the long summer day, Gathering grasses and hair and hay. They are so happy, for soon they will hear The eager "Peep, peep!" of their babies so dear. Dear mother, gather them safe 'neath each wing; Kind father, hasten, for food you must bring. Now mother and father will teach them to fly: "Come, timid birdies; come, try; come, try. Fly out in the Greenwood, dear birdies, with me; Then back to the nest in the dear old tree." Mrs. Wren was busy that morning. She had been away all winter, among the trees in the south, but was back in the old neighborhood now, getting her house in order for the summer season. Mr. Wren, with a number of other gentlemen Wrens, had arrived some weeks before and had been kept pretty busy looking about for a desirable apartment in which to set up housekeeping. Several had struck him as being just the thing, among them a gourd which one thoughtful family had set for a Chickadee. "I'll fetch some sticks and straws and put a few in each house," said he, with the greediness of his kind, "so the other birds will think it is rented. Mrs. Wren is so particular maybe none of them will suit her. She always wants something better than Mrs. John Wren, her cousin, and I notice Mr. John looking about in this neighborhood, too." In the low bushes and shrubbery Mr. Wren flitted from day to day, keeping his eye on one apartment, especially, which he considered particularly fine. "I do wish she would hurry up," he thought, anxious for Mrs. Wren to arrive. "It takes a female so long to get ready to go anywhere. I saw an impudent Blue Jay around here this morning and he may take a fancy to that apartment up there. I wouldn't like to tackle him, and so, to let him see that it is rented, I'll fetch a few more straws," and off Mr. Wren flew, returning in a very little while with his bill full. Well, about the first of April Mrs. Wren arrived, quite tired with her journey, but as sprightly and talkative as ever. Mr. Wren greeted her with one of his loudest songs, and they flew about chattering and singing for quite a while. "I suppose," said she, resting at length on the limb of a maple tree, "that you have been flying about, eating and drinking and talking with the other Mr. Wrens, and not looking for a house at all. That is the way with your sex generally, when there is any work to be done." "Oh, it is?" said Mr. Wren, his feathers ruffled in a minute. "That's my reward for staying about this house and the grounds all the time, is it? My whole time has been taken up in house hunting, let me tell you, Mrs. Wren, and in keeping my eye on one particular apartment which is to let up there." "Where?" chirped Mrs. Wren, her bright eyes traveling up and down the side of the house before them. "I don't see a box or crevice anywhere." "Oh, you don't?" said Mr. Wren, mimicking her tone and air, "not a single box or crevice anywhere. Who said anything about either, I'd like to know?" "Why, you did, Mr. Wren," said Mrs. Jenny, every feather on top of her head standing on end. "You did, as plain as could be." "I said nothing of the sort," retorted Mr. Wren, "I never mentioned a box or crevice once." "Then what did you say," returned Mrs. Wren with a little cackling sort of a laugh, "what kind of a house is up there to let anyway?" "Talk about females being as sharp as we males," muttered Mr. Wren, "I never saw so stupid a creature in my life"--then aloud, "don't you see that tin tea-pot hanging on a nail under the porch, Mrs. Wren?" "A tin tea-pot!" scornfully. "Do you think a bird born and bred as I was would go to housekeeping in an old tea-pot, Mr. Wren? You forget, surely that my father was a----" "Oh, bother your father," ungallantly retorted Mr. Wren. "I'm tired and sick of that subject. If you don't like the looks of that house up there say so, and I'll take you to see several others." "Oh, well," said Mrs. Wren, who all the time had thought the tea-pot just the cutest little apartment in the world, "I'll fly up there and examine it. Maybe it will do." "It's just lovely," she announced, flying back to the tree, and for a minute or two they chattered and sang, and fluttered about in such a joyful manner that some of their bird neighbors flew over, curious to hear and see. "Still," remarked Mrs. Jenny the next day, when fetching material for the nest, "I had hoped, my dear, that you would have followed my father's example in selecting a house for your family." "Still harping on 'my father,'" groaned Mr. Wren, dropping on the porch the straws he had fetched in his bill. "Well," cheerfully, "how did he do, my dear?" "As a bird of courage would, Mr. Wren. He never looked for a _vacant_ house, not he! From place to place, from tree to tree he flew, and when he espied a nest which pleased him, off he chased the other bird and took possession. Bluebird or Martin, it was all the same to him. Ah, indeed, my father was a great warrior." "Hm, yes!" said Mr. Wren, who didn't like to be thought less brave than another. "That accounted for his one eye and lame leg, I presume." "The scars of battle are not to be laughed at, Mr. Wren," loftily said Mrs. Jenny, "Papa's one eye and crooked leg were objects of great pride to his family." "The old scoundrel," muttered Mr. Wren, who looked upon his father-in-law as no better than a robber, but to keep peace in the family he said no more, and with a gush of song flew off to gather some particularly nice sticks for the nest. For some days Mr. and Mrs. Wren were too busy to pay much attention to their neighbors. Mr. Wren, unlike some birds he knew, did not do all the singing while his mate did the work, but fetched and carried with the utmost diligence, indeed brought more sticks, Mrs. Wren told her friends, than she had any use for. "Such a litter, ma'am," said Bridget the next morning to the mistress of the house, "as I do be afther sweepin' up from the porch ivery day. A pair of birds, I do be thinkin', are after building a nest in that owld tin pot on the wall. It's this day I'm goin' to tear it down, so I am. Birds are nuisances anyway, and it's not Bridget O'Flaherty that's goin' to be clanin' afther them, at all, at all." "Oh don't!" chorused the children, "we want to see with our own eyes how the birds go to housekeeping in the Spring. It's ever so much better than just reading about it. Tell Bridget, mamma," they pleaded, "to leave the pot alone." Mamma, who found bird-life a delightful study, was only too willing to give the desired command, and thus it chanced that Mr. and Mrs. Wren grew quite accustomed to many pair of eyes watching them at their work of building a nest, every day. "Do you know," said Mrs. Wren, placing a particularly fine feather in the nest one day, "that I have a notion to name our birdlings, when they come out of their shell, after our landlady's family? I think it is not more than fair, since we have got a cute apartment and no rent to pay." "A capital idea!" chirped Mr. Wren, "her children have such pretty names, too." "And pretty manners," returned Mrs. Wren, who, being of such genteel birth, was quick to recognize it in others. "Let me see, there's just six. Pierre, Emmett, Walter, Henry, Bobby, and that darling little fair-haired girl, Dorothy. I had my head tucked under my wing the other evening, but all the same I heard her speaking a piece that she said she had learned at school that day." "Yes," said Mr. Wren, tilting his tail over his back and singing loudly, "I think we are very fortunate to have such a family for our neighbors. You can pick up so many things their mamma says to the children, and teach our birdies the same lessons, you know." "Of course," said Mrs. Wren, standing on the edge of the pot and eyeing her work with great satisfaction, "I had thought of that before. I already have some of her sayings in my mind. But come, we musn't be standing here chattering all day. The nest must be ready to-morrow for the first egg." "Hm! You don't say?" replied Mr. Wren, beginning to count his toes, "why, bless me, to-morrow is the twelfth day. Well, well, how time flies when one is busy and happy," and off they both flew, singing as they went for very joy. [TO BE CONTINUED.] SUMMARY. Page 6. #CROWNED PIGEON.#--_Columbidæ goura._ RANGE--New Guinea and the neighboring islands. * * * * * Page 10. #RED-EYED VIREO.#--_Vireo olivaceus._ RANGE--Eastern North America, west to Colorado, Utah, and British Columbia; north to the Arctic regions; south in winter, from Florida to northern South America. Breeds nearly throughout its North American range. NEST--Pensile from horizontal branches of trees, five to twenty feet above the ground; made of vegetable fibres and strips of pliable bark, lined with fine round grasses, horse hairs, and the like. EGGS--Three or four, pure white, sparsely sprinkled with fine, dark reddish-brown dots, chiefly at the larger end. * * * * * Page 14. #FOX SPARROW.#--_Passerella iliaca._ RANGE--Eastern North America, west to the plains and Alaska, and from the Arctic coast south to the Gulf states. Winters chiefly south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers. NEST--Of grass and moss, lined with grass and fine feathers; on the ground, concealed by the drooping branches of evergreens. EGGS--Four or five, pale bluish green, speckled, spotted, and blotched with reddish-brown, or uniform chocolate brown. * * * * * Page 18. #BOB WHITE.#--_Colinus virginianus._ RANGE--Eastern United States; west to the Dakotas, Kansas, Indian Territory and eastern Texas; north to southern Maine and Southern Canada; south to the Atlantic and Gulf States. NEST--On the ground, of grasses, straws, leaves, or weeds. EGGS--Fifteen to twenty-five, often only twelve, but usually about eighteen, of pure white. * * * * * Page 23. #PASSENGER PIGEON.#--_Ectopistes migratorius._ Other name: "Wild Pigeon." RANGE--Eastern North America, from Hudson Bay southward, and west to the Great Plains, straggling thence to Nevada and Washington. Breeding range now mainly restricted to portions of the Canadas and the northern border of the United States, as far west as Manitoba and the Dakotas. NEST--In trees; a mere platform of sticks. EGGS--Usually one, never more than two, pure white, and broadly elliptical in shape. * * * * * Page 27. #SHORT-EARED OWL.#--_Asio accipitrinus._ Other name: "Marsh Owl." RANGE--Entire North America; nearly cosmopolitan. NEST--On the ground in the matted grass of marsh land, of a few sticks, soft grasses, and some of its own feathers. EGGS--Four to seven, white, and oval in shape. * * * * * Page 31. #ROSE COCKATOO.#--_Cacatua Leadbeateri._ RANGE--South Australia. NEST--In holes of decayed trees, or in fissures of rocks. EGGS--Two, of pure white. * * * * * Page 35. #MOUNTAIN PARTRIDGE.#--_Oreortyx pictus._ Other name: "Plumed Partridge." RANGE--Pacific coast from San Francisco north to Washington. NEST--On the ground, consisting of a bed of dead leaves, under a bush or tuft of grass or weeds. EGGS--Six to twelve, of a cream color with a reddish tint. 
30965	----	Transcriber's Note: Title page added. * * * * * BIRDS A MONTHLY SERIAL ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE VOLUME II. CHICAGO. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1897 BY NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO. BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. II. DECEMBER, 1897. NO. 6 ================================ THE ORNITHOLOGICAL CONGRESS. We had the pleasure of attending the Fifteenth Congress of the American Ornithologists' Union, which met and held its three days annual session in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, November 9-11, 1897. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington D.C., presided, and there were present about one hundred and fifty of the members, resident in nearly all the states of the Union. The first paper read was one prepared by J. C. Merrill, entitled "In Memoriam: Charles Emil Bendire." The character, accomplishments, and achievements of the deceased, whose valuable work in biographizing American birds is so well known to those interested in ornithology, were referred to in so appropriate a manner that the paper, though not elaborate as it is to be hoped it may ultimately be made, will no doubt be published for general circulation. Major Bendire's services to American ornithology are of indisputable value, and his untimely death eclipsed to some extent, possibly wholly, the conclusion of a series of bird biographies which, so far as they had appeared, were deemed to be adequate, if not perfect. Mr. Frank M. Chapman, the well known authority on birds, and whose recent books are valuable additions to our literature, had, it may be presumed, a paper to read on the "Experiences of an Ornithologist in Mexico," though he did not read it. He made, on the contrary, what seemed to be an extemporaneous talk, exceedingly entertaining and sufficiently instructive to warrant a permanent place for it in the _Auk_, of which he is associate editor. We had the pleasure of examining the advance sheets of a new book from his pen, elaborately illustrated in color, and shortly to be published. Mr. Chapman is a comparatively young man, an enthusiastic student and observer, and destined to be recognized as one of our most scientific thinkers, as many of his published pamphlets already indicate. Our limited space precludes even a reference to them now. His remarks were made the more attractive by the beautiful stuffed specimens with which he illustrated them. Prof. Elliott Coues, in an address, "Auduboniana, and Other Matters of Present Interest," engaged the delighted attention of the Congress on the morning of the second day's session. His audience was large. In a biographical sketch of Audubon the Man, interspersed with anecdote, he said so many interesting things that we regret we omitted to make any notes that would enable us to indicate at least something of his characterization. No doubt just what he said will appear in an appropriate place. Audubon's portfolio, in which his precious manuscripts and drawings were so long religiously kept, which he had carried with him to London to exhibit to possible publishers, a book so large that two men were required to carry it, though the great naturalist had used it as an indispensable and convenient companion for so many years, was slowly and we thought reverently divested by Dr. Coues of its wrappings and held up to the surprised and grateful gaze of the spectators. It was dramatic. Dr. Coues is an actor. And then came the comedy. He could not resist the inclination to talk a little--not disparagingly, but truthfully, reading a letter never before published, of Swainson to Audubon declining to associate his name with that of Audubon "under the circumstances." All of which, we apprehend, will duly find a place on the shelves of public libraries. We would ourself like to say something of Audubon as a man. To us his life and character have a special charm. His was a beautiful youth, like that of Goethe. His love of nature, for which he was willing to make, and did make, sacrifices, will always be inspiring to the youth of noble and gentle proclivities; his personal beauty, his humanity, his love-life, his domestic virtues, enthrall the ingenuous mind; and his appreciation--shown in his beautiful compositions--of the valleys of the great river, _La Belle Rivière_, through which its waters, shadowed by the magnificent forests of Ohio and Kentucky, wandered--all of these things have from youth up shed a sweet fragrance over his memory and added greatly to our admiration of and appreciation for the man. So many subjects came before the Congress that we cannot hope to do more than mention the titles of a few of them. Mr. Sylvester D. Judd discussed the question of "Protective Adaptations of insects from an Ornithological Point of View;" Mr. William C. Rives talked of "Summer Birds of the West Virginia Spruce Belt;" Mr. John N. Clark read a paper entitled "Ten Days among the Birds of Northern New Hampshire;" Harry C. Oberholser talked extemporaneously of "Liberian Birds," and in a most entertaining and instructive manner, every word he said being worthy of large print and liberal embellishment; Mr. J. A. Allen, editor of _The Auk_, said a great deal that was new and instructive about the "Origin of Bird Migration;" Mr. O. Widmann read an interesting paper on "The Great Roosts on Gabberet Island, opposite North St. Louis;" J. Harris Reed presented a paper on "The Terns of Gull Island, New York;" A. W. Anthony read of "The Petrels of Southern California," and Mr. George H. Mackay talked interestingly of "The Terns of Penikese Island, Mass." There were other papers of interest and value. "A Naturalist's Expedition to East Africa," by D. G. Elliot, was, however, the _pièce de résistance_ of the Congress. The lecture was delivered in the lecture hall of the Museum, on Wednesday at 8 p. m. It was illustrated by stereopticon views, and in the most remarkable manner. The pictures were thrown upon an immense canvas, were marvellously realistic, and were so much admired by the great audience, which overflowed the large lecture hall, that the word demonstrative does not describe their enthusiasm. But the lecture! Description, experience, suffering, adventure, courage, torrid heat, wild beasts, poisonous insects, venomous serpents, half-civilized peoples, thirst,--almost enough of torture to justify the use of Coleridge's Ancient Mariner in illustration,--and yet a perpetual, quiet, rollicking, jubilant humor, all-pervading, and, at the close, on the lecturer's return once more to the beginning of civilization, the eloquent picture of the Cross, "full high advanced," all combined, made this lecture, to us, one of the very few platform addresses entirely worthy of the significance of unfading portraiture. --C. C. MARBLE. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. MOUNTAIN BLUE BIRD. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD. In an early number of BIRDS we presented a picture of the common Bluebird, which has been much admired. The mountain Bluebird, whose beauty is thought to excel that of his cousin, is probably known to few of our readers who live east of the Rocky Mountain region, though he is a common winter sojourner in the western part of Kansas, beginning to arrive there the last of September, and leaving in March and April. The habits of these birds of the central regions are very similar to those of the eastern, but more wary and silent. Even their love song is said to be less loud and musical. It is a rather feeble, plaintive, monotonous warble, and their chirp and twittering notes are weak. They subsist upon the cedar berries, seeds of plants, grasshoppers, beetles, and the like, which they pick up largely upon the ground, and occasionally scratch for among the leaves. During the fall and winter they visit the plains and valleys, and are usually met with in small flocks, until the mating season. Nests of the Mountain Bluebird have been found in New Mexico and Colorado, from the foothills to near timber line, usually in deserted Woodpecker holes, natural cavities in trees, fissures in the sides of steep rocky cliffs, and, in the settlements, in suitable locations about and in the adobe buildings. In settled portions of the west it nests in the cornice of buildings, under the eaves of porches, in the nooks and corners of barns and outhouses, and in boxes provided for its occupation. Prof. Ridgway found the Rocky Mountain Bluebird nesting in Virginia City, Nevada, in June. The nests were composed almost entirely of dry grass. In some sections, however, the inner bark of the cedar enters largely into their composition. The eggs are usually five, of a pale greenish-blue. The females of this species are distinguished by a greener blue color and longer wings, and this bird is often called the Arctic Bluebird. It is emphatically a bird of the mountains, its visits to the lower portions of the country being mainly during winter. Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the autumn leaves lie dead; They rustle to the eddying gust, and to the rabbits' tread. The Robin and the Wren are flown, and from the shrubs the Jay, And from the wood-top calls the Crow all through the gloomy day. --BRYANT. THE ENGLISH SPARROW. "Oh, it's just a common Sparrow," I hear Bobbie say to his mamma, "why, I see lots of them on the street every day." Of course you do, but for all that you know very little about me I guess. Some people call me "Hoodlum," and "Pest," and even "Rat of the Air." I hope you don't. It is only the folks who don't like me that call me ugly names. Why don't they like me? Well, in the first place the city people, who like fine feathers, you know, say I am not pretty; then the farmers, who are not grateful for the insects I eat, say I devour the young buds and vines as well as the ripened grain. Then the folks who like birds with fine feathers, and that can sing like angels, such as the Martin and the Bluebird and a host of others, say I drive them away, back to the forests where they came from. Do I do all these things? I'm afraid I do. I like to have my own way. Maybe you know something about that yourself, Bobbie. When I choose a particular tree or place for myself and family to live in, I am going to have it if I have to fight for it. I do chase the other birds away then, to be sure. Oh, no, I don't always succeed. Once I remember a Robin got the better of me, so did a Catbird, and another time a Baltimore Oriole. When I can't whip a bird myself I generally give a call and a whole troop of Sparrows will come to my aid. My, how we do enjoy a fuss like that! A bully? Well, yes, if by that you mean I rule around my own house, then I _am_ a bully. My mate has to do just as I say, and the little Sparrows have to mind their papa, too. "Don't hurt the little darlings, papa," says their mother, when it comes time for them to fly, and I hop about the nest, scolding them at the top of my voice. Then I scold her for daring to talk to me, and sometimes make her fly away while I teach the young ones a thing or two. Once in a while a little fellow among them will "talk back." I don't mind that though, if he is a Cock Sparrow and looks like his papa. No, we do not sing. We leave that for the Song Sparrows. We talk a great deal, though. In the morning when we get up, and at night when we go to bed we chatter a great deal. Indeed there are people shabby enough to say that we are great nuisances about that time. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. ENGLISH SPARROW. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE ENGLISH SPARROW. The English Sparrow was first introduced into the United States at Brooklyn, New York, in the years 1851 and '52. The trees in our parks were at that time infested with a canker-worm, which wrought them great injury, and to rid the trees of these worms was the mission of the English Sparrow. In his native country this bird, though of a seed-eating family (Finch), was a great insect eater. The few which were brought over performed, at first, the duty required of them; they devoured the worms and stayed near the cities. With the change of climate, however, came a change in their taste for insects. They made their home in the country as well as the cities, and became seed and vegetable eaters, devouring the young buds on vines and trees, grass-seed, oats, rye, and other grains. Their services in insect-killing are still not to be despised. A single pair of these Sparrows, under observation an entire day, were seen to convey to their young no less than forty grubs an hour, an average exceeding three thousand in the course of a week. Moreover, even in the autumn he does not confine himself to grain, but feeds on various seeds, such as the dandelion, the sow-thistle, and the groundsel; all of which plants are classed as weeds. It has been known, also, to chase and devour the common white butterfly, whose caterpillars make havoc among the garden plants. The good he may accomplish in this direction, however, is nullified to the lovers of the beautiful, by the war he constantly wages upon our song birds, destroying their young, and substituting his unattractive looks and inharmonious chirps for their beautiful plumage and soul-inspiring songs. Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller in "Bird Ways" gives a fascinating picture of the wooing of a pair of Sparrows in a maple tree, within sight of her city window, their setting up house-keeping, domestic quarrel, separation, and the bringing home, immediately after, of a new bride by the Cock Sparrow. She knows him to be a domestic tryant, a bully in fact, self-willed and violent, holding out, whatever the cause of disagreement, till he gets his own will; that the voices of the females are less harsh than the males, the chatter among themselves being quite soft, as is their "baby-talk" to the young brood. That they delight in a mob we all know; whether a domestic skirmish or danger to a nest, how they will all congregate, chirping, pecking, scolding, and often fighting in a fierce yet amusing way! One cannot read these chapters of Mrs. Miller's without agreeing with Whittier: "Then, smiling to myself, I said,-- How like are men and birds!" Although a hardy bird, braving the snow and frost of winter, it likes a warm bed, to which it may retire after the toils of the day. To this end its resting place, as well as its nest, is always stuffed with downy feathers. Tramp, Hoodlum, Gamin, Rat of the Air! Notwithstanding these more or less deserved names, however, one cannot view a number of homeless Sparrows, presumably the last brood, seeking shelter in any corner or crevice from a winter's storm, without a feeling of deep compassion. The supports of a porch last winter made but a cold roosting place for three such wanderers within sight of our study window, and never did we behold them, 'mid a storm of sleet and rain, huddle down in their cold, ill-protected beds, without resolving another winter should see a home prepared for them. ALLEN'S HUMMING BIRD. The Humming birds, with their varied beauties, constitute the most remarkable feature of the bird-life of America. They have absolutely no representatives in any other part of the world, the Swifts being the nearest relatives they have in other countries. Mr. Forbes says that they abound most in mountainous countries, where the surface and productions of the soil are most diversified within small areas. They frequent both open and rare and inaccessible places, and are often found on the snowy peaks of Chimborazo as high as 16,000 feet, and in the very lowest valleys in the primeval forests of Brazil, the vast palm-covered districts of the deltas of the Amazon and Orinoco, the fertile flats and savannahs of Demarara, the luxurious and beautiful region of Xalapa, (the realm of perpetual sunshine), and other parts of Mexico. Many of the highest cones of extinct and existing volcanoes have also furnished great numbers of rare species. These birds are found as small as a bumble bee and as large as a Sparrow. The smallest is from Jamaica, the largest from Patagonia. Allen's Hummer is found on the Pacific coast, north to British Columbia, east to southern Arizona. Mr. Langille, in "Our Birds in their Haunts," beautifully describes their flights and manner of feeding. He says "There are many birds the flight of which is so rapid that the strokes of their wings cannot be counted, but here is a species with such nerve of wing that its wing strokes cannot be seen. 'A hazy semi-circle of indistinctness on each side of the bird is all that is perceptible.' Poised in the air, his body nearly perpendicular, he seems to hang in front of the flowers which he probes so hurriedly, one after the other, with his long, slender bill. That long, tubular, fork-shaped tongue may be sucking up the nectar from those rather small cylindrical blossoms, or it may be capturing tiny insects housed away there. Much more like a large sphynx moth hovering and humming over the flowers in the dusky twilight, than like a bird, appears this delicate, fairy-like beauty. How the bright green of the body gleams and glistens in the sunlight. Each imperceptible stroke of those tiny wings conforms to the mechanical laws of flight in all their subtle complications with an ease and gracefulness that seems spiritual. Who can fail to note that fine adjustment of the organs of flight to aerial elasticity and gravitation, by which that astonishing bit of nervous energy can rise and fall almost on the perpendicular, dart from side to side, as if by magic, or, assuming the horizontal position, pass out of sight like a shooting star? Is it not impossible to conceive of all this being done by that rational calculation which enables the rower to row, or the sailor to sail his boat?" "What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fly, Each rapid movement gives a different dye; Like scales of burnished gold they dazzling show, Now sink to shade, now like a furnace glow." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. ALLENS HUMMING BIRD. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE GREEN-WINGED TEAL. Just a common Duck? No, I'm not. There is only one other Duck handsomer than I am, and he is called the Wood Duck. You have heard something about him before. I am a much smaller Duck, but size doesn't count much, I find when it comes to getting on in the world--in _our_ world, that is. I have seen a Sparrow worry a bird four times its size, and I expect you have seen a little boy do the same with a big boy many a time. What is the reason I'm not a common Duck? Well, in the first place, I don't waddle. I can walk just as gracefully as I can swim. Your barn-yard Duck can't do that. I can run, too, without getting all tangled up in the grass, and he can't do that, either. But sometimes I don't mind associating with the common Duck. If he lives in a nice big barn-yard, that has a good pond, and is fed with plenty of grain, I visit him quite often. Where do I generally live? Well, along the edges of shallow, grassy waters, where I feed upon grass, seeds, acorns, grapes, berries, as well as insects, worms, and small snails. I walk quite a distance from the water to get these things, too. Can I fly? Indeed I can, and very swiftly. You can see I am no common Duck when I can swim, and walk, and fly. _You_ can't do the last, though you can the first two. Good to eat? Well, yes, they say when I feed on rice and wild oats I am perfectly delicious. Some birds were, you see, born to sing, and flit about in the trees, and look beautiful, while some were born to have their feathers taken off, and be roasted, and to look fine in a big dish on the table. The Teal Duck is one of those birds. You see we are useful as well as pretty. We don't mind it much if you eat us and say, "what a fine bird!" but when you call us "tough," that hurts our feelings. Good for Christmas? Oh, yes, or any other time--when you can catch us! We fly so fast that it is not easy to do; and can dive under the water, too, when wounded. Something about our nests? Oh, they are built upon the ground, in a dry tuft of grass and weeds and lined with feathers. My mate often plucks the feathers from her own breast to line it. Sometimes she lays ten eggs, indeed once she laid sixteen. Such a family of Ducklings as we had that year! You should have seen them swimming after their mother, and all crying, _Quack, quack, quack!_ like babies as they were. THE GREEN-WINGED TEAL. A handsome little Duck indeed is this, well known to sportsmen, and very abundant throughout North America. It is migratory in its habits, and nests from Minnesota and New Brunswick northward, returning southward in winter to Central America and Cuba. The green wing is commonly found in small flocks along the edges of shallow, grassy waters, feeding largely upon seeds of grasses, small acorns, fallen grapes or berries, as well as aquatic insects, worms, and small snails. In their search for acorns these ducks are often found quite a distance from the water, in exposed situations feeding largely in the night, resting during the day upon bogs or small bare spots, closely surrounded and hidden by reeds and grasses. On land this Duck moves with more ease and grace than any other of its species except the Wood Duck, and it can run with considerable speed. In the water also it moves with great ease and rapidity, and on the wing it is one of the swiftest of its tribe. From the water it rises with a single spring and so swiftly that it can be struck only by a very expert marksman; when wounded it dives readily. As the Teal is more particular in the selection of its food than are most Ducks, its flesh, in consequence, is very delicious. Audubon says that when this bird has fed on wild oats at Green Bay, or soaked rice in the fields of Georgia or Carolina, it is much superior to the Canvas back in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. G. Arnold, in the _Nidologist_, says while traveling through the northwest he was surprised to see the number of Ducks and other wild fowl in close proximity to the railway tracks. He found a number of Teal nests within four feet of the rails of the Canadian Pacific in Manitoba. The warm, sun-exposed banks along the railway tracks, shrouded and covered with thick grass, afford a very fair protection for the nests and eggs from water and marauders of every kind. As the section men seldom disturbed them--not being collectors--the birds soon learned to trust them and would sit on their nests by the hour while the men worked within a few feet of them. The green-winged Teal is essentially a fresh-water bird, rarely being met with near the sea. Its migrations are over the land and not along the sea shore. It has been seen to associate with the Ducks in a farmer's yard or pond and to come into the barn-yard with tame fowls and share the corn thrown out for food. The nests of the Teal are built upon the ground, generally in dry tufts of grass and often quite a distance from the water. They are made of grass, and weeds, etc., and lined with down. In Colorado under a sage brush, a nest was found which had been scooped in the sand and lined warmly with down evidently taken from the bird's own breast, which was plucked nearly bare. This nest contained ten eggs. The number of eggs, of a pale buff color, is usually from eight to twelve, though frequently sixteen or eighteen have been found. It is far more prolific than any of the Ducks resorting to Hudson's Bay, and Mr. Hearn says he has seen the old ones swimming at the head of seventeen young when the latter were not much larger than walnuts. In autumn the males usually keep in separate flocks from the females and young. Their notes are faint and piping and their wings make a loud whistling during flight. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. GREEN-WINGED TEAL. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE BLACK GROUSE. Alone on English moors I've seen the Black Cock stray, Sounding his earnest love-note on the air. --ANON. Well known as the Black Cock is supposed to be, we fancy few of our readers have ever seen a specimen. It is a native of the more southern countries of Europe, and still survives in many portions of the British Islands, especially those localities where the pine woods and heaths afford it shelter, and it is not driven away by the presence of human habitation. The male bird is known to resort at the beginning of the nesting season to some open spot, where he utters his love calls, and displays his new dress to the greatest advantage, for the purpose of attracting as many females as may be willing to consort with him. His note when thus engaged is loud and resonant, and can be heard at a considerable distance. This crowing sound is accompanied by a harsh, grating, stridulous kind of cry which has been compared to the noise produced by whetting a scythe. The Black Cock does not pair, but leaves his numerous mates to the duties of maternity and follows his own desires while they prepare their nests, lay their eggs, hatch them, and bring up the young. The mother bird, however, is a fond, watchful parent, and when she has been alarmed by man or a prowling beast, has been known to remove her eggs to some other locality, where she thinks they will not be discovered. The nest is carelessly made of grasses and stout herbage, on the ground, under the shelter of grass and bushes. There are from six to ten eggs of yellowish gray, with spots of light brown. The young are fed first upon insects, and afterwards on berries, grain, and the buds and shoots of trees. The Black Grouse is a wild and wary creature. The old male which has survived a season or two is particularly shy and crafty, distrusting both man and dog, and running away as soon as he is made aware of approaching danger. In the autumn the young males separate themselves from the other sex and form a number of little bachelor establishments of their own, living together in harmony until the next nesting season, when they all begin to fall in love; "the apple of discord is thrown among them by the charms of the hitherto repudiated sex, and their rivalries lead them into determined and continual battles, which do not cease until the end of the season restores them to peace and sobriety." The coloring of the female is quite different from that of the male Grouse. Her general color is brown, with a tinge of orange, barred with black and speckled with the same hue, the spots and bars being larger on the breast, back, and wings, and the feathers on the breast more or less edged with white. The total length of the adult male is about twenty-two inches, and that of the female from seventeen to eighteen inches. She also weighs nearly one-third less than her mate, and is popularly termed the Heath Hen. THE AMERICAN FLAMINGO. In this interesting family of birds are included seven species, distributed throughout the tropics. Five species are American, of which one reaches our southern border in Florida. Chapman says that they are gregarious at all seasons, are rarely found far from the seacoasts, and their favorite resorts are shallow bays or vast mud flats which are flooded at high water. In feeding the bill is pressed downward into the mud, its peculiar shape making the point turn upward. The ridges along its sides serve as strainers through which are forced the sand and mud taken in with the food. The Flamingo is resident in the United States only in the vicinity of Cape Sable, Florida, where flocks of sometimes a thousand of these rosy vermillion creatures are seen. A wonderful sight indeed. Mr. D. P. Ingraham spent more or less of his time for four seasons in the West Indies among them. He states that the birds inhabit the shallow lagoons and bays having soft clayey bottoms. On the border of these the nest is made by working the clay up into a mound which, in the first season, is perhaps not more than a foot high and about eight inches in diameter at the top and fifteen inches at the base. If the birds are unmolested they will return to the same nesting place from year to year, each season augmenting the nest by the addition of mud at the top, leaving a slight depression for the eggs. He speaks of visiting the nesting grounds where the birds had nested the previous year and their mound-like nests were still standing. The birds nest in June. The number of eggs is usually two, sometimes only one and rarely three. When three are found in a nest it is generally believed that the third has been laid by another female. The stature of this remarkable bird is nearly five feet, and it weighs in the flesh six or eight pounds. On the nest the birds sit with their long legs doubled under them. The old story of the Flamingo bestriding its nest in an ungainly attitude while sitting is an absurd fiction. The eggs are elongate-ovate in shape, with a thick shell, roughened with a white flakey substance, but bluish when this is scraped off. It requires thirty-two days for the eggs to hatch. The very fine specimen we present in BIRDS represents the Flamingo feeding, the upper surface of the unique bill, which is abruptly bent in the middle, facing the ground. [Illustration: From col. C. E. Petford. BLACK GROUSE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. FLAMINGO. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE BIRDS OF BETHLEHEM. I. I heard the bells of Bethlehem ring-- Their voice was sweeter than the priests'; I heard the birds of Bethlehem sing Unbidden in the churchly feasts. II. They clung and swung on the swinging chain High in the dim and incensed air; The priest, with repetitions vain, Chanted a never ending prayer. III. So bell and bird and priest I heard, But voice of bird was most to me-- It had no ritual, no word, And yet it sounded true and free. IV. I thought child Jesus, were he there, Would like the singing birds the best, And clutch his little hands in air And smile upon his mother's breast. R. W. GILDER, in _The Century_. THE BIRD'S STORY. "I once lived in a little house, And lived there very well; I thought the world was small and round, And made of pale blue shell. I lived next in a little nest, Nor needed any other; I thought the world was made of straw, And brooded by my mother. One day I fluttered from the nest To see what I could find. I said: 'The world is made of leaves, I have been very blind.' At length I flew beyond the tree, Quite fit for grown-up labors; I don't know how the world _is_ made, And neither do my neighbors." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. VERDIN. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE VERDIN. A dainty little creature indeed is the Yellow-headed Bush Tit, or Verdin, being smaller than the largest North American Humming Bird, which inhabits southern Arizona and southward. It is a common bird in suitable localities throughout the arid regions of Northern Mexico, the southern portions of Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and in Lower California. In spite of its diminutive size it builds a remarkable structure for a nest--large and bulky, and a marvel of bird architecture. Davie says it is comparatively easy to find, being built near the ends of the branches of some low, thorny tree or shrub, and in the numerous varieties of cacti and thorny bushes which grow in the regions of its home. The nest is globular, flask-shaped or retort shape in form, the outside being one mass of thorny twigs and stems interwoven, while the middle is composed of flower-stems and the lining is of feathers. The entrance is a small circular opening. Mr. Atwater says that the birds occupy the nests during the winter months. They are generally found nesting in the high, dry parts of the country, away from tall timber, where the thorns are the thickest. From three to six eggs are laid, of a bluish or greenish-white or pale blue, speckled, chiefly round the larger end, with reddish brown. * * * * * "The woods were made for the hunters of dreams, The brooks for the fishers of song. To the hunters who hunt for the gunless game The woods and the streams belong. There are thoughts that moan from the soul of the pine, And thoughts in the flower-bell curled, And the thoughts that are blown from the scent of the fern Are as new and as old as the world." THE BRONZED GRACKLE. You can call me the Crow Blackbird, little folks, if you want to. People generally call me by that name. I look something like the Crow in the March number of BIRDS, don't I? My dress is handsomer than his, though. Indeed I am said to be a splendid looking bird, my bronze coat showing very finely in the trees. The Crow said _Caw, Caw, Caw!_ to the little boys and girls. That was his way of talking. My voice is not so harsh as his. I have a note which some people think is quite sweet; then my throat gets rusty and I have some trouble in finishing my tune. I puff out my feathers, spread my wings and tail, then lifting myself on the perch force out the other notes of my song. Maybe you have seen a singer on the stage, instead of a perch, do the same thing. Had to get on his tip-toes to reach a high note, you know. Like the Crow I visit the cornfields, too. In the spring when the man with the plow turns over the rich earth, I follow after and pick up all the grubs and insects I can find. They would destroy the young corn if I didn't eat them. Then, when the corn grows up, I, my sisters, and my cousins, and my aunts drop down into the field in great numbers. Such a picnic as we do have! The farmers don't seem to like it, but certainly they ought to pay us for our work in the spring, don't you think? Then I think worms as a steady diet are not good for anybody, not even a Crow, do you? We like nuts, too, and little crayfish which we find on the edges of ponds. No little boy among you can beat us in going a-nutting. We Grackles are a very sociable family, and like to visit about among our neighbors. Then we hold meetings and all of us try to talk at once. People say we are very noisy at such times, and complain a good deal. They ought to think of their own meetings. They do a great deal of talking at such times, too, and sometimes break up in a fight. How do I know? Well, a little bird told me so. Yes, we build our nest as other birds do; ours is not a dainty affair; any sort of trash mixed with mud will do for the outside. The inside we line with fine dry grass. My mate does most of the work, while I do the talking. That is to let the Robin and other birds know I am at home, and they better not come around. Yours, MR. BRONZED GRACKLE. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. BRONZED GRACKLE Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE BRONZED GRACKLE. First come the Blackbirds clatt'rin in tall trees, And settlin' things in windy congresses, Queer politicians though, for I'll be skinned If all on 'em don't head against the wind. --LOWELL. By the more familiar name of Crow Blackbird this fine but unpopular bird is known, unpopular among the farmers for his depredations in their cornfields, though the good he does in ridding the soil, even at the harvest season, of noxious insects and grubs should be set down to his credit. The Bronzed Grackle or Western Crow Blackbird, is a common species everywhere in its range, from the Alleghenies and New England north to Hudson Bay, and west to the Rocky Mountains. It begins nesting in favorable seasons as early as the middle of March, and by the latter part of April many of the nests are finished. It nests anywhere in trees or bushes or boughs, or in hollow limbs or stumps at any height. A clump of evergreen trees in a lonely spot is a favorite site, in sycamore groves along streams, and in oak woodlands. It is by no means unusual to see in the same tree several nests, some saddled on horizontal branches, others built in large forks, and others again in holes, either natural or those made by the Flicker. A long list of nesting sites might be given, including Martin-houses, the sides of Fish Hawk's nests, and in church spires, where the Blackbirds' "clatterin'" is drowned by the tolling bell. The nest is a coarse, bulky affair, composed of grasses, knotty roots mixed with mud, and lined with fine dry grass, horse hair, or sheep's wool. The eggs are light greenish or smoky blue, with irregular lines, dots and blotches distributed over the surface. The eggs average four to six, though nests have been found containing seven. The Bronze Grackle is a bird of many accomplishments. He does not hop like the ordinary bird, but imitates the Crow in his stately walk, says one who has watched him with interest. He can pick beech nuts, catch cray fish without getting nipped, and fish for minnows alongside of any ten-year-old. While he is flying straight ahead you do not notice anything unusual, but as soon as he turns or wants to alight you see his tail change from the horizontal to the vertical--into a rudder. Hence he is called keel-tailed. The Grackle is as omnivorous as the Crow or Blue Jay, without their sense of humor, and whenever opportunity offers will attack and eat smaller birds, especially the defenseless young. His own meet with the like fate, a fox squirrel having been seen to emerge from a hole in a large dead tree with a young Blackbird in its mouth. The Squirrel was attacked by a number of Blackbirds, who were greatly excited, but it paid no attention to their demonstrations and scampered off into the wood with his prey. Of their quarrels with Robins and other birds much might be written. Those who wish to investigate their remarkable habits will do well to read the acute and elaborate observations of Mr. Lyndes Jones, in a recent Bulletin of Oberlin College. He has studied for several seasons the remarkable Bronze Grackle roost on the college campus at that place, where thousands of these birds congregate from year to year, and, though more or less offensive to some of the inhabitants, add considerably to the attractiveness of the university town. THE RING-NECKED PHEASANT. We are fortunate in being able to present our readers with a genuine specimen of the Ring-Necked species of this remarkable family of birds, as the Ring-Neck has been crossed with the Mongolian to such an extent, especially in many parts of the United States, that they are practically the same bird now. They are gradually taking the place of Prairie Chickens, which are becoming extinct. The hen will hatch but once each year, and then in the late spring. She will hatch a covey of from eighteen to twenty-two young birds from each setting. The bird likes a more open country than the quail, and nests only in the open fields, although it will spend much time roaming through timberland. Their disposition is much like that of the quail, and at the first sign of danger they will rush into hiding. They are handy and swift flyers and runners. In the western states they will take the place of the Prairie Chicken, and in Ohio will succeed the Quail and common Pheasant. While they are hardy birds, it is said that the raising of Mongolian-English Ring-Necked Pheasants is no easy task. The hens do not make regular nests, but lay their eggs on the ground of the coops, where they are picked up and placed in a patent box, which turns the eggs over daily. After the breeding season the male birds are turned into large parks until February. The experiment which is now being made in Ohio--if it can be properly so termed, thousands of birds having been liberated and begun to increase--has excited wide-spread interest. A few years ago the Ohio Fish and Game Commission, after hearing of the great success of Judge Denny, of Portland, Oregon, in rearing these birds in that state, decided it would be time and money well spent if they should devote their attention and an "appropriation" to breeding and rearing these attractive game birds. And the citizens of that state are taking proper measures to see that they are protected. Recently more than two thousand Pheasants were shipped to various counties of the state, where the natural conditions are favorable, and where the commission has the assurance that the public will organize for the purpose of protecting the Pheasants. A law has been enacted forbidding the killing of the birds until November 15, 1900. Two hundred pairs liberated last year increased to over two thousand. When not molested the increase is rapid. If the same degree of success is met with between now and 1900, with the strict enforcement of the game laws, Ohio will be well stocked with Pheasants in a few years. They will prove a great benefit to the farmers, and will more than recompense them for the little grain they may take from the fields in destroying bugs and insects that are now agents of destruction to the growing crops. The first birds were secured by Mr. E. H. Shorb, of Van Wert, Ohio, from Mr. Verner De Guise, of Rahway, N. J. A pair of Mongolian Pheasants, and a pair of English Ring-Necks were secured from the Wyandache Club, Smithtown, L. I. These birds were crossed, thus producing the English Ring-Neck Mongolian Pheasants, which are larger and better birds, and by introducing the old English Ring-Neck blood, a bird was produced that does not wander, as the thoroughbred Mongolian Pheasant does. Such of our readers as appreciate the beauty and quality of this superb specimen will no doubt wish to have it framed for the embellishment of the dining room. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. RING-NECKED PHEASANT. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] BIRD MISCELLANY. Knowledge never learned of schools Of the wild bee's morning chase, Of the wild-flowers' time and place, Flight of fowl and habitude Of the tenants of the wood; How the tortoise bears his shell; How the woodchuck digs his cell; And the ground-mole makes his well; How the robin feeds her young; How the oriole's nest is hung. --WHITTIER. * * * * * Consider the marvellous life of a bird and the manner of its whole existence.... Consider the powers of that little mind of which the inner light flashes from the round bright eye; the skill in building its home, in finding its food, in protecting its mate, in serving its offspring, in preserving its own existence, surrounded as it is on all sides by the most rapacious enemies.... When left alone it is such a lovely little life--cradled among the hawthorn buds, searching for aphidæ amongst apple blossoms, drinking dew from the cup of a lily; awake when the gray light breaks in the east, throned on the topmost branch of a tree, swinging with it in the sunshine, flying from it through the air; then the friendly quarrel with a neighbor over a worm or berry; the joy of bearing grass-seed to his mate where she sits low down amongst the docks and daisies; the triumph of singing the praise of sunshine or of moonlight; the merry, busy, useful days; the peaceful sleep, steeped in the scent of the closed flower, with head under one wing and the leaves forming a green roof above. --OUIDA. THE YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT. I am often heard, but seldom seen. If I were a little boy or a little girl, grown people would tell me I should be seen and not heard. That's the difference between you and a bird like me, you see. It would repay you to make my acquaintance. I am such a jolly bird. Sometimes I get all the dogs in my neighborhood howling by whistling just like their masters. Another time I mew like a cat, then again I give some soft sweet notes different from those of any bird you ever heard. In the spring, when my mate and I begin house-keeping, I do some very funny things, like the clown in a circus. I feel so happy that I go up a tree branch by branch, by short flights and jumps, till I get to the very top. Then I launch myself in the air, as a boy dives when he goes swimming, and you would laugh to see me flirting my tail, and dangling my legs, coming down into the thicket by odd jerks and motions. It really is so funny that I burst out laughing myself, saying, _chatter-chatter, chat-chat-chat-chat!_ I change my tune sometimes, and it sounds like _who who_, and _tea-boy_. You must be cautious though, if you want to see me go through my performance. Even when I am doing those funny things in the air I have an eye out for my enemies. Should I see you I would hide myself in the bushes and as long as you were in sight I would be angry and say _chut, chut!_ as cross as could be. Have I any other name? Yes, I am called the Yellow Mockingbird. But that name belongs to another. His picture was in the June number of BIRDS, so you know something about him. They say I imitate other birds as he does. But I do more than that. I can throw my voice in one place, while I am in another. It is a great trick, and I get lots of sport out of it. Do you know what that trick is called? If not, ask your papa. It is such a long word I am afraid to use it. About my nest? Oh, yes, I am coming to that. I arrive in this country about May 1, and leave for the south in the winter. My nest is nothing to boast of; rather big, made of leaves, bark, and dead twigs, and lined with fine grasses and fibrous roots. My mate lays eggs, white in color, and our little ones are, like their papa, very handsome. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. CHICAGO COLORTYPE CO. YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT. A common name for this bird, the largest of the warblers, is the Yellow Mockingbird. It is found in the eastern United States, north to the Connecticut Valley and Great Lakes; west to the border of the Great Plains; and in winter in eastern Mexico and Guatemala. It frequents the borders of thickets, briar patches, or wherever there is a low, dense growth of bushes--the thornier and more impenetrable the better. "After an acquaintance of many years," says Frank M. Chapman, "I frankly confess that the character of the Yellow-Crested Chat is a mystery to me. While listening to his strange medley and watching his peculiar actions, we are certainly justified in calling him eccentric, but that there is a method in his madness no one who studies him can doubt." By many observers this bird is dubbed clown or harlequin, so peculiar are his antics or somersaults in the air; and by others "mischief maker," because of his ventriloquistic and imitating powers, and the variety of his notes. In the latter direction he is surpassed only by the Mockingbird. The mewing of a cat, the barking of a dog, and the whistling sound produced by a Duck's wings when flying, though much louder, are common imitations with him. The last can be perfectly imitated by a good whistler, bringing the bird instantly to the spot, where he will dodge in and out among the bushes, uttering, if the whistling be repeated, a deep toned emphatic _tac_, or hollow, resonant _meow_. In the mating season he is the noisiest bird in the woods. At this time he may be observed in his wonderful aerial evolutions, dangling his legs and flirting his tail, singing vociferously the while--a sweet song different from all his jests and jeers--and descending by odd jerks to the thicket. After a few weeks he abandons these clown-like maneuvers and becomes a shy, suspicious haunter of the depths of the thicket, contenting himself in taunting, teasing, and misleading, by his variety of calls, any bird, beast, or human creature within hearing. All these notes are uttered with vehemence, and with such strange and various modulations as to appear near or distant, in the manner of a ventriloquist. In mild weather, during moonlight nights, his notes are heard regularly, as though the performer were disputing with the echoes of his own voice. "Perhaps I ought to be ashamed to confess it," says Mr. Bradford Torrey, after a visit to the Senate and House of Representatives at Washington, "but after all, the congressman in feathers interested me most. I thought indeed, that the _Chat_ might well enough have been elected to the lower house. His volubility and waggish manners would have made him quite at home in that assembly, while his orange colored waistcoat would have given him an agreeable conspicuity. But, to be sure, he would have needed to learn the use of tobacco." The nest of the Chat is built in a thicket, usually in a thorny bush or thick vine five feet above the ground. It is bulky, composed exteriorly of dry leaves, strips of loose grape vine bark, and similar materials, and lined with fine grasses and fibrous roots. The eggs are three to five in number, glossy white, thickly spotted with various shades of rich, reddish brown and lilac; some specimens however have a greenish tinge, and others a pale pink. SUMMARY. Page 203. #MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD.#--_Sialia arctica._ Other names: "Rocky Mountain" and "Arctic Bluebird." RANGE--Rocky Mountain region, north to Great Slave Lake, south to Mexico, west to the higher mountain ranges along the Pacific. NEST--Placed in deserted Woodpecker holes, natural cavities of trees, nooks and corners of barns and outhouses; composed of dry grass. EGGS--Commonly five, of pale, plain greenish blue. * * * * * Page 208. #ENGLISH SPARROW.#--_Passer domesticus._ Other names: "European Sparrow," "House Sparrow." RANGE--Southern Europe. Introduced into and naturalized in North America, Australia, and other countries. NEST--Of straw and refuse generally, in holes, boxes, trees, any place that will afford protection. EGGS--Five to seven. * * * * * Page 211. #ALLEN'S HUMMING BIRD.#--_Selasphorus alleni._ RANGE--Pacific coast, north to British Columbia, east to southern Arizona. NEST--Plant down, covered with lichens. EGGS--Two, white. * * * * * Page 215. #GREEN-WINGED TEAL.#--_Anas carolinensis._ RANGE--North America, migrating south to Honduras and Cuba. NEST--On the ground, in a thick growth of grass. EGGS--Five to eight, greenish-buff, usually oval. * * * * * Page 220. #BLACK GROUSE.#--_Tetrao tetrix._ Other name: "Black Cock." RANGE--Southern Europe and the British Islands. NEST--Carelessly made, of grasses and stout herbage, on the ground. EGGS--Six to ten, of yellowish gray, with spots of light brown. * * * * * Page 221. #AMERICAN FLAMINGO.#--_Phoenicopterus ruber._ RANGE--Atlantic coasts of sub-tropical and tropical America; Florida Keys. NEST--Mass of earth, sticks, and other material scooped up to the height of several feet and hollow at the top. EGGS--One or two, elongate-ovate in shape, with thick shell, roughened with a white flakey substance, but bluish when this is scraped off. * * * * * Page 226. #VERDIN.#--_Auriparus flaviceps._ Other name: "Yellow-headed Bush Tit." RANGE--Northern regions of Mexico and contiguous portions of the United States, from southern Texas to Arizona and Lower California. NEST--Globular, the outside being one mass of thorny twigs and stems interwoven, and lined with feathers. EGGS--Three to six, of a bluish or greenish white color, speckled with reddish brown. * * * * * Page 230. #BRONZED GRACKLE.#--_Quiscalus quiscula æneus._ RANGE--Eastern North America from the Alleghenies and New England north to Hudson Bay, west to the Rocky Mountains. NEST--In sycamore trees and oak woodlands a coarse bulky structure of grasses, knotty roots, mixed with mud, lined with horse hair or wool. EGGS--Four to six, of a light greenish or smoky-blue, with lines, dots, blotches and scrawls on the surface. * * * * * Page 233. #RING-NECKED PHEASANT.#--_Phasianus torquatus._ RANGE--Throughout China; have been introduced into England and the United States. NEST--On the ground under bushes. EGGS--Vary, from thirteen to twenty. * * * * * Page 238. #YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT.#--_Icteria virens._ RANGE--Eastern United States to the Great Plains, north to Ontario and southern New England; south in winter through eastern Mexico to Northern Central America. NEST--In briar thickets from two to five feet up, of withered leaves, dry grasses, strips of bark, lined with finer grasses. EGGS--Three or four, white, with a glossy surface. VOLUME II. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1897. INDEX. Anhinga, or Snake Bird, _Anhinga Anhinga_ pages 26-27 Avocet, American, _Recurvirostra Americana_ " 14-15 Audubon, John James " 161 Birds of Bethlehem " 223 Bird Song " 1-41-81 Birds in Captivity " 121 Birds of Passage " 173 Bird Miscellany " 195-235 Blue Bird, Mountain, _Sialia arctica_ " 203-205 Bunting, Lazuli, _Passerina amoena_ " 196-198-199 Chimney Swift, _Chætura pelagica_ " 131-133 Captive's Escape " 116 Chat, Yellow-Breasted, _Icteria virens_ " 236-238-239 Cuckoo, Yellow-Billed, _Coccyzus americanus_ " 94-95 Dove, Mourning, _Zenaidura macrura_ " 111-112-113 Duck, Canvas-back, _Athya valisneria_ " 18-20 Duck, Mallard, _Anas boschas_ " 10-11-13 Duck, Wood, _Aix Sponsa_ " 21-23-24 Eagle, Baldheaded, _Halioetus lencocephalus_ " 2-3-5 Flamingo, _Phoenicopterus ruber_ " 218-221 Flycatcher, Vermillion, _Pyrocephalus rubineus mexicanus_ " 192-193 Gold Finch, American, _Spinus tristis_ " 128-129-130 Goose, White-fronted, _Anser albifrons gambeli_ " 166-168-169 Grackle, Bronzed, _Quiscalus quiscula_ " 228-230-231 Grosbeak, Evening, _Cocothraustes vespertina_ " 68-70-71 Grouse, Black, _Tetrao tetrix_ " 217-220-223 Heron, Snowy, _Ardea candidissima_ " 38-39 How the Birds Secured Their Rights " 115 Humming Bird, Allen's _Selasphorus alleni_ " 210-211 Humming Bird, Ruby-Throated, _Trochilus colubris_ " 97-100-103 Junco, Slate Colored, _Junco hyemalis_ " 153-155 Kingbird, _Tyrannus tyrannus_ " 156-158-159 Kingfisher, European, _Alcedo ispida_ " 188-190-191 Kinglet, Ruby-crowned, _Regulus calendula_ " 108-110 Lark, Horned, _Otocoris alpestris_ " 134-135 Lost Mate " 126 Merganser, Red-Breasted, _Merganser serrator_ " 54-55 Nuthatch, White-Breasted, _Sitta carolinensis_ " 118-119 Old Abe " 35 Ornithological Congress " 201 Osprey, American, _Pandion palioetus carolinenses_ " 42-43-45 Partridge, Gambel's, _Callipepla gambeli_ " 78-79 Phalarope, Wilson's, _Phalaropus tricolor_ " 66-67 Pheasant, Ring-Necked, _Phasianus torquatus_ " 232-233 Phoebe, _Sayornis phoebe_ " 106-107 Plover, Belted Piping, _Aegialitis meloda circumcincta_ " 174-175 Plover, Semipalmated Ring, _Aegialitis semi-polmata_ " 6-8-9 Rail, Sora, _Porzana Carolina_ " 46-48-49 Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied, _Sphyrapicus varius_ " 137-140-143 Scoter, American, _Oidemia deglandi_ " 32-33 Skylark, _Alauda arvensis_ " 61-63-64 Snake Bird, (Anhinga) _Anhinga anhinga_ " 26-27 Snowflake, _Plectrophenax nivalis_ " 150-151-152 Sparrow, English, _Passer domesticus_ " 206-208-209 Sparrow, Song, _Melospiza fasciata_ " 90-91-93 Summaries " 40-80-120 -160-200-240 Tanager, Summer, _Piranga rubra_ " 163-165 Teal, Green winged, _Anas carolinensis_ " 213-214-215 The Bird's Story " 224 Thrush, Hermit, _Turdus Aonalaschkae_ " 86-88-89 To a Water Fowl " 76 Tropic Bird, Yellow-billed, _Phaethon flavirostris_ " 184-186-187 Turkey, Wild, _Meleagris gallopava_ " 177-180-183 Turnstone, _Arenaria interpres_ " 170-171 Verdin, _Auriparus flaviceps_ " 226-227 Vireo, Warbling, _Vireo gilvus_ " 138-141 Vulture, Turkey, _Catharista Atrata_ " 72-73-75 Warbler, Blackburnian, _Dendroica blackburnia_ " 123-125 Warbler, Cerulean, _Dendroeca caerulea_ " 178-181 Warbler, Kentucky, _Geothlypis formosa_ " 50-51-53 Warbler, Yellow, _Dendroica æstiva_ " 83-85 Woodcock, American, _Philohela minor_ " 28-30-31 Wren, House, _Troglodytes ædon_ " 98-101-104 Wood Pewee, _Contopus Virens_ " 144-146-147-148 Yellow Legs, _Totanus flavipes_ " 58-60 
30677	----	Transcriber's Note: Title page added. * * * * * BIRDS A MONTHLY SERIAL ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE VOLUME II. CHICAGO. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1897 BY NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO. BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. II. NOVEMBER NO. 5 ================================ JOHN JAMES AUDUBON. John James Audubon has always been a favorite with the writer, for the invincibleness of his love of Nature and of birds is only equalled by the spontaneous freshness of his style, springing from an affectionate and joyous nature. Recently there was found by accident, in an old calf-skin bound volume, an autobiography of the naturalist. It is entitled "Audubon's Story of his Youth," and would make a very pretty book. As introductory to the diaries and ornithological biographies of the birds, it would be very useful. Two or three incidents in the life of this fascinating character are interesting as showing the influence of the accidental in ultimate achievement. "One incident," he says, "which is as perfect in my memory as if it had occurred this very day, I have thought thousands of times since, and will now put on paper as one of the curious things which perhaps did lead me in after times to love birds, and to finally study them with pleasure infinite. My mother had several beautiful parrots, and some monkeys; one of the latter was a full-grown male of a very large species. One morning, while the servants were engaged in arranging the room I was in, 'Pretty Polly' asking for her breakfast as usual, '_Du pain au lait pour le perroquet Mignonne_,' (bread and milk for the parrot Mignonne,) the man of the woods probably thought the bird presuming upon his rights in the scale of nature; be this as it may, he certainly showed his supremacy in strength over the denizen of the air, for, walking deliberately and uprightly toward the poor bird, he at once killed it, with unnatural composure. The sensations of my infant heart at this cruel sight were agony to me. I prayed the servant to beat the monkey, but he, who for some reason, preferred the monkey to the parrot, refused. I uttered long and piercing cries, my mother rushed into the room; I was tranquilized; the monkey was forever afterward chained, and Mignonne buried with all the pomp of a cherished lost one. This made, as I have said, a very deep impression on my youthful mind." In consequence of the long absences of his father, who was an admiral in the French navy, the young naturalist's education was neglected, his mother suffering him to do much as he pleased, and it was not to be wondered at, as he says, that instead of applying closely to his studies, he preferred associating with boys of his own age and disposition, who were more fond of going in search of bird's nests, fishing, or shooting, than of better studies. Thus almost every day, instead of going to school, he usually made for the fields where he spent the day, returning with his little basket filled with what he called curiosities, such as birds' nests, birds' eggs, curious lichens, flowers of all sorts, and even pebbles gathered along the shore of some rivulet. Nevertheless, he did study drawing and music, for which he had some talent. His subsequent study of drawing under the celebrated David, richly equipped him for a work which he did not know was ever to be his, and enabled him to commence a series of drawings of birds of France, which he continued until he had upwards of two hundred completed. "All bad enough," he says, "yet they were representations of birds, and I felt pleased with them." Before sailing for France, he had begun a series of drawings of the birds of America, and had also begun a study of their habits. His efforts were commended by one of his friends, who assured him the time might come when he should be a great American naturalist, which had such weight with him that he felt a certain degree of pride in the words, even then, when he was about eighteen years of age. "The store at Louisville went on prosperously, when I attended to it; but birds were birds then as now, and my thoughts were ever and anon turning toward them as the objects of my greatest delight. I shot, I drew, I looked on nature only; my days were happy beyond human conception, and beyond this I really cared not." [How like Agassiz, who said he had not time to make money.] As he could not bear to give the attention required by his business, his business abandoned him. "Indeed, I never thought of business beyond the ever-engaging journeys which I was in the habit of taking to Philadelphia or New York, to purchase goods; those journeys I greatly enjoyed, as they afforded me ample means to study birds and their habits as I traveled through the beautiful, the darling forests of Ohio, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania." Poor fellow, how many ups and downs he had! He lost everything and became burdened with debt. But he did not despair for had he not a talent for drawing? He at once undertook to take portraits of the human head divine in black chalk, and thanks to his master, David, succeeded admirably. He established a large drawing school at Cincinnati, and formed an engagement to stuff birds for the museum there at a large salary. "One of the most extraordinary things among all these adverse circumstances" he adds, "was, that I never for a day give up listening to the songs of our birds, or watching their peculiar habits, or delineating them in the best way I could; nay, during my deepest troubles, I frequently would wrench myself from the persons around me and retire to some secluded part of our noble forests; and many a time, at the sound of the wood-thrushes' melodies, have I fallen on my knees and there prayed earnestly to our God. This never failed to bring me the most valuable of thoughts, and always comfort, and it was often necessary for me to exert my will and compel myself to return to my fellow-beings." Do you not fancy that Audubon was himself a _rara avis_ and worthy of admiration and study? Such a man, in the language of a contemporary, should have a monument in the old Creole country in which he was born, and whose birds inspired his childish visions. It should be the most beautiful work possible to the sculptor's art, portraying Audubon in the garb he wore when he was proud and happy to be called the "American Woodman," and at his feet should stand the Eagle which he named the "Bird of Washington," and near should perch the Mocking Bird, as once, in his description, it flew and fluttered and sang to the mind's eye and ear from the pages of the old reading book. C. C. MARBLE. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SUMMER TANAGER Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE SUMMER TANAGER. The tanagers are birds of such uncommon beauty that when we have taken the pictures of the entire family the group will be a notable one and will add attractiveness to the portfolio. [See Vol. I, pp. 31 and 216.] This specimen is also called the Summer Red-bird or Rose Tanager, and is found pretty generally distributed over the United States during the summer months, wintering in Cuba, Central America, and northern South America. As will be seen, the adult male is a plain vermilion red. The plumage of the female is less attractive. In habits this species resembles the Scarlet Tanager, perhaps the most brilliant of the group, but is not so retiring, frequenting open groves and often visiting towns and cities. The nesting season of this charming bird extends to the latter part of July, but varies with the latitude and season. Bark strips and leaves interwoven with various vegetable substances compose the nest, which is usually built on a horizontal or drooping branch, near its extremity and situated at the edge of a grove near the roadside. Davie says: "All the nests of this species which I have seen collected in Ohio are very thin and frail structures; so thin that the eggs may often be seen from beneath. A nest sent me from Lee county, Texas, is compactly built of a cottony weed, a few stems of Spanish moss, and lined with fine grass stems." Mr. L. O. Pindar states that nests found in Kentucky are compactly built, but not very thickly lined. The eggs are beautiful, being a bright, light emerald green, spotted, dotted, and blotched with various shades of lilac, brownish-purple, and dark brown. Chapman says the Summer Tanager may be easily identified, not alone by its color but by its unique call-note, a clearly enunciated _chicky, tucky, tuck_. Its song bears a general resemblance to that of the Scarlet, but to some ears is much sweeter, better sustained, and more musical. It equals in strength, according to one authority, that of the Robin, but is uttered more hurriedly, is more "wiry," and much more continued. The Summer Tanager is to a greater or less extent known to farmers as the Red Bee-Bird. Its food consists largely of hornets, wasps, and bees. The male of this species requires several years to attain the full plumage. Immature individuals, it is said, show a mixture of red and yellow in relative proportions according to age. The female has more red than the male, but the tint is peculiar, a dull Chinese orange, instead of a pure rosy vermilion, as in the male. An interesting study for many of our readers during the summer months when the Tanagers are gay in their full plumage, would be to seek out, with BIRDS in hand, the most attractive denizens of the groves, identifying and observing them in their haunts until the entire group, of which five species are represented in the United States, is made familiar. When we remember that there are about three hundred and eighty known species of Tanagers in Tropical America, it would seem a light task to acquaint oneself with the small family at home. THE AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. "As stupid as a Goose!" Yes, I know that is the way our family is usually spoken of. But then I'm not a tame Goose, you know. We wild fellows think we know a little more than the one which waddles about the duck-pond in your back yard. He sticks to one old place all the time. Waddles and talks and looks the same year after year. We migratory birds, on the other hand, fly from place to place. Our summers are passed here, our winters there; so that we pick up a thing or two the common Goose never dreams of. "The laughing Goose!" Yes, some people call me that. I don't know why, unless my _Honk, honk, honk!_ sounds like a laugh. Perhaps, though, it is because the look about my mouth is so pleasant. Did you ever see a flock of us in motion, in October or November, going to our winter home? Ah, that is a sight! When the time comes for us to start, we form ourselves into a figure like this >· a big gander taking the lead where the dot is. Such a _honk, honk, honking_ you never heard. People who have heard us, and seen us, say it sounds like a great army overhead. Where do we live in summer, and what do we eat? You will find us throughout the whole of North America, but in greater numbers on the Pacific coast. The fresh-water lakes are our favorite resorts. We visit the wheat fields and corn fields, nibbling the young, tender blades and feeding on the scattered grain. The farmers don't like it a bit, but we don't care. That is the reason our flesh tastes so sweet. And tough! My, how you talk! It is only we old fellows that are tough, we fellows over a year old. But of course a great many people don't know that, or don't care. Why, I once heard of a gander that had waddled around a barnyard for five long years. Thanksgiving Day arrived, and they roasted him for dinner. Think of eating an old, _old_ friend like that! Where do we build our nests? Away up north, in Alaska, and on the islands of the Arctic Sea. We make them of hay, feathers, and down, building them in hollow places on the ground. How many eggs? Six. I am very good to my mate, and an affectionate father. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. White-fronted or Laughing Geese are found in considerable numbers on the prairies of the Mississippi Valley. They are called Prairie Brant by market-men and gunners. Though not abundant on the Atlantic seaboard, vast flocks may be seen in the autumn months on the Pacific Slope. In Oregon and northern California some remain all winter, though the greater number go farther south. They appear to prefer the grassy patches along streams flowing into the ocean, or the tide-water flats so abundant in Oregon and Washington, where the Speckle-bellies, as they are called, feed in company with the Snow Geese. The nesting place of this favorite species is in the wooded districts of Alaska and along the Yukon river. No nest is formed, from seven to ten eggs being laid in a depression in the sand. It is said that notwithstanding all references to their ungainly movement and doltish intellect, the Wild Goose, of which the White-fronted is one of the most interesting, is held in high estimation by the sportsman, and even he, if keen of observation, will learn from it many things that will entitle the species to advancement in the mental grade, and prove the truth of a very old adage, that you cannot judge of things by outward appearance. A goose, waddling around the barnyard, may not present a very graceful appearance, nor seem endowed with much intelligence, yet the ungainly creature, when in its natural state, has an ease of motion in flight which will compare with that of any of the feathered tribe, and shows a knowledge of the means of defense, and of escaping the attacks of its enemies, that few possess. There is probably no bird more cautious, vigilant, and fearful at danger than this. Should their suspicion be aroused, they rise upward slowly in a dense cloud of white, and sound their alarm notes, but they may not go over fifty yards before they alight again, so that the amusement of watching them may be continued without much toil or inconvenience. The White-fronted Goose visits Illinois only during its migrations, coming some time in October or early in November, and returning in March or April. During its sojourn there it frequents chiefly open prairies, or wheat fields, where it nibbles the young and tender blades, and cornfields, where it feeds upon the scattered grains. In California, Ridgway says, it is so numerous in winter as to be very destructive of the growing wheat crop, and it is said that in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, farmers often find it necessary to employ men by the month to hunt and drive them from the fields. This is most successfully accomplished by means of brush hiding places, or "blinds," or by approaching the flocks on horseback by the side of an ox which has been trained for the purpose. The White-fronted Goose is greatly esteemed for the excellent quality of its flesh, which, by those who have learned to appreciate it, is generally considered superior to that of any other species. While the cruel pursuit of the bird, merely for purpose of sport ought not to be continued, appreciation of its value as food may well be encouraged. THE TURNSTONE. This small plover-like bird is found on the sea-coasts of nearly all countries; in America, from Greenland and Alaska to Chili and Brazil; more or less common in the interior along the shores of the Great Lakes and larger rivers. It is generally found in company with flocks of the smaller species of Sandpipers, its boldly marked plumage contrasting with surroundings, while the Sandpipers mingle with the sands and unless revealed by some abrupt movement can hardly be seen at a little distance. The name Turnstone has been applied to this bird on account of its curious habit of dexterously inserting its bill beneath stones and pebbles along the shore in quest of food, overturning them in search of the insects or prey of any kind which may be lurking beneath. It is found on smooth, sandy beaches, though more commonly about the base of rocky cliffs and cones. The eggs of horseshoe crabs are its particular delight. In the nesting season the Turnstone is widely distributed throughout the northern portions of both continents, and wanders southward along the sea-coasts of all countries. In America it breeds commonly in the Barren Lands of the Arctic coasts and the Anderson River districts, on the Islands of Franklin and Liverpool bays, nesting in July. In the Hudson's Bay country the eggs are laid in June. The nest is a hollow scratched in the earth, and is lined with bits of grass. The Turnstone is known by various names: "Brant Bird," "Bead-bird," "Horse-foot-Snipe," "Sand-runner," "Calico-back," "Chicaric" and "Chickling." The two latter names have reference to its rasping notes, "Calico-back," to the variegated plumage of the upper parts. In summer the adults are oddly pied above with black, white, brown, and chestnut-red, but the red is totally wanting in winter. They differ from the true Plovers in the well developed hind-toe, and the strong claws, but chiefly in the more robust feet, without trace of web between the toes. The eggs are greenish-drab in color, spotted, blotched, and dotted irregularly and thickly with yellowish and umber brown. The eggs are two or four, abruptly pyriform in shape. SNOWBIRDS. Along the narrow sandy height I watch them swiftly come and go, Or round the leafless wood, Like flurries of wind-driven snow, Revolving in perpetual flight, A changing multitude. Nearer and nearer still they sway, And, scattering in a circled sweep, Rush down without a sound; And now I see them peer and peep, Across yon level bleak and gray, Searching the frozen ground,-- Until a little wind upheaves, And makes a sudden rustling there, And then they drop their play, Flash up into the sunless air, And like a flight of silver leaves Swirl round and sweep away. ARCHIBALD LAMPMAN. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. TURNSTONE. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] BIRDS OF PASSAGE. Black shadows fall From the lindens tall, That lift aloft their massive wall Against the southern sky; And from the realms Of the shadowy elms, A tide-like darkness overwhelms The fields that round us lie. But the night is fair And everywhere A warm, soft vapor fills the air And distant sounds seem near; And above, in the light Of the star-lit night, Swift birds of passage wing their flight Through the dewy atmosphere. I hear the beat Of their pinions fleet, As from the land of snow and sleet They seek a southern lea. I hear the cry Of their voices high Falling dreamily through the sky, But their forms I cannot see. --LONGFELLOW. THE BELTED PIPING PLOVER. In the Missouri river region and in contiguous parts of the interior of the United States, the Belted Piping Plover is a common summer resident, and is found along the shores of the great lakes, breeding on the flat, pebbly beach between the sand dunes and shore. It is the second of the ring-necked Plovers, and arrives in April in scattering flocks, which separate into pairs a month later. It strays at times into the interior, and has been known to breed on the borders of ponds many miles from the coast. In New England, however, it seldom wanders far from the shore, and prefers sand islands near the main land for its nesting haunts. Nelson says, that some thirty pairs, which were breeding along the beach at Waukegan, within a space of two miles, successfully concealed their nests, for which he made diligent search, although the birds were continually circling about or standing at a short distance, uttering an occasional note of alarm. These birds have a soft, low, piping note, which they utter not only upon the wing, but occasionally as they run about upon the ground, and, during the early nesting season, a peculiar, loud, prolonged, musical call, that readily attracts attention. In other respects, their habits are not noticeably differed from the Semi-palmated. (See July BIRDS, p.8.) Their nests are without lining, a mere depression in the sand. The eggs are usually four, light gray to creamy buff, finely and rather sparsely speckled or dotted with blackish brown and purplish gray. The female Belted Piping Plover is similar to the male, but with the dark colors lighter and less in extent. The young have no black band in front, while the collar around the neck is ashy brown. These interesting and valuable game birds are found associated with various beach birds and Sandpipers, and they become exceedingly fat during the latter part of the summer. All the Plovers have a singular habit when alighting on the ground in the nesting time; they drop their wings, stand with their legs half bent, and tremble as if unable to support their bodies. In this absurd position they will stand, according to a well-known observer, for several minutes, uttering a curious sound, and then seem to balance themselves with great difficulty. This singular manoeuvre is no doubt intended to produce a belief that they may be easily caught, and thus turn the attention of the egg-gatherer from the pursuit of the eggs to themselves, their eggs being recognized the world over, as a great delicacy. The Plover utters a piping sound While on the wing or on the ground; All a tremble it drops its wings, And, with legs half bent, it sings: "My nest is near, come take the eggs, And take me too,--I'm off my legs." In vain men search with eager eyes, No nest is found, the Plover flies! --C. C. M [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. BELTED PIPING PLOVER. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE WILD TURKEY. It has been observed that when the Turkey makes its appearance on table all conversation should for the moment be suspended. That it is eaten in silence on some occasions may be inferred from the following anecdote: A certain judge of Avignon, famous for his love of the glorious bird, which the American people have wisely selected for the celebration of Thanksgiving Day, said to a friend: "We have just been dining on a superb Turkey. It was excellent. Stuffed with truffles to the very throat--tender, delicate, filled with perfume! We left nothing but the bones!" "How many were there of you?" asked his friend. "Two," replied the judge, "the Turkey--and myself!" The reason, no doubt, why this brilliant bird, which so much resembles the domestic Turkey, is now almost extinct. It was formerly a resident of New England, and is still found to some extent as far north-west as the Missouri River and south-west as Texas. In Ohio it was formerly an abundant resident. Dr. Kirtland (1850) mentions the time when Wild Turkeys were more common than tame ones are now. The nests of this bird are very difficult to discover, as they are made on the ground, midst tall, thick weeds or tangled briars. The female will not leave the nest until almost trodden upon. It is stated that when the eggs are once touched, she will abandon her nest. The Turkey became known to Europeans almost immediately upon the discovery of America by the Spaniards in 1518, and it is probable that it is distinctively an American bird. In its wild state, its plumage, as in the case of the Honduras Turkey, grows more lustrous and magnificent as the family extends southward. The "Gobblers," as the males are called, associate in parties of ten to one hundred, seeking their food apart from the females, which wander singly with their young or in troops with other hens and their families, sometimes to the number of seventy or eighty. They travel on foot, unless disturbed by the hunter or a river compels them to take wing. It is said that when about to cross a river, they select a high eminence from which to start, that their flight may be more sure, and in such a position they sometimes remain for a day or more, as if in consultation. On such occasions the males gobble vociferously, strutting about pompously as if to animate their companions. At the signal note of their leader, they wing their way to the opposite shore. The Wild Turkey feeds on many kinds of berries, fruits, and grasses. Beetles, tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards are sometimes found in its crop. When the Turkeys reach their destination, they disperse in flocks, devouring the mast as they proceed. Pairing time begins in March. The sexes roost apart, but at no great distance, so that when the female utters a call, every male within hearing responds, rolling note after note in rapid succession, in a voice resembling that of the tame Turkey when he hears any unusual noise. Where the Turkeys are numerous, the woods from one end to the other, sometimes for many miles, resound with these voices of wooing. The specimen of the Wild Turkey presented in this number of BIRDS is of extraordinary size and beauty, and has been much admired. The day is not far distant when a living specimen of this noble bird will be sought for in vain in the United States. THE CERULEAN WARBLER. This beautiful little sky-blue feathered creature is well named Azure Warbler, or again White-throated Blue Warbler, and is the most abundant of the genus here. It is a bird of the wood, everywhere associated with the beautiful tall forests of the more northern counties of western New York, sometimes found in the open woods of pasture-lands, and quite partial to hardwood trees. In its flitting motion in search of insect-prey, and in the jerking curves of its more prolonged flight, as also in its structure, it is a genuine Wood Warbler and keeps for the most part to what Thoreau calls the "upper story" of its sylvan domain. All Warblers, it has been said, depend upon their markings rather than song for their identity, which renders the majority of the tribe of greater interest to the scientist than to the novice. Until you have named four or five of the commonest species as landmarks, you will be considerably confused. Audubon described the song of the Cerulean Warbler as "extremely sweet and mellow," whereas it is a modest little strain, says Chapman, or trill, divided into syllables like _zee, zee, zee, ze-ee-ee-eep_, or according to another observer, _rheet, rheet, rheet, rheet, ridi, idi, e-e-e-e-ee_; beginning with several soft warbling notes and ending in a rather prolonged but quite musical squeak. The latter and more rapid part of the strain, which is given in the upward slide, approaches an insect quality of tone which is more or less peculiar to all true Warblers, a song so common as to be a universal characteristic of our tall forests. It is not strange that the nest of this species has been so seldom discovered, even where the bird is very abundant during the breeding season. It is built in the higher horizontal branches of forest trees, always out some distance from the trunk, and ranging from twenty to fifty feet above the ground. One described by Dr. Brewer, found in Ontario, near Niagara Falls, was built in a large oak tree at the height of fifty or more feet from the ground. It was placed horizontally on the upper surface of a slender limb between two small twigs; and the branch on which it was thus saddled was only an inch and a half in thickness, being nine feet from the trunk of the tree. The abandoned home was secured with great difficulty. The nest is a rather slender fabric, somewhat similar to the nest of the Redstart, and quite small for the bird, consisting chiefly of a strong rim firmly woven of strips of fine bark, stems of grasses, and pine needles, bound round with flaxen fibres of plants and wool. Around the base a few bits of hornets' nests, mosses, and lichens are loosely fastened. The nest within is furnished with fine stems and needles, the flooring very thin and slight. The bird is shy when started from the nest, and has a sharp chipping alarm-note common to the family. The Cerulean Warbler is found in the Eastern States, but is more numerous west of the Allegheny mountains, and throughout the heavily wooded districts of the Mississippi valley. In winter it migrates to Central America and Cuba. The Warblers are of unfailing interest to the lover of bird life. Apart from the beauty of the birds themselves, with their perpetually contrasting colors among the green leaves, their pretty ways furnish to the silent watcher an ever changing spectacle of the innocent life in the tree-tops. [Illustration: From col. Fred. Kaempfer. WILD TURKEY. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. CERULEAN WARBLER. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE WILD TURKEY. I thought my picture would appear in this number of BIRDS. What would Thanksgiving be without a Turkey, I'd like to know. The editor says that I am a bird of ex-tra-or-di-na-ry size and beauty. That word is as big as I am, but by spelling it, I guess you will understand. I look as proud as a peacock, don't I? Well, I am just as proud. You ought to see me strut, and hear me talk when the hen-turkeys are around. Why, sometimes when there is a large troop of us in the woods you can hear us _gobble, gobble, gobble_, for many miles. We are so fond of talking to each other. That is when we are about to set up housekeeping, you think. Yes, in March and April. After the nests are made, and the little turkeys hatched out, we big, handsome fellows go off by ourselves. The hen-turkeys, with their young broods, do the same. Sometimes there are as many as a hundred in our troop and seventy or eighty in theirs. We travel on foot, picking up food as we go, till we meet a man with a gun, or come to a wide river. Then we have to fly. In a flock? Oh, yes. We choose some high place from which to get a good start. There we all stay, sometimes a day or two, strutting about and talking big. It is _gobble, gobble gobble_, from morning till night. Just like one of your conventions, you know. After awhile our leader gives the signal and off we all fly to the opposite shore. Did you ever see one of our nests? No? Well, they are not easily seen, though they are made on the ground. You see, we are cunning and build them among tall, thick weeds and tangled briars. I hope, if you ever come across one, you will not touch it, because my mate would never return to it again, if you did. What do we eat? Berries, fruit and grasses, beetles, tadpoles, frogs and lizards. In fact anything we consider good. THE YELLOW-BILLED TROPIC BIRD. In appearance this bird resembles a large Tern (see Vol. I, page 103), and its habits are similar to those of the Terns. Inter-tropical, it is of a wandering disposition, breeding on the islands of mid-ocean thousands of miles apart. It is noted for its elegant, airy, and long-protracted flight. Davie says that on Bourbon, Mauritius and other islands east and south of Madagascar it breeds in the crevices of the rocks of inaccessible cliffs, and in hollow trees. In the Bermuda Islands it nests about the first of May in holes in high rocky places along the shores. Here its favorite resorts are the small islands of Great Sound, Castle Harbor, and Harrington Sound. The Phaeton, as it is felicitously called, nests in the Bahamas in holes in the perpendicular faces of cliffs and on the flat surfaces of rocks. A single egg is laid, which has a ground-color of purplish brownish white, covered in some specimens almost over the entire surface with fine reddish chocolate-colored spots. These species compose the small but distinct family of tropic birds and are found throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Long journeys are made by them across the open sea, their flight when emigrating being strong, rapid, and direct, and immense distances are covered by them as they course undismayed by wind or storm. In feeding, Chapman says, they course over the water, beating back and forth at a height of about forty feet, and their long willowy tail-feathers add greatly to the grace and beauty of their appearance when on the wing. They are of rare and probably accidental occurrence on our coasts. The Songs of Nature never cease, Her players sue not for release In nearer fields, on hills afar, Attendant her musicians are: From water brook or forest tree, For aye comes gentle melody, The very air is music blent-- An universal instrument. --JOHN VANCE CHENEY. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. YELLOW-BILLED TROPIC BIRD. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE YELLOW-BILLED TROPIC BIRD. The people who make a study of birds say that I look like a large Tern, and that my habits are like his. I don't know whether that is so, I am sure, for I have no acquaintance with that bird, but you little folks can turn to your March number of BIRDS and see for yourselves if it is true. For my part, I think I am the prettier of the two on account of my long, willowy tail-feathers. They add greatly, it is said, to the grace and beauty of my appearance when on the wing. Then, the color of my coat is much more beautiful than his, I think, don't you think so, too? We are not so common as the Terns, either, for they are very numerous. There are only three species of our family, so we consider ourselves quite distinct. What are we noted for? Well, principally for our long distance flights across the sea, elegant and airy, as the writers say of us. Maybe that is the reason they call us the Phaeton sometimes. Do we go north in the summer as so many other birds do? Ugh! You make me shudder. No, indeed! We never go farther north than Florida. Our home, or where we build our nests, is in the tropical and sub-tropical regions, where the weather is very warm, you know. We are great wanderers and build our nests on islands, way out in the ocean many thousands of miles apart. In trees? Oh, no, but in any hole we see in the face of a great rock or cliff, and sometimes right on the top of a rock. How many eggs? Only one. That is the reason, you see, that our family remains small. Sing? Oh, my, no! We are not singing birds. We have a call-note, though harsh and guttural, which sounds like _tip, tip, tip_. THE EUROPEAN KINGFISHER. Rarely indeed is this charming bird now found in England, where formerly it could be seen darting hither and thither in most frequented places. Of late years, according to Dixon, he has been persecuted so greatly, partly by the collector, who never fails to secure the brilliant creature for his cabinet at every opportunity, and partly by those who have an inherent love for destroying every living object around them. Gamekeepers, too, are up in arms against him, because of his inordinate love of preying on the finny tribe. Where the Kingfisher now is seen is in the most secluded places, the author adds, where the trout streams murmur through the silent woods, but seldom trod by the foot of man; or in the wooded gullies down which the stream from the mountains far above rushes and tumbles over the huge rocks, or lies in pools smooth as the finest mirror. The Kingfisher is comparatively a silent bird, though he sometimes utters a few harsh notes as he flies swift as a meteor through the wooded glades. You not unfrequently flush the Kingfisher from the holes in the banks, and amongst the brambles skirting the stream. He roosts at night in holes, usually the nesting cavity. Sometimes he will alight on stumps and branches projecting from the water, and sit quiet and motionless, but on your approach he darts quickly away, often uttering a feeble _seep, seep_, as he goes. The habits of the English Kingfisher are identical with those of the American, though the former is the more brilliant bird in plumage. (See BIRDS, Vol. I, p. 61.) The ancients had a very absurd idea as to its nesting habits. They believed that the bird built a floating nest, and whenever the old bird and her charge were drifted by the winds, as they floated over the briny deep, the sea remained calm. He was, therefore, to the ancient mariner, a bird held sacred in the extreme. Even now these absurd superstitions have not wholly disappeared. For instance, the nest is said to be made of the fish bones ejected by the bird, while the real facts are, that they not only nest but roost in holes, and it must follow that vast quantities of rejected fish bones accumulate, and on these the eggs are of necessity laid. These eggs are very beautiful objects, being of a deep pinkish hue, usually six in number. The food of the Kingfisher is not composed entirely of fish, the remains of fresh-water shrimps being found in their stomachs, and doubtless other animals inhabiting the waters are from time to time devoured. The English Kingfisher, says Dixon, remains throughout the year, but numbers perish when the native streams are frozen. There is, perhaps, not a bird in all the ranks of the feathered gems of equatorial regions, be it ever so fair, the Humming-bird excepted, that can boast a garb so lovely as this little creature of the northland. Naturalists assert that the sun has something to do with the brilliant colors of the birds and insects of the tropics, but certainly, the Kingfisher is an exception of the highest kind. Alas, that he has no song to inspire the muse of some English bard! [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. EUROPEAN KINGFISHER. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE EUROPEAN KINGFISHER. Little Folks: I shouldn't have liked it one bit if my picture had been left out of this beautiful book. My cousin, the American Kingfisher, had his in the February number, and I find he had a good deal to say about himself in his letter, too. Fine feathers make fine birds, they say. Well, if that is true, I must be a very fine bird, for surely my feathers are gay enough to please anybody--_I_ think. To see me in all my beauty, you must seek me in my native wood. I look perfectly gorgeous there, flitting from tree to tree. Or maybe you would rather see me sitting on a stump, gazing down into the clear pool which looks like a mirror. "Oh, what a vain bird!" you would say; "see him looking at himself in the water;" when all the time I had my eye on a fine trout which I intended to catch for my dinner. Well, though I wear a brighter dress than my American cousin, our habits are pretty much alike. I am sure he catches fish the same way I do--when he is hungry. With a hook and line, as you do? Oh, no; with my bill, which is long, you observe, and made for that very purpose. You should just see me catch a fish! Down I fly to a stump near the brook, or to a limb of a tree which overhangs the water, and there I sit as quiet as a mouse for quite a while. Everything being so quiet, a fine speckled trout, or a school of troutlets, play near the surface. Now is my chance! Down I swoop, and up I come with a fish crosswise in my bill. Back I go to my perch, toss the minnow into the air, and as it falls catch it head first and swallow it whole. I tell you this because you ought to know why I am called _Kingfisher_. Do we swallow bones and all? Yes, but we afterwards eject the bones, when we are resting or roosting in our holes in the banks of the stream. That must be the reason people who write about us say we build our nests of fish bones. Sing? Oh, no, we are not singing birds; but sometimes, when flying swiftly through the air, we give a harsh cry that nobody but a bird understands. Your friend, THE ENGLISH KINGFISHER. THE VERMILION FLY-CATCHER. Thickets along water courses are favorite resorts of this beautiful Fly-catcher, which may be seen only on the southern border of the United States, south through Mexico to Guatemala, where it is a common species. Mr. W. E. D. Scott notes it as a common species about Riverside, Tucson, and Florence, Arizona. Its habits are quite similar to those of other Fly-catchers, though it has not been so carefully observed as its many cousins in other parts of the country. During the nesting season, the male frequently utters a twittering song while poised in the air, in the manner of the Sparrow Hawk, and during the song it snaps its bill as if catching insects. The Vermilion's nest is usually placed in horizontal forks of ratana trees, and often in mesquites, not more than six feet from the ground; they are composed of small twigs and soft materials felted together, with the rims covered with lichens, and the shallow cavity lined with a few horse or cow hairs. Dr. Merrill states that they bear considerable resemblance to nests of the Wood Pewee in appearance and the manner in which they are saddled to the limb. Nests have been found, however, which lacked the exterior coating of lichens. Three eggs are laid of a rich creamy-white with a ring of large brown and lilac blotches at the larger end. A WINTER NEST. Pallid, wan-faced clouds Press close to the frozen pines, And follow the jagged lines Of fence, that the sleet enshrouds. Sharp in the face of the sky, Gaunt, thin-ribbed leaves are blown; They rise with a shuddering moan, Then sink in the snow and die. At the edge of the wood a vine Still clings to the sleeping beech, While its stiffened tendrils reach A nest, and around it twine. A little gray nest all alone, With its feathery lining of snow, Where bleak winds, piping low, Croon a sweet minor tone. --NORA A. PIPER. [Illustration: From col. George F. Breninger. VERMILION FLY-CATCHER. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] BIRD MISCELLANY. Red and yellow, green and brown, Leaves are whirling, rustling down; Acorn babes in their cradles lie, Through the bare trees the brown birds fly; The Robin chirps as he flutters past-- November days have come at last. --CLARA LOUISE STRONG. "I have watched birds at their singing under many and widely differing circumstances, and I am sure that they express joyous anticipation, present content, and pleasant recollection, each as the mood moves, and with equal ease." --M. THOMPSON. "The act of singing is evidently a pleasurable one; and it probably serves as an outlet for superabundant nervous energy and excitement, just as dancing, singing, and field sports do with us." --A. R. WALLACE. "The bird upon the tree utters the meaning of the wind--a voice of the grass and wild flower, words of the green leaf; they speak through that slender tone. Sweetness of dew and rifts of sunshine, the dark hawthorn touched with breadths of open bud, the odor of the air, the color of the daffodil--all that is delicious and beloved of spring-time are expressed in his song." --RICHARD JEFFERIES. THE LAZULI BUNTING. The joy is great of him who strays In shady woods on summer days. --MAURICE THOMPSON. In Colorado and Arizona the Lazuli Painted Finch, as it is called, is common, while in California it is very abundant, being, in fact, generally distributed throughout the west, and along the Pacific Coast it is found as far north as Puget Sound, during the summer. Davie says it replaces the Indigo Bunting, (See BIRDS, Vol. I, page 174,) from the Plains to the Pacific, being found in all suitable localities. The nest is usually built in a bush or in the lower limbs of trees, a few feet from the ground. Fine strips of bark, small twigs, grasses, and hair are used in preparing it for the four tiny, light bluish-green eggs, which readily fade when exposed to light. The eggs so closely resemble those of the Bluebird as not to be distinguishable with certainty. The nest is an inartistic one for a bird of gay plumage. From Florence A. Merriam's charming book, "A-Birding on a Bronco," we select a description of the pretty manners of this attractive bird. She says: "While waiting for the Woodpeckers, one day, I saw a small brownish bird flying busily back and forth to some green weeds. She was joined by her mate, a handsome blue Lazuli Bunting, even more beautiful than our lovely Indigo, and he flew beside her full of life and joy. He lit on the side of a cockle stem, and on the instant caught sight of me. Alas! he seemed suddenly turned to stone. He held onto that stalk as if his little legs had been bars of iron and I a devouring monster. When he had collected his wits enough to fly off, instead of the careless gay flight with which he had come out through the open air, he timidly kept low within the cockle field, making a circuitous way through the high stalks. He could be afraid of me if he liked, I thought, for after a certain amount of suspicion, an innocent person gets resentful; at any rate I was going to see that nest. Creeping up cautiously when the mother bird was away, so as not to scare her, and carefully parting the mallows, I looked in. Yes, there it was, a beautiful little sage-green nest of old grass laid in a coil. I felt as pleased as if having a right to share the family happiness. After that I watched the small worker gather material with new interest, knowing where she was going to put it. She worked fast, but did not take the first thing she found, by any means. With a flit of the wing she went in nervous haste from cockle to cockle, looking eagerly about her. Jumping down to the ground, she picked up a bit of grass, threw it down dissatisfied, and turned away like a person looking for something. At last she lit on the side of a thistle, and tweaking out a fibre, flew with it to the nest. "A month after the first encounter with the father Lazuli, I found him looking at me around the corner of a cockle stalk, and in passing back again, caught him singing full tilt, though his bill was full of insects! After we had turned our backs I looked over my shoulder and had the satisfaction of seeing him take his beakful to the nest. You couldn't help admiring him, for though not a warrior who would snap his bill over the head of an enemy of his home, he had a gallant holiday air with his blue coat and merry song, and you felt sure his little brown mate would get cheer and courage enough from his presence to make family dangers appear less frightful." [Illustration: From col. John F. Ferry. LAZULI BUNTING. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE LAZULI BUNTING. You think you have seen me before? Well, I must admit my relative, the Indigo Bunting, and I _do_ look alike. They say though, I am the prettier bird of the two. Turn to your May number, page 174, and decide for yourselves. I live farther west than he does. You find him in the eastern and middle states. Then he disappears and I take his place, all the way from the Great Plains to the Pacific Ocean. Some people call me the Lazuli Painted Finch. That's funny, for I never painted anything in my life--not even my cheeks. Would you like to know how my mate and I go to housekeeping? A lady who visits California, where I live, will tell you all about it. She rides a horse called Mountain Billy. He will stand still under a tree so that she can peep into nests and count the eggs, when the mother bird is away. She can travel a good many miles in that way, and meet lots of birds. She says in her book, that she has got acquainted with seventy-five families, without robbing one nest, or doing the little creatures any harm. Well, one day this lady saw a brownish bird flying busily back and forth to some tall green weeds. After a while a handsome blue Bunting flew along side of her, full of life and joy. That was my mate and I. How frightened I was! for our nest was in those green weeds and not very far from the ground. I flew away as soon as I could pluck up courage, but not far, so that I could watch the lady and the nest. How my heart jumped when I saw her creep up, part the weeds and look in. All she saw was a few twigs and a sage-green nest of old grass laid in a coil. My mate hadn't put in the lining yet; you see it takes her quite a while to get the thistle down and the hair and strips of bark for the inside. The next time the lady passed, the house was done and my mate was sitting on the nest. She just looked down at us from the back of Mountain Billy and passed on. Four weeks after, she came again, and there I was, flying about and singing "like a bird," my mouth full of insects, too. I waited 'till she had turned away before I flew to the nest to feed our little ones. I didn't know, you see, that she was such a good friend of ours, or I wouldn't have been so afraid. SUMMARY Page 163. #SUMMER TANAGER.#--_Piranga rubra._ Other names: "Summer Red-bird," "Rose Tanager." RANGE--Eastern United States west to the edge of the Plains; north regularly to about 40°--New Jersey, central Ohio, Illinois, casually north to Connecticut and Ontario, accidentally to Nova Scotia, wintering in Cuba, Central America, and northern South America. (Davie.) NEST--Of bark strips and leaves interwoven with various vegetable substances, on drooping branch of tree. EGGS--Three or four, bluish-white or greenish-blue, with cinnamon or olive-brown markings. * * * * * Page 168. #AMERICAN WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE#--_Anser albifrons gambeli._ Other names: "Laughing Goose," "Speckle Belly." RANGE--North America, breeding far northward; in winter south to Mexico and Cuba, rare on the Atlantic coast. NEST--On the ground, of grasses lined with down. Eggs--Six or seven, dull greenish-yellow with obscure darker tints. * * * * * Page 171. #TURNSTONE.#--_Arenaria interpres._ Other names: "Brant Bird," "Calico-back," "Bead-bird," "Sand-runner," "Chickling," "Horse-foot Snipe." RANGE--Nearly cosmopolitan; nests in the Arctic regions, and in America migrates southward to Patagonia. (Chapman.) NEST--A slight depression on the ground. EGGS--Two or four, greenish-drab, spotted all over with brown. * * * * * Page 175. #THE BELTED PIPING PLOVER.#--_Aegialitis meloda circumcincta._ RANGE--Missouri river region; occasionally eastward to the Atlantic coast. NEST--Depression in the sand without lining. EGGS--Four, light gray to creamy buff, finely speckled with blackish brown and purplish gray. * * * * * Page 180. #WILD TURKEY#--_Meleagris gallopava._ RANGE--Eastern United States from Pennsylvania southward to Florida, west to Wisconsin, the Indian Territory and Texas. NEST--On the ground, at the base of a bush or tree. EGGS--Ten to fourteen, pale cream buff, finely and evenly speckled with grayish brown. * * * * * Page 181. #CERULEAN WARBLER#--_Dendræca caerulea._ Other names: "Azure Warbler;" "White-throated Blue Warbler." RANGE--Mississippi valley as far north as Minnesota, and eastward as far as Lockport, N. Y. (Davison.) Winters in the tropics. NEST--Of fine grasses bound with spider's silk, lined with strips of bark and with a few lichens attached to its upper surface, in a tree, twenty-five to fifty feet from the ground. (Chapman.) EGGS--Four, creamy-white, thickly covered with rather heavy blotches of reddish brown. * * * * * Page 186. #YELLOW-BILLED TROPIC BIRD.#--_Phaethon flavirostris._ Other names: "Phaeton." RANGE.--Tropical coasts; Atlantic coasts of tropical America, West Indies, Bahamas, Bermudas; casual in Florida and accidental in Western New York and Nova Scotia. (Chapman.) NEST--In holes in the perpendicular faces of cliffs, also on the flat surfaces of rocks. EGGS--One, ground color of purplish brownish white, covered with fine reddish chocolate-colored spots. (Davie.) * * * * * Page 190. #EUROPEAN KINGFISHER.#--_Alcedo ispida._ RANGE--England and portions of Europe. NEST--In holes of the banks of streams. EGGS--Usually six, of a deep pinkish hue. * * * * * Page 193. #VERMILION FLY-CATCHER.#--_Pyocephalus rubineus mexicanus._ RANGE--Southern Border of the United States south through Mexico and Guatemala. NEST--In forks of ratana trees, not more than six feet up, of small twigs and soft materials felted together, the rims covered with lichens; the cavity is shallow. EGGS--Usually three, the ground color a rich creamy-white, with a ring of large brown and lilac blotches at the larger end. * * * * * Page 198. #LAZULI BUNTING.#--_Passerina amoena._ Other name: "Lazuli Painted Finch." RANGE--Western United States from the Great Plains to the Pacific; south in winter to Western Mexico. NEST--In a bush or the lower limbs of trees, a few feet from the ground, of fine strips of bark, small twigs, grasses, and is lined with hair. EGGS--Usually four, light bluish-green. 
30626	----	Archive (http://www.archive.org). Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original lovely illustrations. See 30626-h.htm or 30626-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30626/30626-h/30626-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30626/30626-h.zip) Transcriber's note: Title added. BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. I. FEBRUARY 1897 NO. 2 ================================ * * * * * FROM: THE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. _STATE OF NEW YORK_ _Department of Public Instruction_ _SUPERINTENDENT'S OFFICE_ _Albany_ December 26, 1896. [Illustration: (seal)] _Stenographic Letter_ Dictated by __________ W. E. Watt, President &c., Fisher Building, 277 Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. My dear Sir: Please accept my thanks for a copy of the first publication of "Birds." Please enter my name as a regular subscriber. It is one of the most beautiful and interesting publications yet attempted in this direction. It has other attractions in addition to its beauty, and it must win its way to popular favor. Wishing the handsome little magazine abundant prosperity, I remain Yours very respectfully, [signature] State Superintendent. * * * * * THE WONDERFUL SINGER PIANOS HONESTLY CONSTRUCTED TONE QUALITY DURABILITY MANDOLIN EFFECTS PRODUCED AT WILL SINGER PIANO CO. COR. JACKSON ST. & WABASH AVE. CHICAGO Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. HERO BICYCLE MODEL FOR BOYS Diamond or 1897 OR GIRLS Drop Frame GIVEN TO SUBSCRIBERS FOR "BIRDS." WRITE FOR PARTICULARS. 20-INCH WHEELS FOR 30 SUBSCRIBERS 24-INCH [Illustration: IT'S A BEAUTY!] WHEELS FOR 35 SUBSCRIBERS 26-INCH WHEELS FOR 40 SUBSCRIBERS These Wheels are made by a responsible firm and are guaranteed by the Home Rattan Co. Very best of material used throughout in the construction. The Crown Fountain Pen. AWARDED TWO MEDALS AND FOUR DIPLOMAS AT WORLD'S FAIR, CHICAGO, 1893. The Pen is of Solid Gold and the Workmanship One of is of the [Illustration] These Pens BEST Price $2.25 Throughout. Given Away with Three Yearly Subscriptions to "BIRDS" ADDRESS ... NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. FISHER BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILL. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. THE AMERICAN COLLEGE of ORATORY and ELOCUTION is the best place to prepare to become public speakers and entertainers. A course of #32 Evening Lessons for $5.00#. 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CO., 910 Tacoma CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. Dealers or Building, Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. EVERY TEACHER finds daily in her work some new and perplexing problem to solve. With THE TEACHER'S PRACTICAL LIBRARY at hand for consultation the answer may always be found. #It will cost you nothing# to have this Library placed upon your table for inspection. Send postal-card for particulars, mentioning this paper. AGENTS WANTED D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers NEW YORK--CHICAGO. CHICAGO OFFICE--243 Wabash Ave. What would George Washington think of Mark Hanna? [Illustration] If you want to know, read #"SPIRITS OF '76,"# By FREDERICK UPHAM ADAMS, in last number of NEW OCCASIONS A magazine of Reform; 96 pages; $1.00 a year; 10 cents a copy. No free samples, but to any one sending us 6 2-cent stamps we will mail a sample copy with several reform books; over 300 pages in all. Agents wanted. #Charles H. 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Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. * * * * * BIRDS A MONTHLY ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY [Illustration: AMERICAN BLUE JAY.] NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY OFFICE: FISHER BUILDING [Illustration: AMERICAN BLUE JAY.] THE BLUE JAY. During about three-fourths of the year the American Jay is an extremely tame, noisy and even obstrusive bird in its habits. As the breeding season approaches he suddenly becomes silent, preparing the nest in the most secluded parts of his native forests, and exercising all his cunning to keep it concealed. He is omniverous but is especially fond of eggs and young birds. The Jay may be regarded as eminently injurious though in spring he consumes a number of insects to atone for his sins of stealing fruit and berries in autumn. He is a professional nest robber, and other birds are as watchful of him as is a mother of her babe. He glides through the foliage of the trees so swiftly and noiselessly that his presence is scarcely suspected until he has committed some depredation. The Robin is his most wary foe, and when the Jay is found near his nest will pursue him and drive him from the neighborhood. He is as brave as he is active, however, and dashes boldly in pursuit of his more plainly attired neighbors who venture to intrude upon his domain. The Jay has a curious antipathy toward the owl, perching on trees above it and keeping up a continual screeching. Some years ago an Ohio gentleman was presented with a magnificent specimen of the horned owl, which he kept for a time in a large tin cage. In favorable weather the cage was set out of doors, when it would soon be surrounded by Jays, much in the manner described of the Toucan, and an incessant screeching followed, to which the owl appeared indifferent. They would venture near enough to steal a portion of his food, the bars of his cage being sufficiently wide apart to admit them. On one occasion, however, he caught the tail of a Jay in his claws and left the tormentor without his proud appendage. The Jay remains with us throughout the year. He is one of the wildest of our birds, the shyest of man, although seeing him most. He makes no regular migrations at certain seasons, but, unless disturbed, will live out his life close to his favorite haunts. His wings show him to be unfitted for extended flight. Jays are most easily discovered in the morning about sunrise on the tops of young live oaks. Their notes are varied. Later in the day it is more difficult to find them, as they are more silent, and not so much on the tree tops as among the bushes. The Jays breed in woods, forests, orchards, preferring old and very shady trees, placing their nests in the center against the body, or at the bifurcation of large limbs. The nest is formed of twigs and roots; the eggs are from four to six. THE BLUE JAY. Something glorious, something gay, Flits and flashes this-a-way! 'Thwart the hemlock's dusky shade, Rich in color full displayed, Swiftly vivid as a flame-- Blue as heaven and white as snow-- Doth this lovely creature go. What may be his dainty name? "Only this"--the people say-- "Saucy, chattering, scolding Jay!" THE SWALLOW-TAILED INDIAN ROLLER. Swallow-tailed Indian Rollers are natives of Northeastern Africa and Senegambia, and also the interior of the Niger district. The bird is so called from its way of occasionally rolling or turning over in its flight, somewhat after the fashion of a tumbler pigeon. A traveller in describing the habits of the Roller family, says: "On the 12th of April I reached Jericho alone, and remained there in solitude for several days, during which time I had many opportunities of observing the grotesque habits of the Roller. For several successive evenings, great flocks of Rollers mustered shortly before sunset on some dona trees near the fountain, with all the noise but without the decorum of Rooks. After a volley of discordant screams, from the sound of which it derives its Arabic name of "schurkrak," a few birds would start from their perches and commence overhead a series of somersaults. In a moment or two they would be followed by the whole flock, and these gambols would be repeated for a dozen times or more. "Everywhere it takes its perch on some conspicuous branch or on the top of a rock, where it can see and be seen. The bare tops of the fig trees, before they put forth their leaves, are in the cultivated terraces, a particularly favorite resort. In the barren Ghor I have often watched it perched unconcernedly on a knot of gravel or marl in the plain, watching apparently for the emergence of beetles from the sand. Elsewhere I have not seen it settle on the ground. "Like Europeans in the East, it can make itself happy without chairs and tables in the desert, but prefers a comfortable easy chair when it is to be found. Its nest I have seen in ruins, in holes in rocks, in burrows, in steep sand cliffs, but far more generally in hollow trees. The colony in the Wady Kelt used burrows excavated by themselves, and many a hole did they relinquish, owing to the difficulty of working it. So cunningly were the nests placed under a crumbling, treacherous ledge, overhanging a chasm of perhaps one or two hundred feet, that we were completely foiled in our siege. We obtained a nest of six eggs, quite fresh, in a hollow tree in Bashan, near Gadara, on the 6th of May. "The total length of the Roller is about twelve inches. The Swallow-tailed Indian Roller, of which we present a specimen, differs from the Europeon Roller only in having the outer tail feathers elongated to an extent of several inches." [Illustration: SWALLOW-TAILED INDIAN ROLLER.] THE RED HEADED WOODPECKER. Perhaps no bird in North America is more universally known than the Red Headed Woodpecker. He is found in all parts of the United States and is sometimes called, for short, by the significant name of Red Head. His tri-colored plumage, red, white and black, glossed with steel blue, is so striking and characteristic, and his predatory habits in the orchards and cornfields, and fondness for hovering along the fences, so very notorious, that almost every child is acquainted with the Red Headed Woodpecker. In the immediate neighborhood of large cities, where the old timber is chiefly cut down, he is not so frequently found. Wherever there is a deadening, however, you will find him, and in the dead tops and limbs of high trees he makes his home. Towards the mountains, particularly in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, these birds are extremely numerous, especially in the latter end of summer. It is interesting to hear them rattling on the dead leaves of trees or see them on the roadside fences, where they flit from stake to stake. We remember a tremendous and quite alarming and afterwards ludicrous rattling by one of them on some loose tin roofing on a neighbor's house. This occurred so often that the owner, to secure peace, had the roof repaired. They love the wild cherries, the earliest and sweetest apples, for, as is said of him, "he is so excellent a connoisseur in fruit, that whenever an apple or pear is found broached by him, it is sure to be among the ripest and best flavored. When alarmed he seizes a capital one by striking his open bill into it, and bears it off to the woods." He eats the rich, succulent, milky young corn with voracity. He is of a gay and frolicsome disposition, and half a dozen of the fraternity are frequently seen diving and vociferating around the high dead limbs of some large trees, pursuing and playing with each other, and amusing the passerby with their gambols. He is a comical fellow, too, prying around at you from the bole of a tree or from his nesting hole therein. Though a lover of fruit, he does more good than injury. Insects are his natural food, and form at least two thirds of his subsistence. He devours the destructive insects that penetrate the bark and body of a tree to deposit their eggs and larvae. About the middle of May, he begins to construct his nest, which is formed in the body of large limbs of trees, taking in no material but smoothing it within to the proper shape and size. The female lays six eggs, of a pure white. The young appear about the first of June. About the middle of September the Red Heads begin to migrate to warmer climates, travelling at night time in an irregular way like a disbanded army and stopping for rest and food through the day. The black snake is the deadly foe of the Red Head, frequently entering his nest, feeding upon the young, and remaining for days in possession. "The eager school-boy, after hazarding his neck to reach the Woodpecker's hole, at the triumphant moment when he thinks the nestlings his own, strips his arm, launches it down into the cavity, and grasping what he conceives to be the callow young, starts with horror at the sight of a hideous snake, almost drops from his giddy pinnacle, and retreats down the tree with terror and precipitation." THE WOODPECKER. The Drummer Bird. My dear girls and boys: The man who told me to keep still and look pleasant while he took my picture said I might write you a letter to send with it. You say I always keep on the other side of the tree from you. That is because someone has told you that I spoil trees, and I am afraid that you will want to punish me for it. I do not spoil trees. The trees like to have me come to visit them, for I eat the insects that are killing them. Shall I tell you how I do this? I cling to the tree with my strong claws so sharply hooked. The pointed feathers of my tail are stiff enough to help hold me against the bark. Then my breast bone is quite flat, so that I may press close to the tree. When I am all ready you hear my r-r-rap--just like a rattle. My head goes as quickly as if it were moved by a spring. Such a strong, sharp bill makes the chips fly! The tiny tunnel I dig just reaches the insect. Then I thrust out my long tongue. It has a sharp, horny tip, and has barbs on it too. Very tiny insects stick to a liquid like glue that covers my tongue. I suppose I must tell you that I like a taste of the ripest fruit and grain. Don't you think I earn a little when I work so hard keeping the trees healthy? I must tell you about the deep tunnel my mate and I cut out of a tree. It is just wide enough for us to slip into. It is not straight down, but bent, so that the rain cannot get to the bottom. There we make a nest of little chips for our five white eggs. I should like to tell you one of the stories that some boys and girls tell about my red head. You will find it on another page of the book. Now I must fly away to peck for more bugs. Your loving friend, WOODPECKER. [Illustration: RED HEADED WOODPECKER.] MEXICAN MOT MOT. Mot mots are peculiar to the new world, being found from Mexico throughout the whole of Central America and the South American continent. The general plumage is green, and the majority of the species have a large racket at the end of the center tail feathers, formed by the bird itself. The Houton, (so called from his note,) according to Waterson, ranks high in beauty among the birds of Demerara. This beautiful creature seems to suppose that its beauty can be increased by trimming its tail, which undergoes the same operation as one's hair in a barber shop, using its own beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair of scissors. As soon as its tail is fully grown, he begins about an inch from the extremity of the two longest feathers in it and cuts away the web on both sides of the shaft, making a gap about an inch long. Both male and female wear their tails in this manner, which gives them a remarkable appearance among all other birds. To observe this bird in his native haunts, one must be in the forest at dawn. He shuns the society of man. The thick and gloomy forests are preferred by the Houton. In those far extending wilds, about day-break, you hear him call in distinct and melancholy tone, "Houton, Houton!" An observer says, "Move cautiously to the place from which the sound proceeds, and you will see him sitting in the underwood, about a couple of yards from the ground, his tail moving up and down every time he articulates "Houton!"." The Mot Mot lives on insects and berries found among the underwood, and very rarely is seen in the lofty trees. He makes no nest, but rears his young in a hole in the sand, generally on the side of a hill. Mr. Osbert Salvin tells this curious anecdote: "Some years ago the Zoological Society possessed a specimen which lived in one of the large cages of the parrot house by itself. I have a very distinct recollection of the bird, for I used every time I saw it to cheer it up a bit by whistling such of its notes as I had picked up in the forests of America. The bird always seemed to appreciate this attention, for although it never replied, it became at once animated, hopped about the cage, and swung its tail from side to side like the pendulum of a clock. For a long time its tail had perfect spatules, but toward the end of its life I noticed that the median feathers were no longer trimmed with such precision, and on looking at its beak I noticed that from some cause or other it did not close properly, gaped slightly at the tip, and had thus become unfitted for removing the vanes of the feathers." KING PARROT OR KING LORY. Lory is the name of certain birds, mostly from the Moluccas and New Guinea, which are remarkable for their bright scarlet or crimson coloring, though also applied to some others in which the plumage is chiefly green. Much interest has been excited by the discovery of Dr. A. B. Meyer that the birds of this genus having a red plumage are the females of those wearing green feathers. For a time there was much difference of opinion on this subject, but the assertion is now generally admitted. They are called "brush-tongued" Parrots. The color of the first plumage of the young is still unsettled. This bird is a favorite among bird fanciers, is readily tamed, and is of an affectionate nature. It can be taught to speak very creditably, and is very fond of attracting the attention of strangers and receiving the caresses of those whom it likes. There are few things a parrot prefers to nuts and the stones of various fruits. Wood says he once succeeded in obtaining the affections of a Parisian Parrot, solely through the medium of peach stones which he always saved for the bird and for which it regularly began to gabble as soon as it saw him coming. "When taken freshly from the peach," he says, "the stones are very acceptable to the parrot, who turns them over, chuckling all the while to show his satisfaction, and picking all the soft parts from the deep indentations in the stone." He used to crack the stone before giving it to the bird, when his delight knew no bounds. They are fond of hot condiments, cayenne pepper or the capsicum pod. If a bird be ailing, a capsicum will often set it right again. The parrot is one of the hardiest of birds when well cared for and will live to a great age. Some of these birds have been known to attain an age of seventy years, and one seen by Vaillant had reached the patriarchal age of ninety three. At sixty its memory began to fail, at sixty-five the moult became very irregular and the tail changed to yellow. At ninety it was a very decrepit creature, almost blind and quite silent, having forgotten its former abundant stock of words. A gentleman once had for many years a parrot of seemingly rare intelligence. It was his custom during the summer to hang the parrot's cage in front of his shop in a country village, where the bird would talk and laugh and cry, and condole with itself. Dogs were his special aversion and on occasions when he had food to spare, he would drop it out of the cage and whistle long and loud for them. When the dogs had assembled to his satisfaction he would suddenly scream in the fiercest accents, "Get out, dogs!" and when they had scattered in alarm his enjoyment of it was demonstrative. This parrot's vocabulary, however, was not the most refined, his master having equipped him with certain piratical idioms. According to authority, the parrot owner will find the health of his pet improved and its happiness promoted by giving it, every now and then, a small log or branch on which the mosses and lichens are still growing. Meat, fish, and other similar articles of diet are given with evil effects. It is impossible for anyone who has only seen these birds in a cage or small inclosure to conceive what must be the gorgeous appearance of a flock, either in full flight, and performing their various evolutions, under a vertical sun, or sporting among the superb foliage of a tropical forest which, without these, and other brilliant tenants, would present only a solitude of luxuriant vegetation. [Illustration: KING PARROT.] THE AMERICAN ROBIN. The Bird of the Morning. Yes, my dear readers, I am the bird of the morning. Very few of you rise early enough to hear my first song. By the time you are awake our little ones have had their breakfast, Mrs. Robin and I have had our morning bath and we are all ready to greet you with our morning song. I wonder if any of you have seen our nest and can tell the color of the eggs that Mrs. Robin lays. Some time I will let you peep into the nest and see them, but of course you will not touch them. I wonder, too, if you know any of my cousins--the Mocking bird, the Cat-bird or the Brown Thrush--I think I shall ask them to have their pictures taken soon and talk to you about our gay times. Did you ever see one of my cousins on the ground? I don't believe you can tell how I move about. Some of you may say I run, and some of you may say I hop, and others of you may say I do both. Well, I'll tell you how to find out. Just watch me and see. My little friends up north won't be able to see me though until next month, as I do not dare leave the warm south until Jack Frost leaves the ground so I can find worms to eat. I shall be about the first bird to visit you next month and I want you to watch for me. When I do come it will be to stay a long time, for I shall be the last to leave you. Just think, the first to come and last to leave. Don't you think we ought to be great friends? Let us get better acquainted when next we meet. Your friend, ROBIN. How do the robins build their nest? Robin Red Breast told me, First a wisp of yellow hay In a pretty round they lay; Then some shreds of downy floss, Feathers too, and bits of moss, Woven with a sweet, sweet song, This way, that way, and across: That's what Robin told me. Where do the robins hide their nest? Robin Red Breast told me, Up among the leaves so deep, Where the sunbeams rarely creep, Long before the winds are cold, Long before the leaves are gold Bright-eyed stars will peep and see Baby Robins--one, two, three: That's what Robin told me. THE AMERICAN ROBIN. "Come, sweetest of the feathered throng." Our American Robin must not be confounded with the English Robin Redbreast, although both bear the same name. It is the latter bird in whose praise so much has been written in fable and song. The American Robin belongs to the Thrush family; the Mocking bird, Cat-bird and Brown Thrush, or Thrasher, being other familiar children. In this family, bird organization reaches its highest development. This bird is larger than his English cousin the Redbreast and many think has a finer note than any other of the Thrush family. The Robin courts the society of man, following close upon the plow and the spade and often becoming quite tame and domestic. It feeds for a month or two on strawberries and cherries, but generally on worms and insects picked out of the ground. It destroys the larvae of many insects in the soil and is a positive blessing to man, designed by the Creator for ornament and pleasure, and use in protecting vegetation. John Burroughs, the bird lover, says it is the most native and democratic of our birds. It is widely diffused over the country, migrating to milder climates in the Winter. We have heard him in the early dawn on Nantucket Island welcoming the coming day, in the valleys of the Great and the little Miami, in the parks of Chicago, and on the plains of Kansas, his song ever cheering and friendly. It is one of the earliest heralds of Spring, coming as early as March or April, and is one of the latest birds to leave us in Autumn. Its song is a welcome prelude to the general concert of Summer. "When Robin Redbreast sings, We think on budding Springs." The Robin is not one of our most charming songsters, yet its carol is sweet, hearty and melodious. Its principal song is in the morning before sunrise, when it mounts the top of some tall tree, and with its wonderful power of song, announces the coming of day. When educated, it imitates the sounds of various birds, and even sings tunes. It must be amusing to hear it pipe out so solemn a strain as Old Hundred. It has no remarkable habits. It shows considerable courage and anxiety for its young, and is a pattern of propriety when keeping house and concerned with the care of its offspring. Two broods are often reared out of the same nest. In the Fall these birds become restless and wandering, often congregating in large flocks, when, being quite fat, they are much esteemed as food. The Robin's nest is sometimes built in a corner of the porch, but oftener it is saddled on the horizontal limb of an orchard tree. It is so large and poorly concealed that any boy can find it, yet it is seldom molested. The Robin is not a skillful architect. The masonry of its nest is rough and the material coarse, being composed largely of leaves or old grass, cemented with mud. The eggs number four to six and are greenish blue in color. An observer tells the following story of this domestic favorite: "For the last three years a Robin has nested on a projecting pillar that supports the front piazza. In the Spring of the first year she built her nest on the top of the pillar--a rude affair--it was probably her first effort. The same season she made her second nest in the forks of an Oak, which took her only a few hours to complete. [Continued page 59.] [Illustration: AMERICAN ROBIN.] [Illustration: MEXICAN MOT MOT.] THE AMERICAN ROBIN. (Continued) "She reared three broods that season; for the third family she returned to the piazza, and repaired the first nest. The following Spring she came again to the piazza, but selected another pillar for the site of her domicile, the construction of which was a decided improvement upon the first. For the next nest she returned to the Oak and raised a second story on the old one of the previous year, but making it much more symmetrical than the one beneath. The present season her first dwelling was as before, erected on a pillar of the piazza--as fine a structure as I ever saw this species build. When this brood was fledged she again repaired to the Oak, and reared a third story on the old domicile, using the moss before mentioned, making a very elaborate affair, and finally finishing up by festooning it with long sprays of moss. This bird and her mate were quite tame. I fed them with whortleberries, which they seemed to relish, and they would come almost to my feet to get them. The amount of food which the young robin is capable of absorbing is enormous. A couple of vigorous, half-grown birds have been fed, and in twelve hours devoured ravenously, sixty-eight earth worms, weighing thirty-four pennyweight, or forty-one per cent more than their own weight. A man at this rate should eat about seventy pounds of flesh per day, and drink five or six gallons of water. The following poem by the good Quaker poet Whittier is sweet because _he_ wrote it, interesting because it recites an old legend which incidentally explains the color of the robin's breast, and unique because it is one of the few poems about our American bird. THE ROBIN. My old Welsh neighbor over the way Crept slowly out in the sun of spring, Pushed from her ears the locks of gray, And listened to hear the robin sing. Her grandson, playing at marbles, stopped, And--cruel in sport, as boys will be-- Tossed a stone at the bird, who hopped From bough to bough in the apple tree. "Nay!" said the grandmother; "have you not heard, My poor, bad boy! of the fiery pit, And how, drop by drop, this merciful bird Carries the water that quenches it? "He brings cool dew in his little bill, And lets it fall on the souls of sin: You can see the mark on his red breast still Of fires that scorch as he drops it in. "My poor Bron rhuddyn! my breast-burned bird, Singing so sweetly from limb to limb, Very dear to the heart of Our Lord Is he who pities the lost like Him." "Amen!" I said to the beautiful myth; "Sing, bird of God, in my heart as well: Each good thought is a drop wherewith To cool and lessen the fires of hell. "Prayers of love like rain-drops fall, Tears of pity are cooling dew, And dear to the heart of Our Lord are all Who suffer like Him in the good they do." THE KINGFISHER. Dear Children: I shall soon arrive from the south. I hear that all the birds are going to tell stories to the boys and girls. I have never talked much with children myself for I never really cared for people. They used to say that the dead body of a Kingfisher kept them safe in war and they said also that it protected them in lightning. Even now in some places in France they call us the moth birds, for they believe that our bodies will keep away moths from woolen cloth. I wish that people would not believe such things about us. Perhaps you cannot understand me when I talk. You may think that you hear only a child's rattle. Listen again! It is I, the Kingfisher. That sound is my way of talking. I live in the deep woods. I own a beautiful stream and a clear, cool lake. Oh, the little fish in that lake are good enough for a king to eat! I know, for I am a king. You may see me or some of my mates near the lake any pleasant day. People used to say that we always brought pleasant weather. That is a joke. It is the pleasant weather that always brings us from our homes. When it storms or rains we cannot see the fish in the lake. Then we may as well stay in our nests. My home once belonged to a water rat. He dug the fine hall in the gravel bank in my stream. It is nearly six feet long. The end of it is just the kind of a place for a nest. It is warm, dry and dark. In June my wife and I will settle down in it. By that time we shall have the nest well lined with fish bones. We shall put in some dried grass too. The fish bones make a fine lining for a nest. You know we swallow the fish whole, but we save all the bones for our nest. I shall help my wife hatch her five white eggs and shall try in every way to make my family safe. Please tell the people not to believe those strange things about me and you will greatly oblige, A neighbor, THE KINGFISHER. [Illustration: KINGFISHER. Copyrighted by Nature Study Pub. Co., 1897, Chicago.] THE KINGFISHER. The Lone Fisherman. The American species belongs to the true group of Kingfishers. It occupies the whole continent of North America and although migrating in the north, he is a constant resident of our southern states. The belted Kingfisher is the only variety found along the inland streams of the United States. Audubon declares that "belted" should apply only to the female, however. Like most birds of brilliant plumage, the Kingfisher prefers a quiet and secluded haunt. It loves the little trout streams, with wooded and precipitous banks, the still ponds and small lakes, ornamental waters in parks, where it is not molested, and the sides of sluggish rivers, drains and mill-ponds. Here in such a haunt the bird often flits past like an indistinct gleam of bluish light. Fortune may sometimes favor the observer and the bird may alight on some twig over the stream, its weight causing it to sway gently to and fro. It eagerly scans the shoal of young trout sporting in the pool below, when suddenly it drops down into the water, and, almost before the observer is aware of the fact, is back again to its perch with a struggling fish in its beak. A few blows on the branch and its prey is ready for the dexterous movement of the bill, which places it in a position for swallowing. Sometimes the captured fish is adroitly jerked into the air and caught as it falls. Fish is the principal food of the Kingfisher; but it also eats various kinds of insects, shrimps, and even small crabs. It rears its young in a hole, which is made in the banks of the stream it frequents. It is a slatternly bird, fouls its own nest and its peerless eggs. The nesting hole is bored rather slowly, and takes from one to two weeks to complete. Six or eight white glossy eggs are laid, sometimes on the bare soil, but often on the fish bones which, being indigestible, are thrown up by the bird in pellets. The Kingfisher has a crest of feathers on the top of his head, which he raises and lowers, especially when trying to drive intruders away from his nest. The plumage is compact and oily, making it almost impervious to water. The flesh is fishy and disagreeable to the taste, but the eggs are said to be good eating. The wings are long and pointed and the bill longer than the head. The voice is harsh and monotonous. It is said that few birds are connected with more fables than the Kingfisher. The superstition that a dead Kingfisher when suspended by the throat, would turn its beak to that particular point of the compass from which the wind blew, is now dead. It was also supposed to possess many astonishing virtues, as that its dried body would avert thunderbolts, and if kept in a wardrobe would preserve from moths the woolen stuffs and the like contained in it. Under the name of "halcyon," it was fabled by the ancients to build its nest on the surface of the sea, and to have the power of calming the troubled waves during its period of incubation; hence the phrase "halcyon days." A pair of Kingfishers have had their residence in a bank at the south end of Washington Park, Chicago, for at least three seasons past. We have watched the Kingfisher from secluded spots on Long Island ponds and tidal streams, where his peculiar laughing note is the same as that which greets the ear of the fisherman on far inland streams on still summer days. THE BLACKBIRD. "I could not think so plain a bird Could sing so fine a song." One on another against the wall Pile up the books--I am done with them all; I shall be wise, if I ever am wise, Out of my own ears, and of my own eyes. One day of the woods and their balmy light-- One hour on the top of a breezy hill, There in the sassafras all out of sight The Blackbird is splitting his slender bill For the ease of his heart: Do you think if he said "I will sing like this bird with the mud colored back And the two little spots of gold over his eyes, Or like to this shy little creature that flies So low to the ground, with the amethyst rings About her small throat--all alive when she sings With a glitter of shivering green--for the rest, Gray shading to gray, with the sheen of her breast Half rose and half fawn-- Or like this one so proud, That flutters so restless, and cries out so loud, With stiff horny beak and a top-knotted head, And a lining of scarlet laid under his wings--" Do you think, if he said, "I'm ashamed to be black!" That he could have shaken the sassafras-tree As he does with the song he was born to? not he! --ALICE CARY. "Do you ne'er think what wondrous beings these? Do you ne'er think who made them--who taught The dialect they speak, where melodies Alone are the interpreters of thought? Whose household words are songs in many keys, Sweeter than instrument of man ere caught! Whose habitation in the tree-tops even Are half-way houses on the road to heaven! * * * * * "You call them thieves or pillagers; but know, They are the winged wardens of your farms, Who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe, And from your harvest keep a hundred harms; Even the blackest of them all, the crow, Renders good service as your man-at-arms, Crushing the beetle in his coat of mail, And crying havoc on the slug and snail." --FROM "THE BIRDS OF KILLINGWORTH." [Illustration: BLUE MOUNTAIN LORY.] BLUE MOUNTAIN LORY. This bird inhabits the vast plains of the interior of New South Wales. It is one of the handsomest, not only of the Australian Parrots, but takes foremost place among the most gorgeously dressed members of the Parrot family that are to be met with in any part of the world. It is about eleven or twelve inches in length. The female cannot with certainty be distinguished from her mate, but is usually a very little smaller. The Lory seldom descends to the ground, but passes the greater part of its life among the gum trees upon the pollen and nectar on which it mainly subsists. In times of scarcity, however, it will also eat grass seeds, as well as insects, for want of which it is said, it often dies prematurely when in captivity. Dr. Russ mentions that a pair obtained from a London dealer in 1870 for fifty dollars were the first of these birds imported, but the London Zoological Society had secured some of them two years before. Despite his beauty, the Blue Mountain Lory is not a desirable bird to keep, as he requires great care. A female which survived six years in an aviary, laying several eggs, though kept singly, was fed on canary seed, maize, a little sugar, raw beef and carrots. W. Gedney seems to have been peculiarly happy in his specimens, remarking, "But for the terribly sudden death which so often overtakes these birds, they would be the most charming feathered pets that a lady could possess, having neither the power nor inclination to bite savagely." The same writer's recommendation to feed this Lory exclusively upon soft food, in which honey forms a great part, probably accounts for his advice to those "whose susceptible natures would be shocked" by the sudden death of their favorite, not to become the owner of a Blue Mountain Lory. Like all the parrot family these Lories breed in hollow boughs, where the female deposits from three to four white eggs, upon which she sits for twenty-one days. The young from the first resemble their parents closely, but are a trifle less brilliantly colored. They are very active and graceful, but have an abominable shriek. The noise is said to be nearly as disagreeable as the plumage is beautiful. They are very quarrelsome and have to be kept apart from the other parrots, which they will kill. Other species of birds however, are not disturbed by them. It is a sort of family animosity. They have been bred in captivity. The feathers of the head and neck are long and very narrow and lie closely together; the claws are strong and hooked, indicating their tree climbing habits. Their incessant activity and amusing ways make these birds always interesting to watch. THE RED WING BLACK BIRD. The Bird of Society. The blackbirds make the maples ring With social cheer and jubilee; The redwing flutes his o-ka-lee.--EMERSON. The much abused and persecuted Red Wing Black Bird is found throughout North America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific; and it breeds more or less abundantly wherever found. In New England it is generally migratory, though instances are on record where a few have been known to remain throughout the winter in Massachusetts. Passing, in January, through the lower counties of Virginia, one frequently witnesses the aerial evolutions of great numbers of these birds. Sometimes they appear as if driven about like an enormous black cloud carried before the wind, varying every moment in shape. Sometimes they rise suddenly from the fields with a noise like thunder, while the glittering of innumerable wings of the brightest vermillion, amid the black cloud, occasion a very striking effect. At times the whole congregated multitude will suddenly alight in some detached grove and commence one general concert, that can plainly be distinguished at the distance of more than two miles. With the Redwings the whole winter season seems one continued carnival. They find abundant food in the old fields of rice, buckwheat and grain, and much of their time is spent in aerial movements, or in grand vocal performances. The Redwings, for their nest, always select either the borders of streams or low marshy situations, amongst thick bunches of reeds. One nest was found built on a slender sapling at the distance of fourteen feet from the ground. The nest was pensile, like that of the Baltimore Oriole. They have from one to three or more broods in a season, according to locality. In the grain growing states they gather in immense swarms and commit havoc, and although they are shot in great numbers, and though their ranks are thinned by the attacks of hawks, it seems to have but little effect upon the survivors. On the other hand, these Black Birds more than compensate the farmer for their mischief by the benefit they confer in the destruction of grub worms, caterpillars, and various kinds of larvae, the secret and deadly enemies of vegetation. It has been estimated the number of insects destroyed by these birds in a single season, in the United States, to be twelve thousand millions. The eggs average about an inch in length. They are oval in shape, have a light bluish ground, and are marbled, lined and blotched with markings of light and dark purple and black. BLACKBIRD. 'Tis a woodland enchanted! By no sadder spirit Than blackbirds and thrushes, That whistle to cheer it All day in the bushes, This woodland is haunted; And in a small clearing, Beyond sight or hearing Of human annoyance, The little fount gushes.--LOWELL. [Illustration: RED-WING BLACK BIRD.] THE BIRD OF SOCIETY. The blackbird loves to be one of a great flock. He talks, sings or scolds from morning until night. He cannot keep still. He will only stay alone with his family a few months in the summer. That is the reason he is called the "Bird of Society." When he is merry, he gaily sings, "Conk-quer-ree." When he is angry or frightened he screams, "Chock! Chock!" When he is flying or bathing he gives a sweet note which sounds like ee-u-u. He can chirp--chick, check, chuck, to his little ones as softly as any other bird. But only his best friends ever hear his sweetest tones, for the Blackbirds do not know how to be polite. They all talk at once. That is why most people think they only scream and chatter. Did you ever hear the blackbirds in the cornfields? If the farmers thought about it perhaps they would feel that part of every corn crop belongs to the Blackbirds. When the corn is young, the farmer cannot see the grubs which are eating the young plants. The Blackbirds can. They feed them to their babies--many thousands in a day. That is the way the crops are saved for the farmer. But he never thinks of that. Later when the Blackbirds come for their share of the corn the farmer says, "No, they shall not have my corn. I must stop that quickly." Perhaps the Blackbirds said the same thing to the grubs in the spring. It is hard to have justice for everyone. In April the Blackbird and his mate leave the noisy company. They seek a cosy home near the water where they can be quiet until August. They usually choose a swampy place among low shrubs and rushes. Here in the deep nest of coarse grass, moss and mud the mother bird lays her five eggs. They are very pretty--light blue with purple and black markings. Their friends say this is the best time to watch the blackbirds. In the flock they are all so much alike we cannot tell one from another. You would like to hear of some of the wise things Blackbirds do when they are tame. One friend of the birds turned her home into a great open bird cage. Her chair was the favorite perch of her birds. She never kept them one minute longer than they wanted to stay. Yet her home was always full. This was Olive Thorne Miller. If you care to, you might ask mother to get "Bird Ways" and read you what she says about this "bird of society" and the other birds of this book. THE AMERICAN RED BIRD. American Red Birds are among our most common cage birds, and are very generally known in Europe, numbers of them having been carried over both to France and England. Their notes are varied and musical; many of them resembling the high notes of a fife, and are nearly as loud. They are in song from March to September, beginning at the first appearance of dawn and repeating successively twenty or thirty times, and with little intermission, a favorite strain. The sprightly figure and gaudy plumage of the Red Bird, his vivacity, strength of voice, and actual variety of note, and the little expense with which he is kept, will always make him a favorite. This species is more numerous to the east of the great range of the Alleghenies, but is found in Pennsylvania and Ohio, and is numerous in the lower parts of the Southern States. In January and February they have been found along the roadsides and fences, hovering together in half dozens, associating with snow birds, and various kinds of sparrows. In the northern states they are migratory, and in the southern part of Pennsylvania they reside during the whole year, frequenting the borders of rivulets, in sheltered hollows, covered with holly, laurel, and other evergreens. They love also to reside in the vicinity of fields of Indian corn, a grain that constitutes their chief and favorite food. The seeds of apples, cherries, and other fruit are also eaten by them, and they are accused of destroying bees. Early in May the Red Bird begins to prepare his nest, which is very often fixed in a holly, cedar or laurel bush. A pair of Red Birds in Ohio returned for a number of years to build their nest in a honeysuckle vine under a portico. They were never disturbed and never failed to rear a brood of young. The nest was constructed of small twigs, dry weeds, slips of vine bark, and lined with stalks of fine grass. Four eggs of brownish olive were laid, and they usually raised two broods in a season. In confinement they fade in color, but if well cared for, will live to a considerable age. They are generally known by the names: Red Bird, Virginia Red Bird, Virginia Nightingale, and Crested Red Bird. It is said that the female often sings nearly as well as the male. THE REDBIRDS. Two Redbirds came in early May, Flashing like rubies on the way; Their joyous notes awoke the day, And made all nature glad and gay. Thrice welcome! crested visitants; Thou doest well to seek our haunts; The bounteous vine, by thee possessed, From prying eyes shall keep thy nest. Sing to us in the early dawn; 'Tis then thy scarlet throats have drawn Refreshing draughts from drops of dew, The enchanting concert to renew. No plaintive notes, we ween, are thine; They gurgle like a royal wine; They cheer, rejoice, they quite outshine Thy neighbor's voice, tho' it's divine. Free as the circumambient air Do thou remain, a perfect pair, To come once more when Proserpine Shall swell the buds of tree and vine. --C. C. M. [Illustration: CARDINAL.] THE RED BIRD. Is it because he wears a red hat, That we call him the Cardinal Bird? Or is it because his voice is so rich That scarcely a finer is heard? 'Tis neither, but this--I've guessed it, I'm sure-- His dress is a primary color of Nature. It blends with the Oriole's golden display, And the garment of Blue Bird completes the array. --C. C. M. * * * * * ATTEND THE BEST. CHICAGO BUSINESS COLLEGE Wabash Ave. & Randolph St. [Illustration] Elegant new building. Finer apartments than any other Commercial School in the United States. Thorough courses in BUSINESS, SHORTHAND and ENGLISH. Day and Evening Sessions. Write for catalogue mailed FREE. Address GONDRING & VIRDEN, Principals. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. WRITE FOR SAMPLES AND PRICES OF COMMENCEMENT PROGRAMS MIZE & STEARNS PRINTERS AND BINDERS CHICAGO Telephone Harrison 560 346 to 350 Dearborn Street CATALOGUES PERIODICALS EMBOSSING FINE STATIONERY SAM R. CARTER, President. GUSTAV ZEESE, Secretary. CHICAGO Colortype COMPANY PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLORS ART COLOR... PRINTERS and ENGRAVERS, Office and Works: 1205-1213 Roscoe Street. CHICAGO. PAINTINGS, WATER COLORS, LITHOGRAPHS, and Articles of every description faithfully reproduced IN THEIR NATURAL COLORS. The Illustrations in this Magazine were engraved and printed by us. WHAT WE WILL SELL YOU FOR $12.00 [Illustration] #4 FEET LONG, 2 FEET 5 INCHES WIDE.# Oak, Extension Slide, Finished back Quarter-sawed Sycamore Pigeon Holes, Combination Lock on Drawers, Spring Lock with two keys on Curtain. GUARANTEED PERFECT. Can not be duplicated for less than $20.00. Securely Packed and put on board cars for $12.00 and shipped C. O. D. with privilege of examination. THE BAKER SAFE COMPANY, 47 and 49 Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill. The Best is the Cheapest CROWN FOUNTAIN PENS CROWN GOLD PENS Received Highest Awards at World's Fair, Chicago, 1893 [Illustration] ALL SIZES AND STYLES EVERY PEN GUARANTEED CROWN PEN CO., Manufacturers 78 State Street, CHICAGO, ILL. ALL MAKES OF FOUNTAIN AND GOLD PENS REPAIRED. What POINTS do You Want in a COPYING Machine? 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AND JACKSON ST CHICAGO, ILL. U.S.A. Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. TESTIMONIALS. FRANKFORT. KY., February 3, 1897. W. J. BLACK, Vice-President, Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: I have a copy of your magazine entitled "Birds," and beg to say that I consider it one of the finest things on the subject that I have ever seen, and shall be pleased to recommend it to county and city superintendents of the state. Very respectfully, W. J. DAVIDSON, State Superintendent Public Instruction. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., January 27, 1897. W. J. BLACK, ESQ., Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: I am very much obliged for the copy of "Birds" that has just come to hand. It should be in the hands of every primary and grammar teacher. I send herewith copy of "List of San Francisco Teachers." Very respectfully, M. BABCOCK. LINCOLN, NEB., February 9, 1897. W. J. BLACK, Chicago, Ill. Dear Sir: The first number of your magazine, "Birds," is upon my desk. I am highly pleased with it. It will prove a very serviceable publication--one that strikes out along the right lines. For the purpose intended, it has, in my opinion, no equal. It is clear, concise, and admirably illustrated. Very respectfully, W. R. JACKSON, State Superintendent Public Instruction. NORTH LIMA, OHIO, February 1, 1897. MR. W. E. WATT, Dear Sir: Sample copy of "Birds" received. All of the family delighted with it. We wish it unbounded success. It will be an excellent supplement to "In Birdland" in the Ohio Teachers' Reading Circle, and I venture Ohio will be to the front with a good subscription list. I enclose list of teachers. Very truly, C. M. L. ALTDOERFFER, Township Superintendent. MILWAUKEE, January 30, 1897. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY, 227 Dearborn Street, Chicago. Gentlemen: I acknowledge with pleasure the receipt of your publication, "Birds," with accompanying circulars. I consider it the best on the subject in existence. I have submitted the circulars and publication to my teachers, who have nothing to say but praise in behalf of the monthly. JULIUS TORNEY, Principal 2nd Dist. Primary School, Milwaukee, Wis. OUR PREMIUM A picture of wonderful beauty of the Golden Pheasant almost life size in a natural scene, plate 12�18 inches, on card 19�25 inches, is given as a premium to yearly subscribers. Our price on this picture in Art Stores is $3.50. 
26656	----	BIRDS A MONTHLY SERIAL ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE VOLUME II. CHICAGO. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. COPYRIGHT, 1897 BY NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING CO. CHICAGO. INTRODUCTION. This is the second volume of a series intended to present, in accurate colored portraiture, and in popular and juvenile biographical text, a very considerable portion of the common birds of North America, and many of the more interesting and attractive specimens of other countries, in many respects superior to all other publications which have attempted the representation of birds, and at infinitely less expense. The appreciative reception by the public of Vol. I deserves our grateful acknowledgement. Appearing in monthly parts, it has been read and admired by thousands of people, who, through the life-like pictures presented, have made the acquaintance of many birds, and have since become enthusiastic observers of them. It has been introduced into the public schools, and is now in use as a text book by hundreds of teachers, who have expressed enthusiastic approval of the work and of its general extension. The faithfulness to nature of the pictures, in color and pose, have been commended by such ornithologists and authors as Dr. Elliott Coues, Mr. John Burroughs, Mr. J. W. Allen, editor of _The Auk_, Mr. Frank M. Chapman, Mr. J. W. Baskett, and others. The general text of BIRDS--the biographies--has been conscientiously prepared from the best authorities by a careful observer of the feather-growing denizens of the field, the forest, and the shore, while the juvenile autobiographies have received the approval of the highest ornithological authority. The publishers take pleasure in the announcement that the general excellence of BIRDS will be maintained in subsequent volumes. The subjects selected for the third and fourth volumes--many of them--will be of the rare beauty in which the great Audubon, the limner _par excellence_ of birds, would have found "the joy of imitation." NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY. BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY ================================ VOL. II. AUGUST NO. 2 ================================ BIRD SONG. We made several early morning excursions into the woods and fields during the month of June, and were abundantly rewarded in many ways--by beholding the gracious awakening of Nature in her various forms, kissed into renewed activity by the radiance of morn; by the sweet smelling air filled with the perfume of a multitude of opening flowers which had drunk again the dew of heaven; by the sight of flitting clouds across the bluest of skies, patching the green earth with moving shadows, and sweetest of all, by the twittering, calling, musical sounds of love and joy which came to the ear from the throats of the feathered throng. How pleasant to lie prone on one's back on the cool grass, and gaze upward through the shady green canopy of boughs, watching the pretty manoeuvers, the joyous greetings, the lively anxieties, the graceful movements, and even the sorrowful happenings of the bird-life above us. Listen to the variety of their tones, as manifest as the difference of form and color. What more interesting than to observe their habits, and discover their cosy nests with their beautiful eggs in the green foliage? Strange that so many persons think only of making a collection of them, robbing the nests with heartless indifference to the suffering of the parents, to say nothing of the invasion which they make of the undoubted rights the birds have from nature to protection and perpetuation. Strictly speaking, there are few birds to which the word "singing" can properly be applied, the majority of them not having more than two or three notes, and they with little suggestion of music in them. Chanticleer crows, his spouse cackles or clucks, as may be suitable to the occasion. To what ear are these noises musical? They are rather language, and, in fact, the varying notes of every species of bird have a significance which can alone be interpreted by its peculiar habits. If careful note be made of the immediate conduct of the male or female bird, as the case may be, after each call or sound, the meaning of it becomes plain. A hen whose chicks are scattered in search of food, upon seeing a hawk, utters a note of warning which we have all heard, and the young scamper to her for protection beneath her wings. When she has laid an egg, _Cut-cut-cut-cut-ot-cut!_ announces it from the nest in the barn. When the chicks are hatched, her _cluck, cluck, cluck_, calls them from the nest in the wide world, and her _chick, chick, chick_, uttered quickly, selects for them the dainty which she has found, or teaches them what is proper for their diet. A good listener will detect enough intonations in her voice to constitute a considerable vocabulary, which, if imitated [CONTINUED ON PAGE 57.] THE AMERICAN OSPREY. Here is the picture of a remarkable bird. We know him better by the name Fish Hawk. He looks much like the Eagle in July "BIRDS." The Osprey has no use for Mr. Eagle though. You know the Bald Eagle or Sea Eagle is very fond of fish. Well, he is not a very good fisherman and from his lofty perch he watches for the Fish Hawk or Osprey. Do you ask why? Well, when he sees a Fish Hawk with his prey, he is sure to chase him and take it from him. It is for this reason that Ospreys dislike the Bald Eagle. Their food is fish, which as a rule they catch alive. It must be interesting to watch the Osprey at his fishing. He wings his way slowly over the water, keeping a watch for fish as they appear near the surface. When he sees one that suits him, he hovers a moment, and then, closing his wings, falls upon the fish. Sometimes he strikes it with such force that he disappears in the water for a moment. Soon we see him rise from the water with the prey in his claws. He then flies to some tall tree and if he has not been discovered by his enemy, the Eagle, can have a good meal for his hard work. Look at his claws; then think of them striking a fish as they must when he plunges from on high. A gentleman tells of an Osprey that fastened his claws in a fish that was too large for him. The fish drew him under and nothing more was seen of Mr. Osprey. The same gentleman tells of a fish weighing six pounds that fell from the claws of a Fish Hawk that became frightened by an Eagle. The Osprey builds his nest much like the Bald Eagle. It is usually found in a tall tree and out of reach. Like the Eagle, he uses the same nest each year, adding to it. Sometimes it measures five feet high and three feet across. One nest that was found, contained enough sticks, cornstalks, weeds, moss, and the like, to fill a cart, and made a load for a horse to draw. Like the Crows and Blackbirds they prefer to live together in numbers. Over three hundred nests have been found in the trees on a small island. One thing I want you to remember about the Osprey. They usually remain mated for life. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. OSPREY.] THE AMERICAN OSPREY. An interesting bird, "Winged Fisher," as he has been happily called, is seen in places suited to his habits, throughout temperate North America, particularly about islands and along the seacoast. At Shelter Island, New York, they are exceedingly variable in the choice of a nesting place. On Gardiner's Island they all build in trees at a distance varying from ten to seventy-five feet from the ground; on Plum Island, where large numbers of them nest, many place their nests on the ground, some being built up to a height of four or five feet while others are simply a few sticks arranged in a circle, and the eggs laid on the bare sand. On Shelter Island they build on the chimneys of houses, and a pair had a nest on the cross-bar of a telegraph pole. Another pair had a nest on a large rock. These were made of coarse sticks and sea weed, anything handy, such as bones, old shoes, straw, etc. A curious nest was found some years ago on the coast of New Jersey. It contained three eggs, and securely imbedded in the loose material of the Osprey's nest was a nest of the Purple Grackle, containing five eggs, while at the bottom of the Hawk's nest was a thick, rotten limb, in which was a Tree Swallow's nest of seven eggs. In the spring and early autumn this familiar eagle-like bird can be seen hovering over creek, river, and sound. It is recognized by its popular name of Fish-Hawk. Following a school of fish, it dashes from a considerable height to seize its prey with its stout claws. If the fish is small it is at once swallowed, if it is large, (and the Osprey will occasionally secure shad, blue fish, bass, etc., weighing five or six pounds,) the fish is carried to a convenient bluff or tree and torn to bits. The Bald Eagle often robs him of the fish by seizing it, or startling him so that he looses his hold. The Osprey when fishing makes one of the most breezy, spirited pictures connected with the feeding habits of any of our birds, as often there is a splashing and a struggle under water when the fish grasped is too large or the great talons of the bird gets entangled. He is sometimes carried under and drowned, and large fish have been washed ashore with these birds fastened to them by the claws. Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright says: "I found an Osprey's nest in a crooked oak on Wakeman's Island in late April, 1893. As I could not get close to the nest (the island is between a network of small creeks, and the flood tides covered the marshes,) I at first thought it was a monstrous crow's nest, but on returning the second week in May I saw a pair of Ospreys coming and going to and fro from the nest. I hoped the birds might return another season, as the nest looked as if it might have been used for two or three years, and was as lop-sided as a poorly made haystack. The great August storm of the same year broke the tree, and the nest fell, making quite a heap upon the ground. Among the debris were sticks of various sizes, dried reeds, two bits of bamboo fishing rod, seaweeds, some old blue mosquito netting, and some rags of fish net, also about half a bushel of salt hay in various stages of decomposition, and malodorous dirt galore." It is well known that Ospreys, if not disturbed, will continue indefinitely to heap rubbish upon their nests till their bulk is very great. Like the Owls they can reverse the rear toe. THE SORA RAIL. Various are the names required to distinguish the little slate-colored Carolina Rail from its brethren, Sora, Common Rail, and, on the Potomac river, Ortolan, being among them. He is found throughout temperate North America, in the weedy swamps of the Atlantic states in great abundance, in the Middle states, and in California. In Ohio he is a common summer resident, breeding in the extensive swamps and wet meadows. The nest is a rude affair made of grass and weeds, placed on the ground in a tussock of grass in a boggy tract of land, where there is a growth of briers, etc., where he may skulk and hide in the wet grass to elude observation. The nest may often be discovered at a distance by the appearance of the surrounding grass, the blades of which are in many cases interwoven over the nest, apparently to shield the bird from the fierce rays of the sun, which are felt with redoubled force on the marshes. The Rails feed on both vegetable and animal food. During the months of September and October, the weeds and wild oats swarm with them. They feed on the nutricious seeds, small snail shells, worms and larvae of insects, which they extract from the mud. The habits of the Sora Rail, its thin, compressed body, its aversion to take wing, and the dexterity with which it runs or conceals itself among the grass and sedge, are exactly similar to those of the more celebrated Virginia Rail. The Sora frequents those parts of marshes preferably where fresh water springs rise through the morass. Here it generally constructs its nest, "one of which," says an observer, "we had the good fortune to discover. It was built in the bottom of a tuft of grass in the midst of an almost impenetrable quagmire, and was composed altogether of old wet grass and rushes. The eggs had been flooded out of the nest by the extraordinary rise of the tide in a violent northwest storm, and lay scattered about the drift weed. The usual number of eggs is from six to ten. They are of a dirty white or pale cream color, sprinkled with specks of reddish and pale purple, most numerous near the great end." When on the wing the Sora Rail flies in a straight line for a short distance with dangling legs, and suddenly drops into the water. The Rails have many foes, and many nests are robbed of their eggs by weasels, snakes, Blackbirds, and Marsh Hawks, although the last cannot disturb them easily, as the Marsh Hawk searches for its food while flying and a majority of the Rails' nests are covered over, making it hard to distinguish them when the Hawk is above. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. SORA RAIL.] THE SORA RAIL. This is one of our fresh-water marsh birds. I show you his picture taken where he spends most of his time. If it were not for the note calls, these tall reeds and grasses would keep from us the secret of the Rail's home. Like most birds, though, they must be heard, and so late in the afternoon you may hear their clear note, ker-wee. From all parts of the marsh you will hear their calls which they keep up long after darkness has set in. This Rail was just about to step out from the grasses to feed when the artist took his picture. See him--head up, and tail up. He steps along carefully. He feels that it is risky to leave his shelter and is ready at the first sign of danger, to dart back under cover. There are very few fresh-water marshes where the Rail is not found. When a boy, I loved to hear their note calls and would spend hours on the edge of a marsh near my home. It seemed to me there was no life among the reeds and cat-tails of the marsh, but when I threw a stone among them, the Rails would always answer with their _peeps_ or _keeks_. And so I used to go down to the marsh with my pockets filled with stones. Not that I desired or even expected to injure one of these birds. Far from it. It pleased me to hear their calls from the reeds and grass that seemed deserted. Those of you who live near wild-rice or wild-oat marshes have a good chance to become acquainted with this Rail. In the south these Rails are found keeping company with the Bobolinks or Reed-birds as they are called down there. THE KENTUCKY WARBLER. Although this bird is called the Kentucky Warbler, we must not think he visits that state alone. We find him all over eastern North America. And a beautiful bird he is. As his name tells you he is one of a family of Warblers. I told you somewhere else that the Finches are the largest family of birds. Next to them come the Warblers. Turn back now and see how many Warblers have been pictured so far. See if you can tell what things group them as a family. Notice their bills and feet. This bird is usually found in the dense woods, especially where there are streams of water. He is a good singer, and his song is very different from that of any of the other Warblers. I once watched one of these birds--olive-green above and yellow beneath. His mate was on a nest near by and he was entertaining her with his song. He kept it up over two hours, stopping only a few seconds between his songs. When I reached the spot with my field-glass I was attracted by his peculiar song. I don't know how long he had been singing. I stayed and spent two hours with him and he showed no signs of stopping. He may be singing yet. I hope he is. You see him here perched on a granite cliff. I suppose his nest is near by. He makes it of twigs and rootlets, with several thicknesses of leaves. It is neatly lined with fine rootlets and you will always find it on or near the ground. In the September and October number of "BIRDS" you will find several Warblers and Finches. Try to keep track of them and may be you can do as many others have done--tell the names of new birds that come along by their pictures which you have seen in "BIRDS." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. KENTUCKY WARBLER.] THE KENTUCKY WARBLER. Between sixty and seventy warblers are described by Davie in his "Nests and Eggs of North American Birds," and the Kentucky Warbler is recognized as one of the most beautiful of the number, in its manners almost the counterpart of the Golden Crowned Thrush (soon to delight the eyes of the readers of BIRDS), though it is altogether a more conspicuous bird, both on account of its brilliant plumage and greater activity, the males being, during the season of nesting, very pugnacious, continually chasing one another about the woods. It lives near the ground, making its artfully concealed nest among the low herbage and feeding in the undergrowth, the male singing from some old log or low bush, his song recalling that of the Cardinal, though much weaker. The ordinary note is a soft _schip_, somewhat like the common call of the Pewee. Considering its great abundance, says an observer, the nest of this charmer is very difficult to find; the female, he thought, must slyly leave the nest at the approach of an intruder, running beneath the herbage until a considerable distance from the nest, when, joined by her mate, the pair by their evident anxiety mislead the stranger as to its location. It has been declared that no group of birds better deserves the epithet "pretty" than the Warblers. Tanagers are splendid, Humming Birds refulgent, others brilliant, gaudy, or magnificent, but Warblers alone are pretty. The Warblers are migratory birds, the majority of them passing rapidly across the United States in spring on the way to their northern nesting grounds, and in autumn to their winter residence within the tropics. When the apple trees bloom they revel among the flowers, vieing in activity and numbers with the bees; "now probing the recesses of a blossom for an insect, then darting to another, where, poised daintily upon a slender twig, or suspended from it, they explore hastily but carefully for another morsel. Every movement is the personification of nervous activity, as if the time for their journey was short; as, indeed, appears to be the case, for two or three days at most suffice some species in a single locality." We recently saw a letter from a gentleman living at Lake Geneva, in which he referred with enthusiasm to BIRDS, because it had enabled him to identify a bird which he had often seen in the apple trees among the blossoms, particularly the present season, with which he was unacquainted by name. It was the Orchard Oriole, and he was glad to have a directory of nature which would enable him to add to his knowledge and correct errors of observation. The idea is a capitol one, and the beautiful Kentucky Warbler, unknown to many who see it often, may be recognized in the same way by residents of southern Indiana and Illinois, Kansas, some localities in Ohio, particularly in the southwestern portion, in parts of New York and New Jersey, in the District of Columbia, and in North Carolina. It has not heretofore been possible, even with the best painted specimens of birds in the hand, to satisfactorily identify the pretty creatures, but with BIRDS as a companion, which may readily be consulted, the student cannot be led into error. THE RED BREASTED MERGANSER. Why this duck should be called red-breasted is not at first apparent, as at a distance the color can not be distinguished, but seen near, the reason is plain. It is a common bird in the United States in winter, where it is found in suitable localities in the months of May and June. It is also a resident of the far north, breeding abundantly in Newfoundland, Labrador, Greenland, and Iceland. It is liberally supplied with names, as Red-Breasted Goosander or Sheldrake, Garbill, Sea Robin, etc. There is a difference in opinion as to the nesting habits of the Red-Breast, some authorities claiming that, like the Wood Duck, the nest is placed in the cavity of a tree, others that it is usually found on the ground among brushwood, surrounded with tall grasses and at a short distance from water. Davie says that most generally it is concealed by a projecting rock or other object, the nest being made of leaves and mosses, lined with feathers and down, which are plucked from the breast of the bird. The observers are all probably correct, the bird adapting itself to the situation. Fish is the chief diet of the Merganser, for which reason its flesh is rank and unpalatable. The Bird's appetite is insatiable, devouring its food in such quantities that it has frequently to disgorge several times before it is able to rise from the water. This Duck can swallow fishes six or seven inches in length, and will attempt to swallow those of a larger size, choking in the effort. The term Merganser is derived from the plan of the bird's bill, which is furnished with saw teeth fitting into each other. The eggs of the Red-Breasted Merganser vary from six to twelve, are oval in shape, and are of a yellowish or reddish-drab, sometimes a dull buffy-green. You may have seen pictures of this Duck, which frequently figures in dining rooms on the ornamental panels of stuffed game birds, but none which could cause you to remember its life-like appearance. You here see before you an actual Red-Breasted Merganser. [Illustration: From col. J. G. Parker, Jr. RED-BREASTED MERGANSER.] BIRD SONG--Continued from page 41. with exactness, will deceive Mistress Pullet herself. To carry the idea further, we will take the notes of some of the birds depicted in this number of BIRDS. The Osprey, or Fish-Hawk, has been carefully observed, and his only discovered note is a high, rapidly repeated whistle, very plaintive. Doubtless this noise is agreeable and intelligible to his mate, but cannot be called a song, and has no significance to the listener. The Vulture utters a low, hissing sound when disturbed. This is its only note. Not so with the Bald Eagle, whose scream emulates the rage of the tempest, and implies courage, the quality which associates him with patriotism and freedom. In the notes of the Partridge there is a meaning recognizable by every one. After the nesting season, when the birds are in bevies, their notes are changed to what sportsmen term "scatter calls." Not long after a bevy has been flushed, and perhaps widely scattered, the members of the disunited family may be heard signaling to one another in sweet minor calls of two and three notes, and in excitement, they utter low, twittering notes. Of the Sora Rails, Mr. Chapman says, "knowing their calls, you have only to pass a May or June evening near a marsh to learn whether they inhabit it. If there, they will greet you late in the afternoon with a clear whistled _ker-wee_, which soon comes from dozens of invisible birds about you, and long after night has fallen, it continues like a springtime chorus of piping hylas. Now and again it is interrupted by a high-voiced, rolling whinney, which, like a call of alarm, is taken up and repeated by different birds all over the marsh." Poor Red-Breasted Merganser! He has only one note, a croak. Perhaps it was of him that Bryant was thinking when he wrote the stanzas "To a Water-Fowl." "The sentiment of feeling awakened by any of the aquatic fowls is pre-eminently one of loneliness," says John Burroughs. "The Wood Duck (see July BIRDS) which you approach, starts from the pond or the marsh, the Loon neighing down out of the April sky, the Wild Goose, the Curlew, the Stork, the Bittern, the Sandpiper, etc., awaken quite a different train of emotions from those awakened by the land birds. They all have clinging to them some reminiscence and suggestion of the sea. Their cries echo its wildness and desolation; their wings are the shape of its billows." But the Evening Grosbeak, the Kentucky Warbler, the Skylark, land birds all, are singers. They have music in their throats and in their souls, though of varying quality. The Grosbeak's note is described by different observers as a shrill _cheepy tee_ and a frog-like _peep_, while one writer remarks that the males have a single metallic cry like the note of a trumpet, and the females a loud chattering like the large Cherry Birds. The Kentucky Warbler's song is entirely unlike that of any other Warbler, and is a loud, clearly whistled performance of five, six, or seven notes, _turdle, turdle, turdle_, resembling in tone some of the calls of the Carolina Wren. He is so persistent in his singing, however, that the Red-Breasted Merganser's simple croak would sometimes be preferable to it. But the Skylark-- "All the earth and air With thy voice is loud, As, when night is bare From one lonely cloud The moon rains out her beams and heaven is over-flowed." --C. C. MARBLE. THE YELLOW LEGS. Yellow Legs, or Lesser Tell tale sometimes called Yellow-leg Snipe, and Little Cucu, inhabits the whole of North America, nesting in the cold temperate and subarctic districts of the northern continent, migrating south in winter to Argentine and Chili. It is much rarer in the western than eastern province of North America, and is only accidental in Europe. It is one of the wading birds, its food consisting of larvae of insects, small shell fish and the like. The nest of the Lesser Yellow Shanks, which it is sometimes called, is a mere depression in the ground, without any lining. Sometimes, however, it is placed at the foot of a bush, with a scanty lining of withered leaves. Four eggs of light drab, buffy or cream color, sometimes of light brown, are laid, and the breast of the female is found to be bare of feathers when engaged in rearing the young. The Lesser Yellow legs breeds in central Ohio and Illinois, where it is a regular summer resident, arriving about the middle of April, the larger portion of flocks passing north early in May and returning about the first of September to remain until the last of October. A nest of this species of Snipe was found situated in a slight depression at the base of a small hillock near the border of a prairie slough near Evanston, Illinois, and was made of grass stems and blades. The color of the eggs in this instance was a deep grayish white, three of which were marked with spots of dark brown, and the fourth egg with spots and well defined blotches of a considerably lighter shade of the same. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. YELLOW LEGS.] [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SKY LARK.] THE SKYLARK. This is not an American bird. I have allowed his picture to be taken and placed here because so many of our English friends desired it. The skylark is probably the most noted of birds in Europe. He is found in all of the countries of Europe, but England seems to claim it. Here it stays during the summer, and goes south in the winter. Like our own Meadow Lark, he likes best to stay in the fields. Here you will find it when not on the wing. Early in the spring the Skylark begins his song, and he may be heard for most of the year. Sometimes he sings while on the ground, but usually it is while he is soaring far above us. Skylarks do not often seek the company of persons. There are some birds, you know, that seem happy only when they are near people. Of course, they are somewhat shy, but as a rule they prefer to be near people. While the Skylark does not seek to be near persons, yet it is not afraid of them. A gentleman, while riding through the country, was surprised to see a Skylark perch on his saddle. When he tried to touch it, the Lark moved along on the horse's back, and finally dropped under the horse's feet. Here it seemed to hide. The rider, looking up, saw a hawk flying about. This explained the cause of the skylark's strange actions. A pair of these Larks had built their nest in a meadow. When the time came for mowing the grass, the little ones were not large enough to leave the nest. The mother bird laid herself flat on the ground, with her wings spread out. The father bird took one of the little ones from the nest and placed it on the mother's back. She flew away, took the baby bird to a safe place, and came back for another. This time the father took his turn. In this way they carried the little ones to a safe place before the mowers came. Like our Meadow Lark, the Skylark builds her nest on the ground--never in bushes or trees. Usually it is built in a hole below the surface of the ground. It is for this reason that it is hard to find. Then, too, the color of the nest is much like that of the ground. Four or five eggs are usually laid, and in two weeks the little larks crack the shells, and come into the world crying for worms and bugs. THE SKYLARK. The English Skylark has been more celebrated in poetry than any other song-bird. Shelley's famous poem is too long to quote and too symmetrical to present in fragmentary form. It is almost as musical as the sweet singer itself. "By the first streak of dawn," says one familiar with the Skylark, "he bounds from the dripping herbage, and on fluttering wings mounts the air for a few feet ere giving forth his cheery notes. Then upward, apparently without effort he sails, sometimes drifting far away as he ascends, borne as it were by the ascending vapors, so easily he mounts the air. His notes are so pure and sweet, and yet so loud and varied withal, that when they first disturb the air of early morning all the other little feathered tenants of the fields and hedgerows seem irresistibly compelled to join him in filling the air with melody. Upwards, ever upwards, he mounts, until like a speck in the highest ether he appears motionless; yet still his notes are heard, lovely in their faintness, now gradually growing louder and louder as he descends, until within a few yards of the earth they cease, and he drops like a fragment hurled from above into the herbage, or flits about it for a short distance ere alighting." The Lark sings just as richly on the ground as when on quivering wing. When in song he is said to be a good guide to the weather, for whenever we see him rise into the air, despite the gloomy looks of an overcast sky, fine weather is invariably at hand. The nest is most frequently in the grass fields, sometimes amongst the young corn, or in places little frequented. It is made of dry grass and moss, and lined with fibrous roots and a little horse hair. The eggs, usually four or five in number, are dull white, spotted, clouded, and blotched over the entire surface with brownish green. The female Lark, says Dixon, like all ground birds, is a very close sitter, remaining faithful to her charge. She regains her nest by dropping to the ground a hundred yards or more from its concealment. The food of the Lark is varied,--in spring and summer, insects and their larvae, and worms and slugs, in autumn and winter, seeds. Olive Thorne Miller tells this pretty anecdote of a Skylark which she emancipated from a bird store: "I bought the skylark, though I did not want him. I spared no pains to make the stranger happy. I procured a beautiful sod of uncut fresh grass, of which he at once took possession, crouching or sitting low among the stems, and looking most bewitching. He seemed contented, and uttered no more that appealing cry, but he did not show much intelligence. His cage had a broad base behind which he delighted to hide, and for hours as I sat in the room I could see nothing of him, although I would hear him stirring about. If I rose from my seat he was instantly on the alert, and stretched his head up to look over at me. I tried to get a better view of him by hanging a small mirror at an angle over his cage, but he was so much frightened by it that I removed it." "This bird," Mrs. Miller says "never seemed to know enough to go home. Even when very hungry he would stand before his wide open door, where one step would take him into his beloved grass thicket, and yet that one step he would not take. When his hunger became intolerable he ran around the room, circled about his cage, looking in, recognizing his food dishes, and trying eagerly to get between the wires to reach them; and yet when he came before the open door he would stand and gaze, but never go in. After five months' trial, during which he displayed no particular intelligence, and never learned to enter his cage, he passed out of the bird room, but not into a store." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. WILSON'S PHALAROPE.] WILSON'S PHALAROPE. Perhaps the most interesting, as it is certainly the most uncommon, characteristic of this species of birds is that the male relieves his mate from all domestic duties except the laying of the eggs. He usually chooses a thin tuft of grass on a level spot, but often in an open place concealed by only a few straggling blades. He scratches a shallow depression in the soft earth, lines it with a thin layer of fragments of old grass blades, upon which the eggs, three or four, are laid about the last of May or first of June. Owing to the low situation in which the nest is placed, the first set of eggs are often destroyed by a heavy fall of rain causing the water to rise so as to submerge the nest. The instinct of self preservation in these birds, as in many others, seems lacking in this respect. A second set, numbering two or three, is often deposited in a depression scratched in the ground, as at first, but with no sign of any lining. Wilson's Phalarope is exclusively an American bird, more common in the interior than along the sea coast. The older ornithologists knew little of it. It is now known to breed in northern Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Utah, and Oregon. It is recorded as a summer resident in northern Indiana and in western Kansas. Mr. E. W. Nelson states that it is the most common species in northern Illinois, frequenting grassy marshes and low prairies, and is not exceeded in numbers even by the ever-present Spotted Sandpiper. While it was one of our most common birds in the Calumet region it is now becoming scarce. The adult female of this beautiful species is by far the handsomest of the small waders. The breeding plumage is much brighter and richer than that of the male, another peculiar characteristic, and the male alone possesses the naked abdomen. The female always remains near the nest while he is sitting, and shows great solicitude upon the approach of an intruder. The adults assume the winter plumage during July. THE EVENING GROSBEAK. Handsomer birds there may be, but in the opinion of many this visitant to various portions of western North America is in shape, color, and markings one of the most exquisite of the feather-wearers. It has for its habitation the region extending from the plains to the Pacific ocean and from Mexico into British America. Toward the North it ranges further to the east; so that, while it appears to be not uncommon about Lake Superior, it has been reported as occuring in Ohio, New York, and Canada. In Illinois it was observed at Freeport during the winter of 1870 and 1871, and at Waukegan during January, 1873. It is a common resident of the forests of the State of Washington, and also of Oregon. In the latter region Dr. Merrill observed the birds carrying building material to a huge fir tree, but was unable to locate the nest, and the tree was practically inaccessable. Mr. Walter E. Bryant was the first to record an authentic nest and eggs of the Evening Grosbeak. In a paper read before the California Academy of Sciences he describes a nest of this species containing four eggs, found in Yolo county, California. The nest was built in a small live oak, at a height of ten feet, and was composed of small twigs supporting a thin layer of fibrous bark and a lining of horse hair. The eggs are of a clear greenish-ground color, blotched with pale brown. According to Mr. Davie, one of the leading authorities on North American birds, little if any more information has been obtained regarding the nests and eggs of the Evening Grosbeak. As to its habits, Mr. O. P. Day says, that about the year 1872, while hunting during fine autumn weather in the woods about Eureka, Illinois, he fell in with a number of these Grosbeaks. They were feeding in the tree tops on the seeds of the sugar maple, just then ripening, and were excessively fat. They were very unsuspicious, and for a long time suffered him to observe them. They also ate the buds of the cottonwood tree in company with the Rose-Breasted Grosbeak. The song of the Grosbeak is singularly like that of the Robin, and to one not thoroughly familiar with the notes of the latter a difference would not at first be detected. There is a very decided difference, however, and by repeatedly listening to both species in full voice it will be discovered more and more clearly. The sweet and gentle strains of music harmonize delightfully, and the concert they make is well worth the careful attention of the discriminating student. The value of such study will be admitted by all who know how little is known of the songsters. A gentleman recently said to us that one day in November the greater part of the football field at the south end of Lincoln Park was covered with Snow Birds. There were also on the field more than one hundred grammar and high school boys waiting the arrival of the football team. There was only one person present who paid any attention to the birds which were picking up the food, twittering, hopping, and flying about, and occasionally indulging in fights, and all utterly oblivious of the fact that there were scores of shouting school boys around and about them. The gentleman called the attention of one after another of ten of the high school boys to the snow birds and asked what they were. They one and all declared they were English Sparrows, and seemed astounded that any one could be so ignorant as not to know what an English Sparrow was. So much for the city-bred boy's observation of birds. [Illustration: EVENING GROSBEAK.] THE EVENING GROSBEAK. In the far Northwest we find this beautiful bird the year around. During the winter he often comes farther south in company with his cousin, the Rose-Breasted Grosbeak. What a beautiful sight it must be to see a flock of these birds--Evening Grosbeaks and Rose-Breasted in their pretty plumage. Grosbeaks belong to a family called Finches. The Sparrows, Buntings, and Crossbills belong to the same family. It is the largest family among birds. You will notice that they all have stout bills. Their food is mostly grains and their bills are well formed to crush the seeds. Look at your back numbers of "BIRDS" and notice the pictures of the other Finches I have named. Don't you think Dame Nature is very generous with her colors sometimes? Only a few days ago while strolling through the woods with my field glass, I saw a pretty sight. On one tree I saw a Redheaded Woodpecker, a Flicker, an Indigo Bunting, and a Rose-Breasted Grosbeak. I thought then, if we could only have the Evening Grosbeak our group of colors would be complete. Have you ever wondered at some birds being so prettily dressed while others have such dull colors? Some people say that the birds who do not sing must have bright feathers to make them attractive. We cannot believe this. Some of our bright colored birds are sweet singers, and surely many of our dull colored birds cannot sing very well. Next month you will see the pictures of several home birds. See if dull colors have anything to do with sweet song. THE TURKEY VULTURE. This bird is found mostly in the southern states. Here he is known by the more common name of Turkey Buzzard. He looks like a noble bird but he isn't. While he is well fitted for flying, and might, if he tried, catch his prey, he prefers to eat dead animals. The people down south never think of burying a dead horse or cow. They just drag it out away from their homes and leave it to the Vultures who are sure to dispose of it. It is very seldom that they attack a live animal. They will even visit the streets of the cities in search of dead animals for food, and do not show much fear of man. Oftentimes they are found among the chickens and ducks in the barn-yard, but have never been known to kill any. One gentleman who has studied the habits of the Vulture says that it has been known to suck the eggs of Herons. This is not common, though. As I said they prefer dead animals for their food and even eat their own dead. The Vulture is very graceful while on the wing. He sails along and you can hardly see his wings move as he circles about looking for food on the ground below. Many people think the Vulture looks much like our tame turkey. If you know of a turkey near by, just compare this picture with it and you won't think so. See how chalk-white his bill is. No feathers on his head, but a bright red skin. What do you think of the young chick? It doesn't seem as though he could ever be the large, heavy bird his parent seems to be. Now turn back to the first page of July "BIRDS" and see how he differs from the Eagle. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. TURKEY VULTURE.] THE TURKEY VULTURE. Turkey Buzzard is the familiar name applied to this bird, on account of his remarkable resemblance to our common Turkey. This is the only respect however, in which they are alike. It inhabits the United States and British Provinces from the Atlantic to the Pacific, south through Central and most of South America. Every farmer knows it to be an industrious scavenger, devouring at all times the putrid or decomposing flesh of carcasses. They are found in flocks, not only flying and feeding in company, but resorting to the same spot to roost; nesting also in communities; depositing their eggs on the ground, on rocks, or in hollow logs and stumps, usually in thick woods or in a sycamore grove, in the bend or fork of a stream. The nest is frequently built in a tree, or in the cavity of a sycamore stump, though a favorite place for depositing the eggs is a little depression under a small bush or overhanging rock on a steep hillside. Renowned naturalists have long argued that the Vulture does not have an extraordinary power of smell, but, according to Mr. Davie, an excellent authority, it has been proven by the most satisfactory experiments that the Turkey Buzzard does possess a keen sense of smell by which it can distinguish the odor of flesh at a great distance. The flight of the Turkey Vulture is truly beautiful, and no landscape with its patches of green woods and grassy fields, is perfect without its dignified figure high in the air, moving round in circles, steady, graceful and easy, and apparently without effort. "It sails," says Dr. Brewer, "with a steady, even motion, with wings just above the horizontal position, with their tips slightly raised, rises from the ground with a single bound, gives a few flaps of the wings, and then proceeds with its peculiar soaring flight, rising very high in the air." The Vulture pictured in the accompanying plate was obtained between the Brazos river and Matagorda bay. With it was found the Black Vulture, both nesting upon the ground. As the nearest trees were thirty or forty miles distant these Vultures were always found in this situation. The birds selected an open spot beneath a heavy growth of bushes, placing the eggs upon the bare ground. The old bird when approached would not attempt to leave the nest, and in the case of the young bird in the plate, the female to protect it from harm, promptly disgorged the putrid contents of her stomach, which was so offensive that the intruder had to close his nostrils with one hand while he reached for the young bird with the other. The Turkey Vulture is a very silent bird, only uttering a hiss of defiance or warning to its neighbors when feeding, or a low gutteral croak of alarm when flying low overhead. The services of the Vultures as scavengers in removing offal render them valuable, and almost a necessity in southern cities. If an animal is killed and left exposed to view, the bird is sure to find out the spot in a very short time, and to make its appearance as if called by some magic spell from the empty air. "Never stoops the soaring Vulture On his quarry in the desert, On the sick or wounded bison, But another Vulture, watching, From his high aerial lookout, Sees the downward plunge and follows; And a third pursues the second, Coming from the invisible ether, First a speck, and then a Vulture, Till the air is dark with pinions." TO A WATER-FOWL. Whither, 'midst falling dew While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, Far through their rosy depths dost thou pursue Thy solitary way? Vainly the fowler's eye Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong, As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, Thy figure floats along. Seek'st thou the plashy brink Of weedy lake, or marge of river wide, Or where the rocky billows rise and sink On the chafed ocean side. There is a Power whose care Teaches thy way along that pathless coast-- The desert and illimitable air-- Lone wandering, but not lost. All day thy wings have fanned, At that far height, the cold thin atmosphere, Yet stoop not, weary, to the welcome land Though the dark night is near. And soon that toil shall end; Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and nest, And scream among thy fellows; reeds shall bend, Soon o'er thy sheltered nest. Thou'rt gone, the abyss of heaven Hath swallowed up thy form; yet on my heart Deeply has sunk the lesson thou hast given, And shall not soon depart. He who from zone to zone, Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight, In the long way that I must tread alone, Will lead my steps aright. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. GAMBEL'S PARTRIDGE.] GAMBEL'S PARTRIDGE. Gambel's Partridge, of which comparatively little is known, is a characteristic game bird of Arizona and New Mexico, of rare beauty, and with habits similar to others of the species of which there are about two hundred. Mr. W. E. D. Scott found the species distributed throughout the entire Catalina region in Arizona below an altitude of 5,000 feet. The bird is also known as the Arizona Quail. The nest is made in a depression in the ground sometimes without any lining. From eight to sixteen eggs are laid. They are most beautifully marked on a creamy-white ground with scattered spots and blotches of old gold, and sometimes light drab and chestnut red. In some specimens the gold coloring is so pronounced that it strongly suggests to the imagination that this quail feeds upon the grains of the precious metal which characterizes its home, and that the pigment is imparted to the eggs. After the nesting season these birds commonly gather in "coveys" or bevies, usually composed of the members of but one family. As a rule they are terrestrial, but may take to trees when flushed. They are game birds _par excellence_, and, says Chapman, trusting to the concealment afforded by their dull colors, attempt to avoid detection by hiding rather than by flying. The flight is rapid and accompanied by a startling whirr, caused by the quick strokes of their small, concave, stiff-feathered wings. They roost on the ground, tail to tail, with heads pointing outward; "a bunch of closely huddled forms--a living bomb whose explosion is scarcely less startling than that of dynamite manufacture." The Partridge is on all hands admitted to be wholly harmless, and at times beneficial to the agriculturist. It is an undoubted fact that it thrives with the highest system of cultivation, and the lands that are the most carefully tilled, and bear the greatest quantity of grain and green crops, generally produce the greatest number of Partridges. SUMMARY. Page 43. #AMERICAN OSPREY.#--_Pandion paliaetus carolinensis._ RANGE--North America; breeds from Florida to Labrador; winters from South Carolina to northern South America. NEST--Generally in a tree, thirty to fifty feet from the ground, rarely on the ground. EGGS--Two to four; generally buffy white, heavily marked with chocolate. * * * * * Page 48. #SORA RAIL.#--_Porzana carolina._ RANGE--Temperate North America, south to the West Indies and northern South America. NEST--Of grass and reeds, placed on the ground in a tussock of grass, where there is a growth of briers. EGGS--From seven to fourteen; of a ground color, of dark cream or drab, with reddish brown spots. * * * * * Page 51. #KENTUCKY WARBLER.#--_Geothlypis formosa._ RANGE--Eastern United States; breeds from the Gulf States to Iowa and Connecticut; winters in Central America. NEST--Bulky, of twigs and rootlets, firmly wrapped with leaves, on or near the ground. EGGS--Four or five; white or grayish white, speckled or blotched with rufous. * * * * * Page 55. #RED-BREASTED MERGANSER.#--_Merganser Serrator._ RANGE--Northern parts of the Northern Hemisphere; in America breeds from northern Illinois and New Brunswick northward to the arctic regions; winters southward to Cuba. NEST--Of leaves, grasses, mosses, etc., lined with down, on the ground near water, among rocks or scrubby bushes. EGGS--Six to twelve; creamy buff. * * * * * Page 60. #YELLOW LEGS.#--_Totanus flavipes._ RANGE--North America, breeding chiefly in the interior from Minnesota, northern Illinois, Ontario County, N. Y., northward to the Arctic regions; winters from the Gulf States to Patagonia. EGGS--Three or four; buffy, spotted or blotched with dark madder--or van dyke--brown and purplish gray. * * * * * Page 61. #SKYLARK.#--_Alauda arvensis._ RANGE--Europe and portions of Asia and Africa; accidental in the Bermudas and in Greenland. NEST--Placed on the ground, in meadows or open grassy places, sheltered by a tuft of grass; the materials are grasses, plant stems, and a few chance leaves. EGGS--Three to five, of varying form, color, and size. * * * * * Page 66. #WILSON'S PHALAROPE.#--_Phalaropus tricolor._ RANGE--Temperate North America, breeding from northern Illinois and Utah northward to the Saskatchewan region; south in winter to Brazil and Patagonia. NEST--A shallow depression in soft earth, lined with a thin layer of fragments of grass. EGGS--Three to four; cream buff or buffy white, heavily blotched with deep chocolate. * * * * * Page 70. #EVENING GROSBEAK.#--_Cocothraustes vespertina._ RANGE--Interior of North America, from Manitoba northward; southeastward in winter to the upper Mississippi Valley and casually to the northern Atlantic States. NEST--Of small twigs, lined with bark, hair, or rootlets, placed within twenty feet of the ground. EGGS--Three or four; greenish, blotched with pale brown. * * * * * Page 73. #TURKEY VULTURE.#--_Catharista Atrata._ RANGE--Temperate America, from New Jersey southward to Patagonia. NEST--In hollow stump or log, or on ground beneath bushes or palmettos. EGGS--One to three; dull white, spotted and blotched with chocolate marking. * * * * * Page 78. #GAMBEL'S PARTRIDGE.#--_Callipepla gambeli._ RANGE--Northwestern Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah, and western Utah and western Texas. NEST--Placed on the ground, sometimes without any lining. EGGS--From eight to sixteen. 
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Cut this out and send with your name and address, and we will mail you FREE our new Mammoth Catalogue of Baby Carriages, illustrating 100 different styles from $2.75. Carriages sent on 10 days Free trial. Buy direct and save dealers' profits. #OXFORD MDSE. CO., 300 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO.# [Illustration] #MY WIFE Can Not See How You Do It For the Money.# #$9.00# Buy the Oxford Improved SINGER Sewing Machine, with a complete set of attachments and guaranteed for 10 years. Shipped anywhere on 30 days' trial. No money required in advance. 75,000 now in use. World's Fair Medal awarded. Buy from factory, save dealers' and agents' profit. Write to-day for our Large Free Catalogue. #OXFORD MDSE. CO., 842 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO.# [Illustration: PATD.APL-10-88.] #"Mizpah" Valve Nipples# _WILL NOT COLLAPSE_ and therefore prevent much colic. The valve prevents a vacuum being formed to collapse them. The ribs inside prevent collapsing when the child bites them. The rim is such that they cannot be pulled off the bottle. #Sample Free by Mail.# #WALTER E. WARE. 512 Arch St., Phila., Pa.# #COLUMBUS STAMPS# 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, 30, 50 cents, all unused. The 11 Stamps for #$1.90#. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 cents, used. The 8 Stamps for #30c#. Packet No. 4, 200 different, for #50c#. #Postage Stamps Bought and Sold.# #F. WENDT,# _#75 State St., CHICAGO.#_ Please mention "BIRDS" when you write to Advertisers. * * * * * #BIRDS# ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY #A MONTHLY SERIAL# DESIGNED TO PROMOTE #KNOWLEDGE OF BIRD-LIFE# "With cheerful hop from perch to spray, They sport along the meads; In social bliss together stray, Where love or fancy leads. Through spring's gay scenes each happy pair Their fluttering joys pursue; Its various charms and produce share, Forever kind and true." CHICAGO, U. S. A. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 1896 * * * * * PREFACE. It has become a universal custom to obtain and preserve the likenesses of one's friends. Photographs are the most popular form of these likenesses, as they give the true exterior outlines and appearance, (except coloring) of the subjects. But how much more popular and useful does photography become, when it can be used as a means of securing plates from which to print photographs in a regular printing press, and, what is more astonishing and delightful, to produce the REAL COLORS of nature as shown in the subject, no matter how brilliant or varied. We quote from the December number of the Ladies' Home Journal: "_An excellent_ suggestion was recently made by the Department of Agriculture at Washington that the public schools of the country shall have a new holiday, to be known as Bird Day. Three cities have already adopted the suggestion, and it is likely that others will quickly follow. Of course, Bird Day will differ from its successful predecessor, Arbor Day. We can plant trees but not birds. It is suggested that Bird Day take the form of bird exhibitions, of bird exercises, of bird studies--any form of entertainment, in fact, which will bring children closer to their little brethren of the air, and in more intelligent sympathy with their life and ways. There is a wonderful story in bird life, and but few of our children know it. Few of our elders do, for that matter. A whole day of a year can well and profitably be given over to the birds. Than such study, nothing can be more interesting. The cultivation of an intimate acquaintanceship with our feathered friends is a source of genuine pleasure. We are under greater obligations to the birds than we dream of. Without them the world would be more barren than we imagine. Consequently, we have some duties which we owe them. What these duties are only a few of us know or have ever taken the trouble to find out. Our children should not be allowed to grow to maturity without this knowledge. The more they know of the birds the better men and women they will be. We can hardly encourage such studies too much." Of all animated nature, birds are the most beautiful in coloring, most graceful in form and action, swiftest in motion and most perfect emblems of freedom. They are withal, very intelligent and have many remarkable traits, so that their habits and characteristics make a delightful study for all lovers of nature. In view of the facts, we feel that we are doing a useful work for the young, and one that will be appreciated by progressive parents, in placing within the easy possession of children in the homes these beautiful photographs of birds. The text is prepared with the view of giving the children as clear an idea as possible, of haunts, habits, characteristics and such other information as will lead them to love the birds and delight in their study and acquaintance. NATURE STUDY PUBLISHING * * * * * #BIRDS.# ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. ====================================================================== VOL. 1. JUNE, 1897. No. 6. ====================================================================== BIRD SONG. "I cannot love the man who doth not love, As men love light, the song of happy birds." It is indeed fitting that the great poets have ever been the best interpreters of the songs of birds. In many of the plays of Shakespeare, especially where the scene is laid in the primeval forest, his most delicious bits of fancy are inspired by the flitting throng. Wordsworth and Tennyson, and many of the minor English poets, are pervaded with bird notes, and Shelley's masterpiece, The Skylark, will long survive his greater and more ambitious poems. Our own poet, Cranch, has left one immortal stanza, and Bryant, and Longfellow, and Lowell, and Whittier, and Emerson have written enough of poetic melody, the direct inspiration of the feathered inhabitants of the woods, to fill a good-sized volume. In prose, no one has said finer things than Thoreau, who probed nature with a deeper ken than any of his contemporaries. He is to be read, and read, and read. But just what meaning should be attached to a bird's notes--some of which are "the least disagreeable of noises"--will probably never be discovered. They do seem to express almost every feeling of which the human heart is capable. We wonder if the Mocking Bird understands what all these notes mean. He is so fine an imitator that it is hard to believe he is not doing more than mimicking the notes of other birds, but rather that he really does mock them with a sort of defiant sarcasm. He banters them less, perhaps, than the Cat Bird, but one would naturally expect all other birds to fly at him with vengeful purpose. But perhaps the birds are not so sensitive as their human brothers, who do not always look upon imitation as the highest flattery. A gentleman who kept a note-book, describes one of the matinee performances of the Mocker, which he attended by creeping under a tent curtain. He sat at the foot of a tree on the top of which the bird was perched unconscious of his presence. The Mocker gave one of the notes of the Guinea-hen, a fine imitation of the Cardinal, or Red Bird, an exact reproduction of the note of the Phoebe, and some of the difficult notes of the Yellow-breasted Chat. "Now I hear a young chicken peeping. Now the Carolina Wren sings, '_cheerily, cheerily, cheerily_.' Now a small bird is shrilling with a fine insect tone. A Flicker, a Wood-pewee, and a Phoebe follow in quick succession. Then a Tufted Titmouse squeals. To display his versatility, he gives a dull performance which couples the '_go-back_' of the Guinea fowl with the plaint of the Wood-pewee, two widely diverse vocal sounds. With all the performance there is such perfect self-reliance and consciousness of superior ability that one feels that the singer has but to choose what bird he will imitate next." Nor does the plaintive, melancholy note of the Robin, that "pious" bird, altogether express his character. He has so many lovely traits, according to his biographers, that we accept him unhesitatingly as a truly good bird. Didn't he once upon a time tenderly cover with leaves certain poor little wanderers? Isn't he called "The Bird of the Morning?" And evening as well, for you can hear his sad voice long after the sun has himself retired. The poet Coleridge claims the credit of first using the Owl's cry in poetry, and his musical note _Tu-whit, tu-who!_ has made him a favorite with the poets. Tennyson has fancifully played upon it in his little "Songs to the Owl," the last stanza of which runs: "I would mock thy chant anew; But I cannot mimic it, Not a whit of thy tuhoo, Thee to woo to thy tuwhit, Thee to woo to thy tuwhit. With a lengthen'd loud halloo, Tuwhoo, tuwhit, tuwhit, tuhoo-o-o." But Coleridge was not correct in his claim to precedence in the use of the Owl's cry, for Shakespeare preceded him, and Tennyson's "First Song to the Owl" is modeled after that at the end of "Love's Labor Lost:" "When roasted crabs hiss in the bowl, Then nightly sings the staring Owl, Tu-who; Tu-whit, tu-who, a merry note." In references to birds, Tennyson is the most felicitous of all poets and the exquisite swallow-song in "The Princess" is especially recommended to the reader's perusal. Birds undoubtedly sing for the same reasons that inspire to utterance all the animated creatures in the universe. Insects sing and bees, crickets, locusts, and mosquitos. Frogs sing, and mice, monkeys, and woodchucks. We have recently heard even an English Sparrow do something better than chipper; some very pretty notes escaped him, perchance, because his heart was overflowing with love-thoughts, and he was very merry, knowing that his affection was reciprocated. The elevated railway stations, about whose eaves the ugly, hastily built nests protrude everywhere, furnish ample explanation of his reasons for singing. Birds are more musical at certain times of the day as well as at certain seasons of the year. During the hour between dawn and sunrise occurs the grand concert of the feathered folk. There are no concerts during the day--only individual songs. After sunset there seems to be an effort to renew the chorus, but it cannot be compared to the morning concert when they are practically undisturbed by man. Birds sing because they are happy. Bradford Torrey has given with much felicity his opinion on the subject, as follows: "I recall a Cardinal Grosbeak, whom I heard several years ago, on the bank of the Potomac river. An old soldier had taken me to visit the Great Falls, and as we were clambering over the rocks this Grosbeak began to sing; and soon, without any hint from me, and without knowing who the invisible musician was, my companion remarked upon the uncommon beauty of the song. The Cardinal is always a great singer, having a voice which, as European writers say, is almost equal to the Nightingale's; but in this case the more stirring, martial quality of the strain had given place to an exquisite mellowness, as if it were, what I have no doubt it was, A Song of Love." --C. C. Marble. [TO BE CONTINUED.] [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. YELLOW-THROATED VIREO.] THE YELLOW-THROATED VIREO. The popular name of this species of an attractive family is Yellow Throated Greenlet, and our young readers will find much pleasure in watching its pretty movements and listening to its really delightful song whenever they visit the places where it loves to spend the happy hours of summer. In some respects it is the most remarkable of all the species of the family found in the United States. "The Birds of Illinois," a book that may be profitably studied by the young naturalist, states that it is decidedly the finest singer, has the loudest notes of admonition and reproof, and is the handsomest in plumage, and hence the more attractive to the student. A recognized observer says he has found it only in the woods, and mostly in the luxuriant forests of the bottom lands. The writer's experience accords with that of Audubon and Wilson, the best authorities in their day, but the habits of birds vary greatly with locality, and in other parts of the country, notably in New England, it is very familiar, delighting in the companionship of man. It breeds in eastern North America, and winters in Florida, Cuba and Central America. The Vireo makes a very deep nest, suspended by its upper edge, between the forks of a horizontal branch. The eggs are white, generally with a few reddish brown blotches. All authorities agree as to the great beauty of the nest, though they differ as to its exact location. It is a woodland bird, loving tall trees and running water, "haunting the same places as the Solitary Vireo." During migration the Yellow-throat is seen in orchards and in the trees along side-walks and lawns, mingling his golden colors with the rich green of June leaves. The Vireos, or Greenlets, are like the Warblers in appearance and habits. We have no birds, says Torrey, that are more unsparing of their music; they sing from morning till night, and--some of them, at least--continue theirs till the very end of the season. The song of the Yellow-throat is rather too monotonous and persistent. It is hard sometimes not to get out of patience with its ceasless and noisy iteration of its simple tune; especially if you are doing your utmost to catch the notes of some rarer and more refined songster. This is true also of some other birds, whose occasional silence would add much to their attractiveness. THE MOCKING BIRD. Some bright morning this month, you may hear a Robin's song from a large tree near by. A Red Bird answers him and then the Oriole chimes in. I can see you looking around to find the birds that sing so sweetly. All this time a gay bird sits among the green leaves and laughs at you as you try to find three birds when only one is there. It is the Mocking Bird or Mocker, and it is he who has been fooling you with his song. Nature has given him lots of music and gifted him with the power of imitating the songs of other birds and sounds of other animals. He is certainly the sweetest of our song birds. The English Nightingale alone is his rival. I think, however, if our Mocker could hear the Nightingale's song, he could learn it. The Mocking Bird is another of our Thrushes. By this time you have surely made up your minds that the Thrushes are sweet singers. The Mocker seems to take delight in fooling people. One gentleman while sitting on his porch heard what he thought to be a young bird in distress. He went in the direction of the sound and soon heard the same cry behind him. He turned and went back toward the porch, when he heard it in another direction. Soon he found out that Mr. Mocking Bird had been fooling him, and was flying about from shrub to shrub making that sound. His nest is carelessly made of almost anything he can find. The small, bluish-green eggs are much like the Catbird's eggs. Little Mocking Birds look very much like the young of other Thrushes, and do not become Mockers like their parents, until they are full grown. Which one of the other Thrushes that you have seen in BIRDS does the Mocking Bird resemble? He is the only Thrush that sings while on the wing. All of the others sing only while perching. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. AMERICAN MOCKING BIRD.] JUNE. Frank-hearted hostess of the field and wood, Gipsy, whose roof is every spreading tree, June is the pearl of our New England year, Still a surprisal, though expected long, Her coming startles. Long she lies in wait, Makes many a feint, peeps forth, draws coyly back, Then, from some southern ambush in the sky, With one great gush of blossoms storms the world. A week ago the Sparrow was divine; The Bluebird, shifting his light load of song From post to post along the cheerless fence, Was as a rhymer ere the poet came; But now, O rapture! sunshine winged and voiced, Pipe blown through by the warm, wild breath of the West, Shepherding his soft droves of fleecy cloud, Gladness of woods, skies, waters, all in one, The Bobolink has come, and, like the soul Of the sweet season vocal in a bird, Gurgles in ecstasy we know not what Save _June! Dear June! Now God be praised for June._ --LOWELL. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON.] THE BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON. What a beautiful creature this is! A mounted specimen requires, like the Snowy Owl, the greatest care and a dust tight glass case to preserve its beauty. Dr. Coues' account of it should be read by those who are interested in the science of ornithology. It is a common bird in the United States and British Provinces, being migratory and resident in the south. Heronries, sometimes of vast extent, to which they return year after year, are their breeding places. Each nest contains three or four eggs of a pale, sea-green color. Observe the peculiar plumes, sometimes two, in this case three, which spring from the back of the head. These usually lie close together in one bundle, but are often blown apart by the wind in the form of streamers. This Heron derives its name from its habits, as it is usually seen flying at night, or in the early evening, when it utters a sonorous cry of _quaw_ or _quawk_. It is often called Quawk or Qua-Bird. On the return of the Black-Crowned Night Heron in April, he promptly takes possession of his former home, which is likely to be the most solitary and deeply shaded part of a cedar swamp. Groves of swamp oak in retired and water covered places, are also sometimes chosen, and the males often select tall trees on the bank of the river to roost upon during the day. About the beginning of twilight they direct their flight toward the marshes, uttering in a hoarse and hollow tone, the sound _qua_. At this hour all the nurseries in the swamps are emptied of their occupants, who disperse about the marshes along the ditches and river shore in search of food. Some of these nesting places have been occupied every spring and summer for many years by nearly a hundred pair of Herons. In places where the cedars have been cut down and removed the Herons merely move to another part of the swamp, not seeming greatly disturbed thereby; but when attacked and plundered they have been known to remove from an ancient home in a body to some unknown place. The Heron's nest is plain enough, being built of sticks. On entering the swamp in the neighborhood of one of the heronries the noise of the old and young birds equals that made by a band of Indians in conflict. The instant an intruder is discovered, the entire flock silently rises in the air and removes to the tops of the trees in another part of the woods, while sentries of eight or ten birds make occasional circuits of inspection. The young Herons climb to the tops of the highest trees, but do not attempt to fly. While it is probable these birds do not see well by day, they possess an exquisite facility of hearing, which renders it almost impossible to approach their nesting places without discovery. Hawks hover over the nests, making an occasional sweep among the young, and the Bald Eagle has been seen to cast a hungry eye upon them. The male and female can hardly be distinguished. Both have the plumes, but there is a slight difference in size. The food of the Night Heron, or Qua-Bird, is chiefly fish, and his two interesting traits are tireless watchfulness and great appetite. He digests his food with such rapidity that however much he may eat, he is always ready to eat again; hence he is little benefited by what he does eat, and is ever in appearance in the same half-starved state, whether food is abundant or scarce. THE RING-BILLED GULL. The Ring-billed Gull is a common species throughout eastern North America, breeding throughout the northern tier of the United States, whose northern border is the limit of its summer home. As a rule in winter it is found in Illinois and south to the Gulf of Mexico. It is an exceedingly voracious bird, continually skimming over the surface of the water in search of its finny prey, and often following shoals of fish to great distances. The birds congregate in large numbers at their breeding places, which are rocky islands or headlands in the ocean. Most of the families of Gulls are somewhat migratory, visiting northern regions in summer to rear their young. The following lines give with remarkable fidelity the wing habits and movements of this tireless bird: "On nimble wing the gull Sweeps booming by, intent to cull Voracious, from the billows' breast, Marked far away, his destined feast. Behold him now, deep plunging, dip His sunny pinion's sable tip In the green wave; now highly skim With wheeling flight the water's brim; Wave in blue sky his silver sail Aloft, and frolic with the gale, Or sink again his breast to lave, And float upon the foaming wave. Oft o'er his form your eyes may roam, Nor know him from the feathery foam, Nor 'mid the rolling waves, your ear On yelling blast his clamor hear." This Gull lives principally on fish, but also greedily devours insects. He also picks up small animals or animal substances with which he meets, and, like the vulture, devours them even in a putrid condition. He walks well and quickly, swims bouyantly, lying in the water like an air bubble, and dives with facility, but to no great depth. As the breeding time approaches the Gulls begin to assemble in flocks, uniting to form a numerous host. Even upon our own shores their nesting places are often occupied by many hundred pairs, whilst further north they congregate in countless multitudes. They literally cover the rocks on which their nests are placed, the brooding parents pressing against each other. Wilson says that the Gull, when riding bouyantly upon the waves and weaving a sportive dance, is employed by the poets as an emblem of purity, or as an accessory to the horrors of a storm, by his shrieks and wild piercing cries. In his habits he is the vulture of the ocean, while in grace of motion and beauty of plumage he is one of the most attractive of the splendid denizens of the ocean and lakes. The Ring-billed Gull's nest varies with localities. Where there is grass and sea weed, these are carefully heaped together, but where these fail the nest is of scanty material. Two to four large oval eggs of brownish green or greenish brown, spotted with grey and brown, are hatched in three or four weeks, the young appearing in a thick covering of speckled down. If born on the ledge of a high rock, the chicks remain there until their wings enable them to leave it, but if they come from the shell on the sand of the beach they trot about like little chickens. During the first few days they are fed with half-digested food from the parents' crops, and then with freshly caught fish. The Gull rarely flies alone, though occasionally one is seen far away from the water soaring in majestic solitude above the tall buildings of the city. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. RING-BILLED GULL.] THE MOCKING BIRD. The Mocking Bird is regarded as the chief of songsters, for in addition to his remarkable powers of imitation, he is without a rival in variety of notes. The Brown Thrasher is thought by many to have a sweeter song, and one equally vigorous, but there is a bold brilliancy in the performance of the Mocker that is peculiarly his own, and which has made him _par excellence_ the forest extemporizer of vocal melody. About this of course there will always be a difference of opinion, as in the case of the human melodists. So well known are the habits and characteristics of the Mocking Bird that nearly all that could be written about him would be but a repetition of what has been previously said. In Illinois, as in many other states, its distribution is very irregular, its absence from some localities which seem in every way suited being very difficult to account for. Thus, according to "Birds of Illinois," while one or two pairs breed in the outskirts of Mount Carmel nearly every season, it is nowhere in that vicinity a common bird. A few miles further north, however, it has been found almost abundant. On one occasion, during a three mile drive from town, six males were seen and heard singing along the roadside. Mr. H. K. Coale says that he saw a mocking bird in Stark county, Indiana, sixty miles southeast of Chicago, January 1, 1884; that Mr. Green Smith had met with it at Kensington Station, Illinois, and that several have been observed in the parks and door-yards of Chicago. In the extreme southern portion of the state the species is abundant, and is resident through the year. The Mocking Bird does not properly belong among the birds of the middle or eastern states, but as there are many records of its nesting in these latitudes it is thought to be safe to include it. Mrs. Osgood Wright states that individuals have often been seen in the city parks of the east, one having lived in Central Park, New York city, late into the winter, throughout a cold and extreme season. They have reared their young as far north as Arlington, near Boston, where they are noted, however, as rare summer residents. Dr. J. A. Allen, editor of _The Auk_, notes that they occasionally nest in the Connecticut Valley. The Mocking Bird has a habit of singing and fluttering in the middle of the night, and in different individuals the song varies, as is noted of many birds, particularly canaries. The song is a natural love song, a rich dreamy melody. The mocking song is imitative of the notes of all the birds of field, forest, and garden, broken into fragments. The Mocker's nest is loosely made of leaves and grass, rags, feathers, etc., plain and comfortable. It is never far from the ground. The eggs are four to six, bluish green, spattered with shades of brown. Wilson's description of the Mocking Bird's song will probably never be surpassed: "With expanded wings and tail glistening with white, and the bouyant gayety of his action arresting the eye, as his song does most irresistably the ear, he sweeps around with enthusiastic ecstasy, and mounts and descends as his song swells or dies away. And he often deceives the sportsman, and sends him in search of birds that are not perhaps within miles of him, but whose notes he exactly imitates." Very useful is he, eating large spiders and grasshoppers, and the destructive cottonworm. THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. A rambler in the fields and woodlands during early spring or the latter part of autumn is often surprised at finding insects, grasshoppers, dragon flies, beetles of all kinds, and even larger game, mice, and small birds, impaled on twigs and thorns. This is apparently cruel sport, he observes, if he is unacquainted with the Butcher Bird and his habits, and he at once attributes it to the wanton sport of idle children who have not been led to say, With hearts to love, with eyes to see, With ears to hear their minstrelsy; Through us no harm, by deed or word, Shall ever come to any bird. If he will look about him, however, the real author of this mischief will soon be detected as he appears with other unfortunate little creatures, which he requires to sustain his own life and that of his nestlings. The offender he finds to be the Shrike of the northern United States, most properly named the Butcher Bird. Like all tyrants he is fierce and brave only in the presence of creatures weaker than himself, and cowers and screams with terror if he sees a falcon. And yet, despite this cruel proceeding, which is an implanted instinct like that of the dog which buries bones he never seeks again, there are few more useful birds than the Shrike. In the summer he lives on insects, ninety-eight per cent. of his food for July and August consisting of insects, mainly grasshoppers; and in winter, when insects are scarce, mice form a very large proportion of his food. The Butcher Bird has a very agreeable song, which is soft and musical, and he often shows cleverness as a mocker of other birds. He has been taught to whistle parts of tunes, and is as readily tamed as any of our domestic songsters. The nest is usually found on the outer limbs of trees, often from fifteen to thirty feet from the ground. It is made of long strips of the inner bark of bass-wood, strengthened on the sides with a few dry twigs, stems, and roots, and lined with fine grasses. The eggs are often six in number, of a yellowish or clayey-white, blotched and marbled with dashes of purple, light brown, and purplish gray. Pretty eggs to study. Readers of BIRDS who are interested in eggs do not need to disturb the mothers on their nests in order to see and study them. In all the great museums specimens of the eggs of nearly all birds are displayed in cases, and accurately colored plates have been made and published by the Smithsonian Institution and others. The Chicago Academy of Sciences has a fine collection of eggs. Many persons imagine that these institutions engage in cruel slaughter of birds in order to collect eggs and nests. This, of course, is not true, only the fewest number being taken, and with the exclusive object of placing before the people, not for their amusement but rather for their instruction, specimens of birds and animals which shall serve for their identification in forest and field. The Loggerhead Shrike and nest shown in this number were taken under the direction of Mr. F. M. Woodruff, at Worth, Ill., about fourteen miles from Chicago. The nest was in a corner of an old hedge of Osage Orange, and about eight feet from the ground. He says in the _Osprey_ that it took considerable time and patience to build up a platform of fence boards and old boxes to enable the photographer to do his work. The half-eaten body of a young garter snake was found about midway between the upper surface of the nest and the limb above, where it had been hung up for future use. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE.] THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE. Baltimore Orioles are inhabitants of the whole of North America, from Canada to Mexico. They enter Louisiana as soon as spring commences there. The name of Baltimore Oriole has been given it, because its colors of black and orange are those of the family arms of Lord Baltimore, to whom Maryland formerly belonged. Tradition has it that George Calvert, the first Baron Baltimore, worn out and discouraged by the various trials and rigours of temperature experienced in his Newfoundland colony in 1628, visited the Virginia settlement. He explored the waters of the Chesapeake, and found the woods and shores teeming with birds, among them great flocks of Orioles, which so cheered him by their beauty of song and splendor of plumage, that he took them as good omens and adopted their colors for his own. When the Orioles first arrive the males are in the majority; they sit in the spruces calling by the hour, with lonely querulous notes. In a few days however, the females appear, and then the martial music begins, the birds' golden trumpeting often turning to a desperate clashing of cymbals when two males engage in combat, for "the Oriole has a temper to match his flaming plumage and fights with a will." This Oriole is remarkably familiar, and fearless of man, hanging its beautiful nest upon the garden trees, and even venturing into the street wherever a green tree nourishes. The materials of which its nest is made are flax, various kinds of vegetable fibers, wool, and hair, matted together so as to resemble felt in consistency. A number of long horse-hairs are passed completely through the fibers, sewing it firmly together with large and irregular, but strong and judiciously placed stitching. In one of these nests an observer found that several of the hairs used for this purpose measured two feet in length. The nest is in the form of a long purse, six or seven inches in depth, three or four inches in diameter; at the bottom is arranged a heap of soft material in which the eggs find a warm resting place. The female seems to be the chief architect, receiving a constant supply of materials from her mate, occasionally rejecting the fibers or hairs which he may bring, and sending him off for another load more to her taste. Like human builders, the bird improves in nest building by practice, the best specimens of architecture being the work of the oldest birds, though some observers deny this. The eggs are five in number, and their general color is whitish-pink, dotted at the larger end with purplish spots, and covered at the smaller end with a great number of fine intersecting lines of the same hue. In spring the Oriole's food seems to be almost entirely of an animal nature, consisting of caterpillars, beetles, and other insects, which it seldom pursues on the wing, but seeks with great activity among the leaves and branches. It also eats ripe fruit. The males of this elegant species of Oriole acquire the full beauty of their plumage the first winter after birth. The Baltimore Oriole is one of the most interesting features of country landscape, his movements, as he runs among the branches of trees, differing from those of almost all other birds. Watch him clinging by the feet to reach an insect so far away as to require the full extension of the neck, body, and legs without letting go his hold. He glides, as it were, along a small twig, and at other times moves sidewise for a few steps. His motions are elegant and stately. THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE. About the middle of May, when the leaves are all coming out to see the bright sunshine, you may sometimes see, among the boughs, a bird of beautiful black and orange plumage. He looks like the Orchard Oriole, whose picture you saw in May "Birds." It is the Baltimore Oriole. He has other names, such as "Golden Robin," "Fire Bird," "Hang-nest." I could tell you how he came to be called Baltimore Oriole, but would rather you'd ask your teacher about it. She can tell you all about it, and an interesting story it is, I assure you. You see from the picture why he is called "Hang-nest." Maybe you can tell why he builds his nest that way. The Orioles usually select for their nest the longest and slenderest twigs, way out on the highest branches of a large tree. They like the elm best. From this they hang their bag-like nest. It must be interesting to watch them build the nest, and it requires lots of patience, too, for it usually takes a week or ten days to build it. They fasten both ends of a string to the twigs between which the nest is to hang. After fastening many strings like this, so as to cross one another, they weave in other strings crosswise, and this makes a sort of bag or pouch. Then they put in the lining. Of course, it swings and rocks when the wind blows, and what a nice cradle it must be for the baby Orioles? Orioles like to visit orchards and eat the bugs, beetles and caterpillars that injure the trees and fruit. There are few birds who do more good in this way than Orioles. Sometimes they eat grapes from the vines and peck at fruit on the trees. It is usually because they want a drink that they do this. One good man who had a large orchard and vineyard placed pans of water in different places. Not only the Orioles, but other birds, would go to the pan for a drink, instead of pecking at the fruit. Let us think of this, and when we have a chance, give the birds a drink of water. They will repay us with their sweetest songs. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. BALTIMORE ORIOLE.] THE SNOWY OWL. Few of all the groups of birds have such decided markings, such characteristic distinctions, as the Owl. There is a singular resemblance between the face of an Owl and that of a cat, which is the more notable, as both of these creatures have much the same habits, live on the same prey, and are evidently representatives of the same idea in their different classes. The Owl, in fact, is a winged cat, just as the cat is a furred owl. The Snowy Owl is one of the handsomest of this group, not so much on account of its size, which is considerable, as by reason of the beautiful white mantle which it wears, and the large orange eyeballs that shine with the lustre of a topaz set among the snowy plumage. It is a native of the north of Europe and America, but is also found in the more northern parts of England, being seen, though rather a scarce bird, in the Shetland and Orkney Islands, where it builds its nest and rears its young. One will be more likely to find this owl near the shore, along the line of salt marshes and woody stubble, than further inland. The marshes do not freeze so easily or deep as the iron bound uplands, and field-mice are more plentiful in them. It is so fleet of wing that if its appetite is whetted, it can follow and capture a Snow Bunting or a Junco in its most rapid flight. Like the Hawk Owl, it is a day-flying bird, and is a terrible foe to the smaller mammalia, and to various birds. Mr. Yarrell in his "History of the British Birds," states that one wounded on the Isle of Balta disgorged a young rabbit whole, and that a young Sandpiper, with its plumage entire, was found in the stomach of another. In proportion to its size the Snowy Owl is a mighty hunter, having been detected chasing the American hare, and carrying off wounded Grouse before the sportsman could secure his prey. It is also a good fisherman, posting itself on some convenient spot overhanging the water, and securing its finny prey with a lightning-like grasp of the claw as it passes beneath the white clad fisher. Sometimes it will sail over the surface of a stream, and snatch the fish as they rise for food. It is also a great lover of lemmings, and in the destruction of these quadruped pests does infinite service to the agriculturist. The large round eyes of this owl are very beautiful. Even by daylight they are remarkable for their gem-like sheen, but in the evening they are even more attractive, glowing like balls of living fire. From sheer fatigue these birds often seek a temporary resting place on passing ships. A solitary owl, after a long journey, settled on the rigging of a ship one night. A sailor who was ordered aloft, terrified by the two glowing eyes that suddenly opened upon his own, descended hurriedly to the deck, declaring to the crew that he had seen "Davy Jones a-sitting up there on the main yard." THE SNOWY OWL. What do you think of this bird with his round, puffy head? You of course know it is an Owl. I want you to know him as the Snowy Owl. Don't you think his face is some like that of your cat? This fellow is not full grown, but only a child. If he were full grown he would be pure white. The dark color you see is only the tips of the feathers. You can't see his beak very well for the soft feathers almost cover it. His large soft eyes look very pretty out of the white feathers. What color would you call them? Most owls are quiet during the day and very busy all night. The Snowy Owl is not so quiet day times. He flies about considerably and gets most of his food in daylight. A hunter who was resting under a tree, on the bank of a river, tells this of him: "A Snowy Owl was perched on the branch of a dead tree that had fallen into the river. He sat there looking into the water and blinking his large eyes. Suddenly he reached out and before I could see how he did it, a fish was in his claws." This certainly shows that he can see well in the day time. He can see best, however, in the twilight, in cloudy weather or moonlight. That is the way with your cat. The wing feathers of the owl are different from those of most birds. They are as soft as down. This is why you cannot hear him when he flies. Owls while perching are almost always found in quiet places where they will not be disturbed. Did you ever hear the voice of an owl in the night? If you never have, you cannot imagine how dreary it sounds. He surely is "The Bird of the Night." [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. SNOWY OWL.] BIRDS AND FARMERS. _From the Forest and Stream._ The advocates of protection for our small birds present two sets of reasons for preventing their killing; the one sentimental, and the other economic. The sentimental reasons are the ones most often urged; they are also of a kind to appeal with especial force to those whose responsibility for the destruction of the birds is greatest. The women and girls, for whose adornment birds' plumage is chiefly used, think little and know less about the services which birds perform for agriculture, and indeed it may be doubted whether the sight of a bunch of feathers or a stuffed bird's skin suggests to them any thought of the life that those feathers once represented. But when the wearers are reminded that there was such a life; that it was cheery and beautiful, and that it was cut short merely that their apparel might be adorned, they are quick to recognize that bird destruction involves a wrong, and are ready to do their part toward ending it by refusing to wear plumage. The small boy who pursues little birds from the standpoint of the hunter in quest of his game, feels only the ardor of pursuit. His whole mind is concentrated on that and the hunter's selfishness, the desire of possession, fills his heart. Ignorance and thoughtlessness destroy the birds. Every one knows in a general way that birds render most valuable service to the farmer, but although these services have long been recognized in the laws standing on the statute books of the various states, it is only within a few years that any systematic investigations have been undertaken to determine just what such services are, to measure them with some approach to accuracy, to weigh in the case of each species the good and the evil done, and so to strike a balance in favor of the bird or against it. The inquiries carried on by the Agricultural Department on a large scale and those made by various local experiment stations and by individual observers have given results which are very striking and which can no longer be ignored. It is a difficult matter for any one to balance the good things that he reads and believes about any animal against the bad things that he actually sees. The man who witnesses the theft of his cherries by robin or catbird, or the killing of a quail by a marsh hawk, feels that here he has ocular proof of harm done by the birds, while as to the insects or the field mice destroyed, and the crops saved, he has only the testimony of some unknown and distant witness. It is only natural that the observer should trust the evidence of his senses, and yet his eyes tell him only a small part of the truth, and that small part a misleading one. It is certain that without the services of these feathered laborers, whose work is unseen, though it lasts from daylight till dark through every day in the year, agriculture in this country would come to an immediate standstill, and if in the brief season of fruit each one of these workers levies on the farmer the tribute of a few berries, the price is surely a small one to pay for the great good done. Superficial persons imagine that the birds are here only during the summer, but this is a great mistake. It is true that in warm weather, when insect life is most abundant, birds are also most abundant. They wage an effective and unceasing war against the adult insects and their larvae, and check their active depredations; but in winter the birds carry on a campaign which is hardly less important in its results. THE SCARLET TANAGER. One of the most brilliant and striking of all American birds is the Scarlet Tanager. From its black wings resembling pockets, it is frequently called the "Pocket Bird." The French call it the "Cardinal." The female is plain olive-green, and when seen together the pair present a curious example of the prodigality with which mother nature pours out her favors of beauty in the adornment of some of her creatures and seems niggardly in her treatment of others. Still it is only by contrast that we are enabled to appreciate the quality of beauty, which in this case is of the rarest sort. In the January number of BIRDS we presented the Red Rumped Tanager, a Costa Rica bird, which, however, is inferior in brilliancy to the Scarlet, whose range extends from eastern United States, north to southern Canada, west to the great plains, and south in winter to northern South America. It inhabits woodlands and swampy places. The nesting season begins in the latter part of May, the nest being built in low thick woods or on the skirting of tangled thickets; very often also, in an orchard, on the horizontal limb of a low tree or sapling. It is very flat and loosely made of twigs and fine bark strips and lined with rootlets and fibers of inner bark. The eggs are from three to five in number, and of a greenish blue, speckled and blotted with brown, chiefly at the larger end. The disposition of the Scarlet Tanager is retiring, in which respect he differs greatly from the Summer Tanager, which frequents open groves, and often visits towns and cities. A few may be seen in our parks, and now and then children have picked up the bright dead form from the green grass, and wondered what might be its name. Compare it with the Redbird, with which it is often confounded, and the contrast will be striking. His call is a warble, broken by a pensive call note, sounding like the syllables _chip-churr_, and he is regarded as a superior musician. "Passing through an orchard, and seeing one of these young birds that had but lately left the nest, I carried it with me for about half a mile to show it to a friend, and having procured a cage," says Wilson, "hung it upon one of the large pine trees in the Botanic Garden, within a few feet of the nest of an Orchard Oriole, which also contained young, hoping that the charity and kindness of the Orioles would induce them to supply the cravings of the stranger. But charity with them as with too many of the human race, began and ended at home. The poor orphan was altogether neglected, and as it refused to be fed by me, I was about to return it to the place where I had found it, when, toward the afternoon, a Scarlet Tanager, no doubt its own parent, was seen fluttering around the cage, endeavoring to get in. Finding he could not, he flew off, and soon returned with food in his bill, and continued to feed it until after sunset, taking up his lodgings on the higher branches of the same tree. In the morning, as soon as day broke, he was again seen most actively engaged in the same manner, and, notwithstanding the insolence of the Orioles, he continued his benevolent offices the whole day, roosting at night as before. On the third or fourth day he seemed extremely solicitous for the liberation of his charge, using every expression of distressful anxiety, and every call and invitation that nature had put in his power, for him to come out. This was too much for the feelings of my friend. He procured a ladder, and mounting to the spot where the bird was suspended, opened the cage, took out his prisoner, and restored him to liberty and to his parent, who, with notes of great exultation, accompanied his flight to the woods." [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. SCARLET TANAGER.] THE SCARLET TANAGER. What could be more beautiful to see than this bird among the green leaves of a tree? It almost seems as though he would kindle the dry limb upon which he perches. This is his holiday dress. He wears it during the nesting season. After the young are reared and the summer months gone, he changes his coat. We then find him dressed in a dull yellowish green--the color of his mate the whole year. Do you remember another bird family in which the father bird changes his dress each spring and autumn? The Scarlet Tanager is a solitary bird. He likes the deep woods, and seeks the topmost branches. He likes, too, the thick evergreens. Here he sings through the summer days. We often pass him by for he is hidden by the green leaves above us. He is sometimes called our "Bird of Paradise." Tanagers feed upon winged insects, caterpillars, seeds, and berries. To get these they do not need to be on the ground. For this reason it is seldom we see them there. Both birds work in building the nest, and both share in caring for the little ones. The nest is not a very pretty one--not pretty enough for so beautiful a bird, I think. It is woven so loosely that if you were standing under it, you could see light through it. Notice his strong, short beak. Now turn to the picture of the Rose-Breasted Grosbeaks in April BIRDS. Do you see how much alike they are? They are near relatives. I hope that you may all have a chance to see a Scarlet Tanager dressed in his richest scarlet and most jetty black. THE RUFFED GROUSE. The Ruffed Grouse, which is called Partridge in New England and Pheasant in the Middle and Southern States, is the true Grouse, while Bob White is the real Partridge. It is unfortunate that they continue to be confounded. The fine picture of his grouseship, however, which we here present should go far to make clear the difference between them. The range of the Ruffed Grouse is eastern United States, south to North Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, and Arkansas. They hatch in April, the young immediately leaving the nest with the mother. When they hear the mother's warning note the little ones dive under leaves and bushes, while she leads the pursuer off in an opposite direction. Building the nest and sitting upon the eggs constitute the duties of the female, the males during this interesting season keeping separate, not rejoining their mates until the young are hatched, when they begin to roam as a family. Like the Turkey, the Ruffed Grouse has a habit of pluming and strutting, and also makes the drumming noise which has caused so much discussion. This noise "is a hollow vibrating sound, beginning softly and increasing as if a small rubber ball were dropped slowly and then rapidly bounced on a drum." While drumming the bird contrives to make himself invisible, and if seen it is difficult to get the slightest clue to the manner in which the sound is produced. And observers say that it beats with its wings on a log, that it raises its wings and strikes their edges above its back, that it claps them against its sides like a crowing rooster, and that it beats the air. The writer has seen a grouse drum, appearing to strike its wings together over its back. But there is much difference of opinion on the subject, and young observers may settle the question for themselves. When preparing to drum he seems fidgety and nervous and his sides are inflated. Letting his wings droop, he flaps them so fast that they make one continuous humming sound. In this peculiar way he calls his mate, and while he is still drumming, the hen bird may appear, coming slyly from the leaves. The nest is on the ground, made by the female of dry leaves and a few feathers plucked from her own breast. In this slight structure she lays ten or twelve cream-colored eggs, specked with brown. The eyes of the Grouse are of great depth and softness, with deep expanding pupils and golden brown iris. Coming suddenly upon a young brood squatted with their mother near a roadside in the woods, an observer first knew of their presence by the old bird flying directly in his face, and then tumbling about at his feet with frantic signs of distress and lameness. In the meantime the little ones scattered in every direction and were not to be found. As soon as the parent was satisfied of their safety, she flew a short distance and he soon heard her clucking call to them to come to her again. It was surprising how quickly they reached her side, seeming to pop up as from holes in the ground. [Illustration: From col. F. M. Woodruff. RUFFED GROUSE.] THE RUFFED GROUSE. At first sight most of you will think this is a turkey. Well, it does look very much like one. He spreads his tail feathers, puffs himself up, and struts about like a turkey. You know by this time what his name is and I think you can easily see why he is called Ruffed. This proud bird and his mate live with us during the whole year. They are found usually in grassy lands and in woods. Here they build their rude nest of dried grass, weeds and the like. You will generally find it at the foot of a tree, or along side of an old stump in or near swampy lands. The Ruffed Grouse has a queer way of calling his mate. He stands on a log or stump, puffed up like a turkey--just as you see him in the picture. Then he struts about for a time just as you have seen a turkey gobbler do. Soon he begins to work his wings--slowly at first, but faster and faster, until it sounds like the beating of a drum. His mate usually answers his call by coming. They set up housekeeping and build their rude nest which holds from eight to fourteen eggs. As soon as the young are hatched they can run about and find their own food. So you see they are not much bother to their parents. When they are a week old they can fly. The young usually stay with their parents until next Spring. Then they start out and find mates for themselves. I said at the first that the Ruffed Grouse stay with us all the year. In the winter, when it is very cold, they burrow into a snowdrift to pass the night. During the summer they always roost all night. THE BLACK AND WHITE CREEPING WARBLER. This sprightly little bird is met with in various sections of the country. It occurs in all parts of New England and New York, and has been found in the interior as far north as Fort Simpson. It is common in the Bahamas and most of the West India Islands, generally as a migrant; in Texas, in the Indian Territory, in Mexico, and throughout eastern America. Dr. Coues states that this warbler is a very common summer resident near Washington, the greater number going farther north to breed. They arrive there during the first week in April and are exceedingly numerous until May. In its habits this bird seems to be more of a creeper than a Warbler. It is an expert and nimble climber, and rarely, if ever, perches on the branch of a tree or shrub. In the manner of the smaller Woodpecker, the Creepers, Nuthatches, and Titmice, it moves rapidly around the trunks and larger limbs of the trees of the forest in search of small insects and their larvae. It is graceful and rapid in movement, and is often so intent upon its hunt as to be unmindful of the near presence of man. It is found chiefly in thickets, where its food is most easily obtained, and has been known to breed in the immediate vicinity of a dwelling. The song of this Warbler is sweet and pleasing. It begins to sing from its first appearance in May and continues to repeat its brief refrain at intervals almost until its departure in August and September. At first it is a monotonous ditty, says Nuttall, uttered in a strong but shrill and filing tone. These notes, as the season advances, become more mellow and warbling. The Warbler's movements in search of food are very interesting to the observer. Keeping the feet together they move in a succession of short, rapid hops up the trunks of trees and along the limbs, passing again to the bottom by longer flights than in the ascent. They make but short flight from tree to tree, but are capable of flying far when they choose. They build on the ground. One nest containing young about a week old was found on the surface of shelving rock. It was made of coarse strips of bark, soft decayed leaves, and dry grasses, and lined with a thin layer of black hair. The parents fed their young in the presence of the observer with affectionate attention, and showed no uneasiness, creeping head downward about the trunks of the neighboring trees, and carrying large smooth caterpillars to their young. They search the crevices in the bark of the tree trunks and branches, look among the undergrowth, and hunt along the fences for bunches of eggs, the buried larvae of the insects, which when undisturbed, hatch out millions of creeping, crawling, and flying things that devastate garden and orchard and every crop of the field. [Illustration: From col. Chi. Acad. Sciences. BLACK AND WHITE CREEPING WARBLER. CHICAGO COLORTYPE CO.] * * * * * VOLUME 1. JANUARY TO JUNE, 1897. INDEX. Birds, The Return of the pages 101 Bird Song " 187-8 Bird Day in the Schools " 129-138 Birds and Farmers " 213 Black Bird, Red-winged, _Agelaeus Phoeniceus_ " 64-68-70-71 Blue Bird, _Sialia Sialis_ " 75-76-78 Bobolink, _Dolichonyx Gryzivorus_ " 92-3-4 Bunting, Indigo, _Passerina Cyanea_ " 172-3 Catbird, _Galeoscoptes Carolinensis_ " 183-4-6 Chickadee, Black-capped, _Parus Atricopillus_ " 164-5-7 Cock of the Rock " 19-21 Crossbill, American, _Loxia Curvirostra_ " 126-7 Crow, American, _Corvus Americanus_ " 97-8-100 Duck, Mandarin, _A. Galericulata_ " 8-9-11 Flicker, _Colaptes Auratus_ " 89-90 Fly-catcher, Scissor-tailed, _Milvulus Forficatus_ " 161-3 Gallinule, Purple, _Ionoruis Martinica_ " 120-1 Grebe, Pied-billed, _Podilymbus Podiceps_ " 134-5-7 Grosbeak, Rose-breasted, _Habia Ludoviciana_ " 113-115 Grouse, Ruffed, _Bonasa Umbellus_ " 218-220-221 Gull, Ring-billed, _Larus Delawarensis_ " 198-199 Halo, The " 150 Hawk, Marsh, _Circus Hudsonius_ " 158-159 Hawk, Night, _Chordeiles Virginianus_ " 175-6-8 Heron, Black-crowned, _Nycticorax Nycticorax Naevius_ " 196-7 Jay, American Blue, _Cyanocitta Cristata_ " 39-41 Jay, Arizona Green, _Xanthoura Luxuosa_ " 146-148 Jay, Canada, _Perisoreus Canadensis_ " 116-17-19 Kingfisher, American, _Ceryle Alcyon_ " 60-61-63 Lark, Meadow, _Sturnella Magna_ " 105-7-8 Longspur, Smith's, _Calcarius Pictus_ " 123-5 Lory, Blue Mountain " 66-67 Mocking Bird, American, _Mimus Polyglottos_ " 192-193-201 Mot Mot, Mexican " 49-57 Nesting Time " 149-150 Nonpareil, _Passerina Ciris_ " 1-3-15 Oriole, Baltimore, _Icterus Galbula_ " 205-6-7 Oriole, Golden, _Icterus Icterus_ " 34-36 Oriole, Orchard, _Icterus Spurius_ " 154-5 Owl, Long-eared, _Asio Wilsonianus_ " 109-111-112 Owl, Screech, _Megascops Asio_ " 151-3-7 Owl, Snowy, _Nyctea Nivea_ " 209-210-211 Paradise, Red Bird of, _Paradisea Rubra_ " 22-23-25 Parrakeet, Australian " 16-18 Parrot, King " 50-51 Pheasant, Golden, _P. Pictus_ " 12-13 Pheasant, Japan " 86-88 Red Bird, American, _Cardinalis Cardinalis_ " 72-74 Robin, American, _Merula Migratoria_ " 53-4-5-9 Roller, Swallow-tailed, Indian " 42-43 Shrike, Loggerhead, _Lanius Ludovicianus_ " 202-203 Swallow, Barn, _Chelidon Erythrogaster_ " 79-80 Tanager, Red-rumped, _Tanagridæ_ " 30-31-33 Tanager, Scarlet, _Piranga Erythromelas_ " 214-216-217 Tern, Black, _Hydrochelidon Ingra Surinamensis_ " 103-104 Thrush, Brown, _Harporhynchus Rufus_ " 82-83-84 Thrush, Wood, _Turdus Mustelinus_ " 179-180-183 Toucan, Yellow-throated, _Ramphastos_ " 26-27-29 Trogon, Resplendent, _Trogonidæ_ " 4-7 Vireo, Yellow-throated, _Vireo Flavifrons_ " 189-191 Warbler, Black-and-white Creeping, _Mniotilta Varia_ " 222-224 Warbler, Prothonotary, _Protonotaria Citrea_ " 168-169-171 Wax Wing, Bohemian, _Ampelis Garrulus_ " 140-141 Woodpecker, California, _Melanerpes Formicivorus Bairdi_ " 130-131-133 Woodpecker, Red-headed, _Melanerpes Erythrocephalus_ " 45-46-47 Wren, Long-billed Marsh, _Cistothorus Palustris_ " 142-144-145 * * * * * [Illustration: ELKHART LAKE.] Summer Excursion Tickets to the resorts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Colorado, California, Montana, Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia; also to Alaska, Japan, China, and all Trans-Pacific Points, are now on sale by the CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE & ST. 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Having secured the services of artists who have succeeded in photographing and reproducing objects in their natural colors, by a process whose principles are well known but in which many of the details are held secret, we obtained a charter from the Secretary of State in November, 1896, and began at once the preparation of photographic color plates for a series of pictures of birds. The first product was the January number of "BIRDS," a monthly magazine, containing ten plates with descriptions in popular language, avoiding as far as possible scientific and technical terms. Knowing the interest children have in our work, we have included in each number a few pages of easy text pertaining to the illustrations. These are usually set facing the plates to heighten the pleasure of the little folks as they read. Casually noticed, the magazine may appear to be a children's publication because of the placing of this juvenile text. But such is not the case. 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47326	----	Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). * * * * * BIRDS. ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. VOL. III. APRIL, 1898. NO. 4. AVIARIES. AN admirer of birds recently said to us: "Much is said of the brilliant specimens which you have presented in your magazine, but I confess that they have not been the most attractive to me. Many birds of no special beauty of plumage seem to me far more interesting than those which have little more than bright colors and a pretty song to recommend them to the observer." He did not particularize, but a little reflection will readily account for the justness of his opinion. Many plain birds have characteristics which indicate considerable intelligence, and may be watched and studied with continued and increasing interest. To get sufficiently near to them in their native haunts for this purpose is seldom practicable, hence the limited knowledge of individual naturalists, who are often mere generalizers, and the necessity of the accumulated knowledge of many patient students. In an aviary of sufficient size, in which there is little or no interference with the natural habits of the birds, a vast number of interesting facts may be obtained, and the birds themselves suffer no harm, but are rather protected from it. Such an aviary is that of Mr. J. W. Sefton, of San Diego, California. In a recent letter Mrs. Sefton pleasantly writes of it for the benefit of readers of BIRDS. She says: "My aviary is out in the grounds of our home. It is built almost entirely of wire, protected only on the north and west by an open shed, under which the birds sleep, build their nests and gather during the rains which we occasionally have throughout the winter months. The building is forty feet long, twenty feet wide, and at the center of the arch is seventeen feet high. Running water trickles over rocks, affording the birds the opportunity of bathing as they desire. There are forty-seven varieties of birds and about four hundred specimens. The varieties include a great many whose pictures have appeared in BIRDS: Quail, Partridge, Doves, Skylarks, Starlings, Bobolinks, Robins, Blackbirds, Buntings, Grosbeaks, Blue Mountain Lory, Cockateel, Rosellas, Grass Parrakeet, Java Sparrows, Canaries, Nonpariels, Nightingales, Cardinals of North and South America, and a large number of rare foreign Finches, indeed nearly every country of the world has a representative in the aviary. "We have hollow trees in which the birds of the Parrot family set up housekeeping. They lay their eggs on the bottom of the hole, make no pretention of building a nest, and sit three weeks. The young birds are nearly as large as the parents, and are fully feathered and colored when they crawl out of the home nest. We have been very successful, raising two broods of Cockateel and one of Rosellas last season. They lay from four to six round white eggs. We have a number of Bob White and California Quail. Last season one pair of Bob Whites decided to go to housekeeping in some brush in a corner, and the hen laid twenty-three eggs, while another pair made their nest in the opposite corner and the hen laid nine eggs. After sitting two weeks the hen with the nine eggs abandoned her nest, when the male took her place upon the eggs, only leaving them for food and water, and finally brought out six babies, two days after the other hen hatched twenty-three little ones. For six days the six followed the lone cock around the aviary, when three of them left him and went over to the others. A few days later another little fellow abandoned him and took up with a California Quail hen. The next day the poor fellow was alone, every chick having deserted him. The last little one remained with his adopted mother over two weeks, but at last he too went with the crowd. These birds seemed just as happy as though they were unconfined to the limits of an aviary. "We have had this aviary over two years and have raised a large number of birds. All are healthy and happy, although they are out in the open both day and night all the year round. Many persons, observant of the happiness and security of our family of birds, have brought us their pets for safe-keeping, being unwilling, after seeing the freedom which our birds enjoy, to keep them longer confined in small cages. "Around the fountain are calla lillies, flags, and other growing plants, small trees are scattered about, and the merry whistles and sweet songs testify to the perfect contentment of this happy family." Yes, these birds are happy in _such_ confinement. They are actually deprived of nothing but the opportunity to migrate. They have abundance of food, are protected from predatory animals, Hawks, conscienceless hunters, small boys, and nature herself, who destroys more of them than all other instrumentalities combined. Under the snow lie the bodies of hundreds of frozen birds whenever the winter has seemed unkind. A walk in the park, just after the thaw in early March, revealed to us the remorselessness of winter. They have no defense against the icy blast of a severe season. And yet, how many escape its ruthlessness. On the first day of March we saw a white-breasted Sparrow standing on the crust of snow by the roadside. When we came up close to it it flew a few yards and alighted. As we again approached, thinking to catch it, and extending our hand for the purpose, it flew farther away, on apparently feeble wing. It was in need of food. The whole earth seemed covered with snow, and where food might be found was the problem the poor Sparrow was no doubt considering. Yes, the birds are happy when nature is bountiful. And they are none the less happy when man provides for them with humane tenderness. For two years we devoted a large room--which we never thought of calling an aviary--to the exclusive use of a beautiful pair of Hartz mountain Canaries. In that short time they increased to the number of more than three dozen. All were healthy; many of them sang with ecstacy, especially when the sun shone brightly; in the warmth of the sun they would lie with wings raised and seem to fairly revel in it; they would bathe once every day, sometimes twice, and, like the English Sparrows and the barnyard fowl, they would wallow in dry sand provided for them; they would recognize a call note and become attentive to its meaning, take a seed from the hand or the lips, derive infinite pleasure from any vegetable food of which they had long been deprived; if a Sparrow Hawk, which they seemed to see instantly, appeared at a great height they hastily took refuge in the darkest corner of the room, venturing to the windows only after all danger seemed past; at the first glimmering of dawn they twittered, preened, and sang a prodigious welcome to the morn, and as the evening shades began to appear they became as silent as midnight and put their little heads away under their delicate yellow wings. CHARLES C. MARBLE. ---- FOREIGN SONG BIRDS IN OREGON. ---- IN 1889 and 1892 the German Song Bird Society of Oregon introduced there 400 pairs of the following species of German song birds, to-wit: Song Thrushes, Black Thrushes, Skylarks, Woodlarks, Goldfinches, Chaffinches, Ziskins, Greenfinches, Bullfinches, Grossbeaks, Black Starlings, Robin Redbreasts, Linnets, Singing Quails, Goldhammers, Linnets, Forest Finches, and the plain and black headed Nightingales. The funds for defraying the cost of importation and other incidental expenses, and for the keeping of the birds through the winter, were subscribed by the citizens of Portland and other localities in Oregon. To import the first lot cost about $1,400. After the birds were received they were placed on exhibition at the Exposition building for some days, and about $400 was realized, which was applied toward the expense. Subsequently all the birds, with the exception of the Sky and Wood Larks, were liberated near the City Park. The latter birds were turned loose about the fields in the Willamette Valley. When the second invoice of birds arrived it was late in the season, and Mr. Frank Dekum caused a very large aviary to be built near his residence where all the sweet little strangers were safely housed and cared for during the winter. The birds were all liberated early in April. Up to that time (Spring of 1893) the total cost of importing the birds amounted to $2,100. Since these birds were given their liberty the most encouraging results have followed. It is generally believed that the two varieties of Nightingales have become extinct, as few survived the long trip and none have since been seen. All the other varieties have multiplied with great rapidity. This is true especially of the Skylarks. These birds rear from two to four broods every season. Hundreds of them are seen in the fields and meadows in and about East Portland, and their sweet songs are a source of delight to every one. About Rooster Rock, twenty-five miles east of Portland on the Columbia, great numbers are to be seen. In fact the whole Willamette Valley from Portland to Roseburg is full of them, probably not as plentiful as the Ring-neck Pheasant but plentiful enough for all practical purposes. In and about the city these sweet little songsters are in considerable abundance. A number of the Black Starling make their homes about the high school building. The Woodlarks are also in evidence to a pleasing extent. There is a special State law in force for the protection of these imported birds. They are all friends of the farmer, especially of the orchardists. They are the tireless and unremitting enemy of every species of bug and worm infesting vegetables, crops, fruit, etc.--S. H. GREENE, in _Forest and Stream_. ---- BIRD SONGS OF MEMORY. ---- Oh, surpassing all expression by the rhythmic use of words, Are the memories that gather of the singing of the birds; When as a child I listened to the Whipporwill at dark, And with the dawn awakened to the music of the lark. Then what a chorus wonderful when morning had begun! The very leaves it seemed to me were singing to the sun, And calling on the world asleep to waken and behold The king in glory coming forth along his path of gold. The crimson-fronted Linnet sang above the river's edge; The Finches from the evergreens, the Thrushes in the hedge; Each one as if a dozen songs were chorused in his own, And all the world were listening to him and him alone. In gladness sang the Bobolink upon ascending wing, With cheering voice the bird of blue, the pioneer of spring; The Oriole upon the elm with martial note and clear, While Martins twittered gaily by the cottage window near. Among the orchard trees were heard the Robin and the Wren, And the army of the Blackbirds along the marshy fen; The songsters in the meadow, and the Quail upon the wheat, And the Warbler's minor music, made the symphony complete. Beyond the towering chimneyd walls that daily meet my eyes I hold a vision beautiful, beneath the summer skies; Within the city's grim confines, above the roaring street, The _happy birds of memory_ are singing clear and sweet. --GARRETT NEWKIRK. [Illustration: OVEN BIRD.] THE OVENBIRD. ---- NOW and then an observer has the somewhat rare pleasure of seeing this Warbler (a trifle smaller than the English Sparrow) as he scratches away, fowl fashion, for his food. He has more than one name, and is generally known as the Golden-crowned Thrush, which name, it seems to us, is an appropriate one, for by any one acquainted with the Thrush family he would at once be recognized as of the genus. He has still other names, as the Teacher, Wood Wagtail, and Golden-crowned Accentor. This warbler is found nearly all over the United States, hence all the American readers of BIRDS should be able to make its personal acquaintance. Mr. Ridgway, in "Birds of Illinois," a book which should be especially valued by the citizens of that state, has given so delightful an account of the habits of the Golden-crown, that we may be forgiven for using a part of it. He declares that it is one of the most generally distributed and numerous birds of eastern North America, that it is almost certain to be found in any piece of woodland, if not too wet, and its frequently repeated song, which, in his opinion, is not musical, or otherwise particularly attractive, but very sharp, clear, and emphatic, is often, especially during noonday in midsummer, the only bird note to be heard. You will generally see the Ovenbird upon the ground walking gracefully over the dead leaves, or upon an old log, making occasional halts, during which its body is tilted daintily up and down. Its ordinary note, a rather faint but sharp _chip_, is prolonged into a chatter when one is chased by another. The usual song is very clear and penetrating, but not musical, and is well expressed by Burroughs as sounding like the words _Teacher, teacher, teacher, teacher, teacher!_ the accent on the first syllable, and each word uttered with increased force. Mr. Burroughs adds, however, that it has a far rarer song, which it reserves for some nymph whom it meets in the air. Mounting by easy flights to the top of the tallest tree, it launches into the air with a sort of suspended, hovering flight, and bursts into a perfect ecstacy of song, rivaling the Gold Finch's in vivacity and the Linnet's in melody. Thus do observers differ. To many, no doubt, it is one of the least disagreeable of noises. Col. Goss is a very enthusiastic admirer of the song of this Warbler. Hear him: "Reader, if you wish to hear this birds' love song in its fullest power, visit the deep woods in the early summer, as the shades of night deepen and most of the diurnal birds have retired, for it is then its lively, resonant voice falls upon the air unbroken, save by the silvery flute-like song of the Wood Thrush; and if your heart does not thrill with pleasure, it is dead to harmonious sounds." What more has been said in prose of the song of the English Nightingale? The nests of the Golden Crown are placed on the ground, usually in a depression among leaves, and hidden in a low bush, log, or overhanging roots; when in an open space roofed over, a dome-shaped structure made of leaves, strippings from plants and grasses, with entrance on the side. The eggs are from three to six, white or creamy white, glossy, spotted as a rule rather sparingly over the surface. In shape it is like a Dutch oven, hence the name of the bird. ---- ARCTIC THREE-TOED WOODPECKER. ---- Well, here I am, one of those "three-toed fellows," as the Red-bellied Woodpecker called me in the February number of BIRDS. It is remarkable how impolite some folks can be, and how anxious they are to talk about their neighbors. I don't deny I have only three toes, but why he should crow over the fact of having four mystifies me. I can run up a tree, zig-zag fashion, just as fast as he can, and play hide-and-seek around the trunk and among the branches, too. Another toe wouldn't do me a bit of good. In fact it would be in my way; a superfluity, so to speak. In the eyes of those people who like red caps, and red clothes, I may not be as handsome as some other Woodpeckers whose pictures you have seen, but to my eye, the black coat I wear, and the white vest, and square, saffron-yellow cap are just as handsome. The Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, who sent their pictures to BIRDS in the March number, were funny looking creatures, _I_ think, though they were dressed in such gay colors. The feathers sticking out at the back of the heads made them look very comical, just like a boy who had forgotten to comb his hair. Still they were spoken of as "magnificent" birds. Dear, dear, there is no accounting for tastes. Can I beat the drum with my bill, as the four-toed Woodpeckers do? Of course I can. Some time if you little folks are in a school building in the northern part of the United States, near a pine woods among the mountains, a building with a nice tin water-pipe descending from the roof, you may hear me give such a rattling roll on the pipe that any sleepy scholar, or teacher, for that matter, will wake right up. Woodpeckers are not always drumming for worms, let me tell you. Once in awhile we think a little music would be very agreeable, so with our chisel-like bills for drum-sticks we pound away on anything which we think will make a nice noise. [Illustration: AMERICAN THREE-TOED WOODPECKER.] THE ARCTIC THREE-TOED WOODPECKER. ---- A GENERAL similarity of appearance is seen in the members of this family of useful birds, and yet the dissimilarity in plumage is so marked in each species that identification is easy from a picture once seen in BIRDS. This Woodpecker is a resident of the north and is rarely, if ever, seen south of the Great Lakes, although it is recorded that a specimen was seen on a telegraph pole in Chicago a few years ago. The Black-backed Three-toed Woodpecker--the common name of the Arctic--has an extended distribution from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the northern boundary of the United States northward to the Arctic regions. Its favorite haunts are pine woods of mountainous country. In some portions of northern New England it is a rare summer resident. Audubon says that it occurs in northern Massachusetts, and in all portions of Maine covered by tall trees, where it resides. It has been found as far south as northern New York, and it is said to be a not uncommon resident in those parts of Lewis county, New York, which pertain to the Canadian fauna; for it is found both in the Adirondack region and in the coniferous forests in the Tug Hill range. In the vicinity of Lake Tahoe and the summits of the Sierra Nevada it is quite numerous in September at and above six thousand feet. It is common in the mountains of Oregon and is a rare winter visitant to the extreme northern portion of Illinois. Observation of the habits of this Woodpecker is necessarily limited, as the bird is not often seen within the regions where it might be studied. Enough is known on the subject, however, to enable us to say that they are similar to those of the Woodpeckers of the states. They excavate their holes in the dead young pine trees at a height from the ground of five or six feet, in this respect differing from their cousins, who make their nests at a much greater height. In the nests are deposited from four to six pure ivory-white eggs. We suggest that the reader, if he has not already done so, read the biographies and study the pictures of the representatives of this family that have appeared in this magazine. To us they are interesting and instructive beyond comparison, with the majority of other feathered factors in creation, and present an exceedingly attractive study to those who delight in natural history. They are not singing birds, and therefore do not "furnish forth music to enraptured ears," but their agreeable call and love notes, their tenor drum-beats, their fearless presence near the habitations of man, winter and summer, their usefulness to man in the destruction of insect pests, their comparative harmlessness (for they cannot be denied subsistence), all prove that they should be ever welcome companions of him who was given dominion over the beasts of the field and the birds of the air. In city parks where there are many trees, bushes, and thick shrubbery, a good many birds may be seen and heard near the middle of March. Today, the 22nd of the month, in a morning stroll, we saw and heard the Song Sparrow, a Blue Bird, a Robin, and two Bluejays, and would, no doubt, have been gratified with the presence of other early migrants, had the weather been more propitious. The sun was obscured by clouds, a raw north wind was blowing, and rain, with threatened snow flurries, awakened the protective instinct of the songsters and kept them concealed. But now, these April mornings, if you incline to early rising, you may hear quite a concert, and one worth attending. --C. C. M. ---- IRISH BIRD SUPERSTITIONS. ---- THE HEDGEWARBLER, known more popularly as the "Irish Nightingale," is the object of a most tender superstition. By day it is a roystering fellow enough, almost as impish as our American Mocking Bird, in its emulative attempts to demonstrate its ability to outsing the original songs of any feathered melodist that ventures near its haunts among the reeds by the murmuring streams. But when it sings at night, and particularly at the exact hour of midnight, its plaintive and tender notes are no less than the voices of babes that thus return from the spirit land to soothe their poor, heart-aching mothers for the great loss of their darlings. The hapless little Hedge Sparrow has great trouble in raising any young at all, as its beautiful bluish-green eggs when strung above the hob are in certain localities regarded as a potent charm against divers witch spells, especially those which gain an entrance to the cabin through the wide chimney. On the contrary, the grayish-white and brown-mottled eggs of the Wag-tail are never molested, as the grotesque motion of the tail of this tiny attendant of the herds has gained for it the uncanny reputation and name of the Devil's bird. THE STARLING, THE MAGPIE, AND THE CROW. When the Starling does not follow the grazing cattle some witch charm has been put upon them. The Magpie, as with the ancient Greeks, is the repository of the soul of an evil-minded and gossiping woman. A round-tower or castle ruin unfrequented by Jackdaws is certainly haunted. The "curse of the crows" is quite as malevolent as the "curse of Cromwell." When a "Praheen Cark" or Hen Crow is found in the solitudes of mountain glens, away from human habitations, it assuredly possesses the wandering soul of an impenitent sinner. If a Raven hover near a herd of cattle or sheep, a withering blight has already been set upon the animals, hence the song of the bard Benean regarding the rights of the kings of Cashel 1,400 years ago that a certain tributary province should present the king yearly "a thousand goodly cows, not the cows of Ravens." The Waxwing, the beautiful _Incendiara avis_ of Pliny, whose breeding haunts have never yet been discovered by man, are the torches of the _Bean-sidhe_, or Banshees. When the Cuckoo utters her first note in the spring, if you chance to hear it, you will find under your right foot a white hair; and if you keep this about your person, the first name you thereafter hear will be that of your future husband or wife. FOUR MOURNFUL SUPERSTITIONS. Four other birds provide extremely mournful and pathetic superstitions. The Linnet pours forth the most melancholy song of all Irish birds, and I have seen honest-hearted peasants affected by it to tears. On inquiry I found the secret cause to be the belief that its notes voiced the plaints of some unhappy soul in the spirit land. The changeless and interminable chant of the Yellow Bunting is the subject of a very singular superstition. Its notes, begun each afternoon at the precise hour of 3, are regarded as summons to prayer for souls not yet relieved from purgatorial penance. A variety of Finch has notes which resemble what is called the "Bride-groom's song" of unutterable dolor for a lost bride--a legend of superstition easily traceable to the German Hartz mountain peasantry; while in the solemn intensity of the Bittern's sad and plaintive boom, still a universally received token of spirit-warning, can be recognized the origin of the mournful cries of the wailing Banshee. [Illustration: BARTRAMIAN SANDPIPER.] THE BARTRAMIAN SANDPIPER. ---- THIS pretty shore bird, known as Bartram's Tattler, is found in more or less abundance all over the United States, but is rarely seen west of the Rocky Mountains. It usually breeds from the middle districts--Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas northward, into the fur country, and in Alaska. It is very numerous in the prairies of the interior, and is also common eastward. It has a variety of names, being called Field Plover, Upland Plover, Grass Plover, Prairie Pigeon, and Prairie Snipe. It is one of the most familiar birds on the dry, open prairies of Manitoba, where it is known as the "Quaily," from its soft, mellow note. The bird is less aquatic than most of the other Sandpipers, of which there are about twenty-five species, and is seldom seen along the banks of streams, its favorite resorts being old pastures, upland, stubble fields, and meadows, where its nest may be found in a rather deep depression in the ground, with a few grass blades for lining. The eggs are of a pale clay or buff, thickly spotted with umber and yellowish-brown; usually four in number. The Sandpiper frequently alights on trees or fences, like the Meadow Lark. This species is far more abundant on the plains of the Missouri river region than in any other section of our country. It is found on the high dry plains anywhere, and when fat, as it generally is, from the abundance of its favorite food, the grasshopper, is one of the most delicious imaginable. ---- Marshall Saunders tells us that in Scotland seven thousand children were carefully trained in kindness to each other and to dumb animals. It is claimed that not one of these in after years was ever tried for any criminal offense in any court. How does that argue for humane education? Is not this heart training of our boys and girls one which ought to claim the deepest sympathy and most ready support from us when we think of what it means to our future civilization? "A brutalized child," says this great-hearted woman, "is a lost child." And surely in _permitting_ any act of cruelty on the part of our children, we brutalize them, and as teachers and parents are responsible for the result of our neglect in failing to teach them the golden rule of kindness to all of God's creatures. It is said that out of two thousand criminals examined recently in American prisons, only twelve admitted that they had been kind to animals during youth. What strength does that fact contain as an argument for humane education? ---- THE NIGHTINGALE. ---- You have heard so much about the Nightingale that I am sure you will be glad to see my picture. I am not an American bird; I live in England, and am considered the greatest of all bird vocalists. At midnight, when the woods are still and everybody ought to be asleep, I sing my best. Some people keep awake on purpose to hear me. One gentleman, a poet, wept because my voice sounded so melancholy. He thought I leaned my breast up against a thorn and poured forth my melody in anguish. Another wondered what music must be provided for the angels in heaven, when such music as mine was given to men on earth. All that sounds very pretty, but between you and me, I'd sing another tune if a thorn should pierce my breast. Indeed, I am such a little bird that a big thorn would be the death of me. No, indeed, I am always very happy when I sing. My mate wouldn't notice me at all if I didn't pour out my feelings in song, both day and night. That is the only way I have to tell her that I love her, and to ask her if she loves me. When she says "yes," then we go to housekeeping, build a nest and bring up a family of little Nightingales. As soon as the birdies come out of their shell I literally change my tune. In place of the lovely music which everybody admires, I utter only a croak, expressive of my alarm and anxiety. Nobody knows the trouble of bringing up a family better than I do. Sometimes my nest, which is placed on or near the ground, is destroyed with all the little Nightingales in it; then I recover my voice and go to singing again, the same old song: "I love you, I love you. Do you love me?" Toward the end of summer we leave England and return to our winter home, way off in the interior of Africa. About the middle of April we get back to England again, the gentlemen Nightingales arriving several days before the lady-birds. [Illustration: NIGHTINGALE.] THE NIGHTINGALE. ---- NO doubt those who never hear the song of the Nightingale are denied a special privilege. Keats' exquisite verses give some notion of it, and William Drummond, another English poet, has sung sweetly of the bird best known to fame. "Singer of the night" is the literal translation of its scientific name, although during some weeks after its return from its winter quarters in the interior of Africa it exercises its remarkable vocal powers at all hours of the day and night. According to Newton, it is justly celebrated beyond all others by European writers for the power of song. The song itself is indiscribable, though numerous attempts, from the time of Aristophanes to the present, have been made to express in syllables the sound of its many notes; and its effects on those who hear it is described as being almost as varied as are its tones. To some they suggest melancholy; and many poets, referring to the bird in the feminine gender, which cannot sing at all, have described it as "leaning its breast against a thorn and pouring forth its melody in anguish." Only the male bird sings. The poetical adoption of the female as the singer, however, is accepted as impregnable, as is the position of Jenny Lind as the "Swedish Nightingale." Newton says there is no reason to suppose that the cause and intent of the Nightingales' song, unsurpassed though it be, differ in any respect from those of other birds' songs; that sadness is the least impelling sentiment that can be properly assigned for his apparently melancholy music. It may in fact be an expression of joy such as we fancy we interpret in the songs of many other birds. The poem, however, which we print on another page, written by an old English poet, best represents our own idea of the Nightingale's matchless improvisation, as some call it. It may be that it is always the same song, yet those who have often listened to it assert that it is never precisely the same, that additional notes are introduced and the song at times extended. The Nightingale is usually regarded as an English bird, and it is abundant in many parts of the midland, eastern, and western counties of England, and the woods, coppices, and gardens ring with its thrilling song. It is also found, however, in large numbers in Spain and Portugal and occurs in Austria, upper Hungary, Persia, Arabia, and Africa, where it is supposed to spend its winters. The markings of the male and female are so nearly the same as to render the sexes almost indistinguishable. They cannot endure captivity, nine-tenths of those caught dying within a month. Occasionally a pair have lived, where they were brought up by hand, and have seemed contented, singing the song of sadness or of joy. The nest of the Nightingale is of a rather uncommon kind, being placed on or near the ground, the outworks consisting of a great number of dead leaves ingeniously put together. It has a deep, cup-like hollow, neatly lined with fibrous roots, but the whole is so loosely constructed that a very slight touch disturbs its beautiful arrangement. There are laid from four to six eggs of a deep olive color. Towards the end of summer the Nightingale disappears from England, and as but little has been observed of its habits in its winter retreats, which are assumed to be in the interior of Africa, little is known concerning them. It must be a wonderful song indeed that could inspire the muse of great poets as has that of the Nightingale. ---- THE BIRDS OF PARADISE. ---- THE far-distant islands of the Malayan Archipelago, situated in the South Pacific Ocean, the country of the bird-winged butterflies, princes of their tribe, the "Orang Utan," or great man-like ape, and peopled by Papuans and Malays--islands whose shores are bathed perpetually by a warm sea, and whose surfaces are covered with a most luxuriant tropical vegetation--these are the home of a group of birds that rank as the radiant gems of the feathered race. None can excel the nuptial dress of the males, either in the vividness of their changeable and rich plumage or the many strangely modified and developed ornaments of feather which adorn them. The history of these birds is very interesting. Before the year 1598 the Malay traders called them "Manuk dewata," or God's birds, while the Portuguese, finding they had no wings or feet, called them Passaros de sol, or birds of the sun. When the earliest European voyagers reached the Moluccas in search of cloves and nutmegs, which were then rare and precious spices, they were presented with dried skins of Birds so strange and beautiful as to excite the admiration even of these wealth-seeking rovers. John Van Linschoten in 1598 calls them "Avis Paradiseus, or Paradise birds," which name has been applied to them down to the present day. Van Linschoten tells us "that no one has seen these birds alive, for they live in the air, always turning towards the sun, and never alighting on the earth till they die." More than a hundred years later, Funnel, who accompanied Dampier and wrote of the voyage, saw specimens at Amboyna, and was told that they came to Banda to eat nutmegs, which intoxicated them and made them fall down senseless, when they were killed by ants. In 1760 Linnaeus named the largest species Paradisea apoda (the footless Paradise bird). At that time no perfect specimen had been seen in Europe, and it was many years afterward when it was discovered that the feet had been cut off and buried at the foot of the tree from which they were killed by the superstitious natives as a propitiation to the gods. Wallace, who was the first scientific observer, writer, and collector of these birds, and who spent eight years on the islands studying their natural history, speaks of the males of the great Birds of Paradise assembling together to dance on huge trees in the forest, which have wide-spreading branches and large but scattered leaves, giving a clear space for the birds to play and exhibit their plumes. From twelve to twenty individuals make up one of these parties. They raise up their wings, stretch out their necks and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion. The natives take advantage of this habit and climb up and build a blind or hiding place in a tree that has been frequented by the birds for dancing. In the top of this blind is a small opening, and before day-light, a native with his bow and arrow, conceals himself, and when the birds assemble he deftly shoots them with his blunt-pointed arrows. The great demand for the plumage of Birds of Paradise for decorative purposes is causing their destruction at a rapid rate, and this caprice of a passing fashion will soon place one of the most beautiful denizens of our earth in the same category as the great Auk and Dodo.--_Cincinnati Commercial-Gazette._ ---- TO A NIGHTINGALE. ---- As it fell upon a day, In the merry month of May, Sitting in a pleasant shade, Which a grove of myrtles made; Beasts did leap, and birds did sing, Trees did grow, and plants did spring; Everything did banish moan, Save the nightingale alone. She, poor bird, as all forlorn, Leaned her breast up--till a thorn; And there sung the dolefull'st ditty, That to hear it was great pity. Fie, fie, fie, now would she cry; Teru, teru, by and by; That, to hear her so complain, Scarce I could from tears refrain; For her griefs, so lively shewn, Made me think upon mine own. Ah!--thought I--thou mourn'st in vain; None takes pity on thy pain: Senseless trees, they cannot hear thee; Ruthless bears, they will not cheer thee; King Pandion, he is dead; All thy friends are lapped in lead; All thy fellow-birds do sing, Careless of thy sorrowing! --RICHARD BARNFIELD. Old English Poet. ---- THE ROSEATE SPOONBILL. ---- SPECIMENS of this bird when seen for the first time always excite wonder and admiration. The beautiful plumage, the strange figure, and the curiously shaped bill at once attract attention. Formerly this Spoonbill was found as far west as Illinois and specimens were occasionally met with about ponds in the Mississippi Bottoms, below St. Louis. Its habitat is the whole of tropical and subtropical America, north regularly to the Gulf coast of the United States. Audubon observed that the Roseate Spoonbill is to be met with along the marshy or muddy borders of estuaries, the mouths of rivers, on sea islands, or keys partially overgrown with bushes, and still more abundantly along the shores of the salt-water bayous, so common within a mile or two of the shore. There it can reside and breed, with almost complete security, in the midst of an abundance of food. It is said to be gregarious at all seasons, and that seldom less than half a dozen may be seen together, unless they have been dispersed by a tempest. At the approach of the breeding season these small flocks come together, forming immense collections, and resort to their former nesting places, to which they almost invariably return. The birds moult late in May, and during this time the young of the previous year conceal themselves among the mangroves, there spending the day, returning at night to their feeding grounds, but keeping apart from the old birds, which last have passed through their spring moult early in March. The Spoonbill is said occasionally to rise suddenly on the wing, and ascend gradually in a spiral manner, to a great height. It flies with its neck stretched forward to its full length, its legs and feet extended behind. It moves with easy flappings, until just as it is about to alight, when it sails over the spot with expanded wing and comes gradually to the ground. Usually the Spoonbill is found in the company of Herons, whose vigilance apprises it of any danger. Like those birds, it is nocturnal, its principal feeding time being from near sunset until daylight. In procuring its food it wades into the water, immerses its immense bill in the soft mud, with the head, and even the whole neck, beneath the surface, moving its partially opened mouth to and fro, munching the small fry--insects or shell-fish--before it swallows them. Where many are together, one usually acts as a sentinel. The Spoonbill can alight on a tree and walk on the large branches with much facility. The nests of these birds are platforms of sticks, built close to the trunks of trees, from eight to eighteen feet from the ground. Three or four eggs are usually laid. The young, when able to fly, are grayish white. In their second year they are unadorned with the curling feathers on the breast, but in the third spring they are perfect. Formerly very abandant, these attractive creatures have greatly diminished by the constant persecution of the plume hunters. [Illustration: ROSEATE SPOONBILL.] THE ROSEATE SPOONBILL. ---- If my nose and legs were not so long, and my mouth such a queer shape, I would be handsome, wouldn't I? But my feathers are fine, everybody admits that--especially the ladies. "How lovely," they all exclaim, when they see one of us Spoonbills. "Such a delicate, delicate pink!" and off they go to the milliners and order a hat trimmed with our pretty plumes. That is the reason so few of us spoonbills are to be found in certain localities now-a-days, Florida especially. Fashion has put most of us to death. Shame, isn't it, when there are silk, and ribbon, and flowers in the world? Talk to your mothers and sisters, boys, and plead with them to let the birds alone. We inhabit the warmer parts of the world; South and Central America, Mexico, and the Gulf regions of the United States. We frequent the shores, both on the sea coast and in the interior; marshy, muddy ground is our delight. When I feel like eating something nice, out I wade into the water, run my long bill, head and neck, too, sometimes, into the soft mud, move my bill to and fro, and such a lot of small fry as I do gather--insects and shell fish--which I munch and munch before I swallow. I am called a "wader" for doing this. My legs are not any too long, you observe, for such work. I am very thankful at such times that I don't wear stockings or knickerbockers. We are friendly with Herons and like to have one or two of them accompany us. They are very vigilant fellows, we find, and make good sentinels, warning us when danger approaches. Fly? Oh, yes, of course we do. With our neck stretched forward and our legs and feet extended behind, up we go gradually in a spiral manner to a great height. In some countries, they say, our beaks are scraped very thin, polished, and used as a spoon, sometimes set in silver. I wonder if that is the reason we are called Spoonbills? The Spoonbills are sociable birds; five or six of us generally go about in company, and when it comes time for us to raise families of little Spoonbills, we start for our nesting place in great flocks; the same place where our nests were built the year before. ---- DICKCISSEL. ---- MR. P. M. SILLOWAY, in his charming sketches, "Some Common Birds," writes: "The Cardinal frequently whistles the most gaily while seated in the summit of the bush which shelters his mate on her nest. It is thus with Dickcissel, for though his ditties are not always eloquent to us, he is brave in proclaiming his happiness near the fountain of his inspiration. While his gentle mistress patiently attends to her household in some low bush or tussock near the hedge, Dick flutters from perch to perch in the immediate vicinity and voices his love and devotion. Once I flushed a female from a nest in the top of an elm bush along a railroad while Dick was proclaiming his name from the top of a hedge within twenty feet of the site. Even while she was chirping anxiously about the spot, apprehending that her home might be harried by ruthless visitors, he was brave and hopeful, and tried to sustain her anxious mind by ringing forth his cheerful exclamations." Dick has a variety of names, the Black-throated Bunting, Little Field Lark, and "Judas-bird." In general appearance it looks like the European House Sparrow, averaging a trifle larger. The favorite resorts of this Bunting are pastures with a sparse growth of stunted bushes and clover fields. In these places, its unmusical, monotonous song may be heard thoughout the day during the breeding season. Its song is uttered from a tall weed, stump, or fence-stake, and is a very pleasing ditty, says Davie, when its sound is heard coming far over grain fields and meadows, in the blaze of the noon-day sun, when all is hushed and most other birds have retired to shadier places. As a rule, the Dickcissels do not begin to prepare for housekeeping before the first of June, but in advanced seasons the nests are made and the eggs deposited before the end of May. The nest is built on the ground, in trees and in bushes, in tall grass, or in clover fields. The materials are leaves, grasses, rootlets, corn husks, and weed stems; the lining is of fine grasses, and often horse hair. It is a compact structure. Second nests are sometimes built in July or August. The eggs number four or five, almost exactly like those of the Bluebird. The summer home of Dickcissel is eastern United States, extending northward to southern New England and Ontario, and the states bordering the great lakes. He ranges westward to the edge of the great plains, frequently to southeastern United States on the migration. His winter home is in tropical regions, extending as far south as northern South America. He is commonly regarded as a Lark, but is really a Finch. In the transactions of the Illinois Horticultural Society, Prof. S. A. Forbes reports that his investigations show that sixty-eight per cent. of the food of the Dickcissels renders them beneficial to horticulture, seven per cent. injurious, and twenty-five per cent. neutral, thus leaving a large balance in their favor. ---- THOUGHTS. ---- Who knows the joy a flower knows When it blows sweetly? Who knows the joy a bird knows When it goes fleetly? Bird's wing and flower stem-- Break them, who would? Bird's wing and flower stem-- Make them, who could? --_Harper's Weekly._ [Illustration: DICKCISSEL.] THE DICKCISSEL. ---- You little folks, I'm afraid, who live or visit in the country every summer, will not recognize me when I am introduced to you by the above name. You called me the Little Field Lark, or Little Meadow Lark, while all the time, perched somewhere on a fence-stake, or tall weed-stump, I was telling you as plain as I could what my name really is. "_See, see_," I said, "_Dick, Dick--Cissel, Cissel._" To tell you the truth I don't belong to the Lark family at all. Simply because I wear a yellow vest and a black bow at my throat as they do doesn't make me a Lark. You can't judge birds, anymore than people, by their clothes. No, I belong to the Finch, or Bunting family, and they who call me the _Black-throated Bunting_ are not far from right. I am one of the birds that go south in winter. About the first of April I get back from the tropics and really I find some relief in seeing the hedges bare, and the trees just putting on their summer dress. In truth I don't care much for buds and blossoms, as I only frequent the trees that border the meadows and cornfields. Clover fields have a great attraction for me, as well as the unbroken prairie. I sing most of the time because I am so happy. To be sure it is about the same tune, "_See, see,--Dick, Dick--Cissel, Cissel_," but as it is about myself I sing I never grow tired of it. Some people do, however, and wish I would stop some time during the day. Even in the hottest noonday you will see me perched on a fence-stake or a tall weed-stalk singing my little song, while my mate is attending to her nest tucked away somewhere in a clump of weeds, or bush, very near the ground. There, I am sorry I told you that. You may be a bad boy, or a young collector, and will search this summer for my nest, and carry it and all the pretty eggs away. Think how sorrowful my mate would be, and I, no longer happy, would cease to sing, "_See, See,--Dick, Dick, Cissel, Cissel_." ---- THE DUSKY GROUSE. ---- UNDER various names, as Blue Grouse, Grey Grouse, Mountain Grouse, Pine Grouse, and Fool-hen, this species, which is one of the finest birds of its family, is geographically distributed chiefly throughout the wooded and especially the evergreen regions of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific and northward into British America. In the mountains of Colorado Grouse is found on the border of timber line, according to Davie, throughout the year, going above in the fall for its principal food--grasshoppers. In summer its flesh is said to be excellent, but when frost has cut short its diet of insects and berries it feeds on spruce needles and its flesh acquires a strong flavor. Its food and habits are similar to those of the Ruffed Grouse. Its food consists of insects and the berries and seeds of the pine cone, the leaves of the pines, and the buds of trees. It has also the same habits of budding in the trees during deep snows. In the Blue Grouse, however, this habit of remaining and feeding in the trees is more decided and constant, and in winter they will fly from tree to tree, and often are plenty in the pines, when not a track can be found in the snow. It takes keen and practiced eyes to find them in the thick branches of the pines. They do not squat and lie closely on a limb like a quail, but stand up, perfectly still, and would readily be taken for a knot or a broken limb. If they move at all it is to take flight, and with a sudden whir they are away, and must be looked for in in another tree top. Hallock says that in common with the Ruffed Grouse (see BIRDS, Vol. I, p. 220), the packs have a habit of scattering in winter, two or three, or even a single bird, being often found with no others in the vicinity, their habit of feeding in the trees tending to separate them. The size of the Dusky Grouse is nearly twice that of the Ruffed Grouse, a full-grown bird weighing from three to four pounds. The feathers are very thick, and it seems fitly dressed to endure the vigor of its habitat, which is in the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada country only, and in the pine forests from five to ten thousand feet above the level of the sea. The latter height is generally about the snow line in these regions. Although the weather in the mountains is often mild and pleasant in winter, and especially healthy and agreeable from the dryness and purity of the atmosphere, yet the cold is sometimes intense. Some years ago Mr. Hallock advised that the acclimation of this beautiful bird be tested in the pine forests of the east. Though too wild and shy, he said, to be domesticated, there is no reason why it might not live and thrive in any pine lands where the Ruffed Grouse is found. Since the mountain passes are becoming threaded with railroads, and miners, herders, and other settlers are scattering through the country, it will be far easier than it has been to secure and transport live birds or their eggs, and it is to be hoped the experiment will be tried. This Grouse nests on the ground, often under shelter, of a hollow log or projecting rock, with merely a few pine needles scratched together. From eight to fifteen eggs are laid, of buff or cream color, marked all over with round spots of umber-brown. [Illustration: DUSKY GROUSE.] APPLE BLOSSOM TIME. ---- The time of apple blooms has come again, And drowsy winds are laden with perfume; In village street, in grove and sheltered glen The happy warblers set the air atune. Each swaying motion of the bud-sweet trees Scatters pale, fragrant petals everywhere; Reveals the tempting nectar cups to bees That gild their thighs with pollen. Here and there The cunning spoilers roam, and dream and sip The honey-dew from chalices of gold; The brimming cups are drained from lip to lip Till, cloyed with sweets, the tiny gauze wings fold. Above the vine-wreathed porch the old trees bend, Shaking their beauty down like drifted snow: And as we gaze, the lovely blossoms send Fair visions of the days of long ago. Yes, apple blossom time has come again, But still the breezes waft the perfumes old, And everywhere in wood, and field, and glen The same old life appears in lovelier mold. --NORA A. PIPER. ---- LET US ALL PROTECT THE EGGS OF THE BIRDS. ---- ELIZABETH NUNEMACHER, in _Our Animal Friends_, writes thus of her observation of birds. Would that her suggestions for their protection might be heeded. "Said that artist in literature, Thomas Wentworth Higginson: 'I think that, if required, on pain of death to name instantly the most perfect thing in the universe, I would risk my fate on a bird's egg; ... it is as if a pearl opened and an angel sang.' But far from his beautiful thought was the empty shell, the mere shell of the collector. How can he be a bird lover who, after rifling some carefully tended nest, pierces the two ends of one of these exquisite crusts of winged melody, and murderously blows one more atom of wings and song into nothingness? The inanimate shell, however lovely in color, what is it? It is not an egg; an egg comprehends the contents, the life within. Aside from the worthlessness of such a possession, each egg purloined means we know not what depth of grief to the parent, and a lost bird life; a vacuum where song should be. People who love birds and the study of them prefer half an hour's personal experience with a single bird to a whole cabinet of "specimens." Yet a scientist recently confessed that he had slain something like four hundred and seventy-five Redstarts, thus exterminating the entire species from a considable range of country, to verify the fact of a slight variation in color. One would infinitely prefer to see one Redstart in the joy of life to all that scientific lore could impart regarding the entire family of Redstarts by such wholesale butchery, which nothing can excuse. We hear complaints of the scarcity of Bluebirds from year to year. I have watched, at intervals since early April, the nest of a single pair of Bluebirds in an old apple tree. On April 29th there were four young birds in the nest. On May 4th they had flown; an addition was made to the dwelling, and one egg of a second brood was deposited. On May 31st the nest again held four young Bluebirds. June 15th saw this second quartette leave the apple tree for the outer world, and thinking surely that the little mother had done, I appropriated the nest; but on June 25th I found a second nest built, and one white egg, promising a third brood. From the four laid this time, either a collector or a Bluejay deducted one, and on July 14th the rest were just out of the shell. This instance of the industry of one pair of Bluebirds proves that their scarcity is no fault of theirs. I may add that the gentle mother suffered my frequent visits and my meddling with her nursery affairs without any show of anger or excitement, uttering only soft murmurs, which indicated a certain anxiety. May not the eleven young Bluebirds mean a hundred next season, and is not the possessor of the missing egg guilty of a dozen small lives?" We have observed that the enthusiasm of boys for collecting eggs is frequently inspired by licensed "collectors," who are known in a community to possess many rare and valuable specimens. Too many nests are despoiled for so-called scientific purposes, and a limit should be set to the number of eggs that may be taken by any one for either private or public institutions. Let us influence the boys to "love the wood-rose, and leave it on its stalk." [Illustration: EGGS] 1. Spotted Sandpiper. 2. Bartramian Sandpiper. 3. Marbled Godwit. 4. King Rail. 5. American Coot. 6. Least Tern. 7. Sooty Tern. 8. Common Murre. 9. Black Tern. 10. Herring Gull. THE NEW TENANTS. ---- BY ELANORA KINSLEY MARBLE. Mrs. Wren, in a very contented frame of mind, sat upon her nest, waiting with an ever growing appetite for that delicious spider or nice fat canker worm which her mate had promised to fetch her from the orchard. "How happy I am," she mused, "and how thankful I ought to be for so loving a mate and such a dear, little cozy home. Why, keeping house and raising a family is just no trouble at all. Indeed--" but here Mrs. Wren's thoughts were broken in upon by the arrival of Mrs. John, who announced, as she perched upon the rim of the tin-pot and looked disdainfully around, that she had but a very few minutes to stay. "So this is the cozy nest your husband is so fond of talking about," she said, her bill in the air. "My, my, whatever possessed you, my dear, to begin housekeeping in such humble quarters. Everything in this world depends upon appearances; the sooner you find that out, Jenny, the better. From the very first I was determined to begin at the top. The highest pole in the neighborhood, or none, I said to Mr. John when he was looking for a site on which to build our house; and to do him justice Mr. Wren never thought of anything lower himself. A tin-pot, indeed, under a porch. Dear, dear!" and Mrs. John's bill turned up, and the corners of her mouth turned down in a very haughty and disdainful manner. "I--didn't--know, I'm--sure," faltered poor little Mrs. Jenny, her feathers drooping at once. "I--thought our little house, or flat, was very nice and comfortable. It is in an excellent neighborhood, and our landlord's family is--" "Oh, bother your landlord's family," interrupted Mrs. John impolitely. "All your neighbors are tired and sick of hearing Mr. Wren talk about his landlord's family. The way he repeats their sayings and doings is nauseating, and as for naming your brood after them, why--" Mrs. John shrugged her wings and laughed scornfully. Mrs. Wren's head feathers rose at once, but experience had taught her the folly of quarreling with her aunt, so she turned the subject by inquiring solicitously after her ladyship's health. "Oh, its only fair, fair to middlin'," returned Mrs. John, poking her bill about the edge of the nest as though examining its lining. "I told Mr. John this morning that I would be but a shadow of myself after fourteen days brooding, if he was like the other gentlemen Wrens in the neighborhood. Catch _me_ sitting the day through listening to him singing or showing off for my benefit. No, indeed! He is on the nest now, keeping the eggs warm, and I told him not to dare leave it till my return." Mrs. Jenny said nothing, but she thought what her dear papa would have done under like circumstances. "All work and no play," continued Mrs. John, "makes dull women as well as dull boys. That was what my mama said when she found out papa meant her to do all the work while he did the playing and singing. Dear, dear, how many times I have seen her box his ears and drive him onto the nest while she went out visiting," and at the very recollection Mrs. John flirted her tail over her back and laughed loudly. "How many eggs are you sitting upon this season, Aunt?" inquired Mrs. Jenny, timidly. "Eight. Last year I hatched out nine; as pretty a brood as you would want to see. If I had time, Jenny, I'd tell you all about it. How many eggs are under you?" "Six," meekly said Jenny, who had heard about that brood scores of times, "we thought--we thought--" "Well?" impatiently, "you thought what?" "That six would be about as many as we could well take care of. I am sure it will keep us both busy finding worms and insects for even that number of mouths." "I should think it would" chuckled Mrs. John, nodding her head wisely, "but--" examining a feather which she had drawn out of the nest with her bill, "what is this? A _chicken_ feather, as I live; a big, coarse, chicken feather. And straw too, instead of hay. Ah! little did I think a niece of mine would ever furnish her house in such a shabby manner," and Mrs. John, whose nest was lined with horse-hair, and the downiest geese feathers which her mate could procure, very nearly turned green with shame and mortification. Mrs. Jenny's head-feathers were bristling up again when she gladly espied Mr. Wren flying homeward with a fine wriggling worm in his bill. "Ah, here comes your hubby," remarked Mrs. John, "he's been to market, I see. Well, ta, ta, dear. Run over soon to see us," and off Mrs. John flew to discuss Mrs. Jenny's housekeeping arrangements with one of her neighbors. Mr. Wren's songs and antics failed, to draw a smile from his mate the remainder of that day. Upon her nest she sat and brooded, not only her eggs, but over the criticisms and taunts of Mrs. John. Straw, chicken-feathers, and old tin pots occupied her thoughts to the exclusion of everything else, and it was not without a feeling of shame she recalled her morning's happiness and spirit of sweet content. The western sky was still blushing under the fiery gaze of the sun, when Mrs. Jenny fell into a doze and dreamed that she, the very next day, repaid Mrs. John Wren's call. The wind was blowing a hurricane and the pole on which Mrs. John's fine house stood, shook and shivered till Mrs. Jenny looked every minute for pole and nest and eggs to go crashing to the ground. "My home," thought she, trembling with fear, "though humble, is built upon a sure foundation. Love makes her home there, too. Dear little tin-pot! Chicken feathers or straw, what does it matter?" and home Mrs. Jenny hastened, very thankful in her dream for the protecting walls, and overhanging porch, as well as the feeling of security afforded by her sympathetic human neighbors. The fourteen days in truth did seem very long to Mrs. Wren, but cheered by her mate's love songs and an occasional outing--all her persuasions could not induce Mr. Wren to brood the eggs in her absence--it wasn't a man's work, he said--the time at length passed, and the day came when a tiny yellow beak thrust itself through the shell, and in a few hours, to the parents delight, a little baby Wren was born. Mr. Wren was so overcome with joy that off he flew to the nearest tree, and with drooping tail and wings shaking at his side, announced, in a gush of song, to the entire neighborhood the fact that he was a papa. "A pa-pa, is it?" exclaimed Bridget, attracted by the bird's manner to approach the nest. "From watchin' these little crathers it do same I'm afther understandin' bird talk and bird-ways most like the misthress herself," and with one big red finger she gently pushed the angry Mrs. Wren aside and took a peep at the new born bird. "Howly mither!" said she, retreating in deep disgust, "ov all the skinny, ugly little bastes! Shure and its all head and no tail, with niver a feather to kiver its nakedness. It's shamed I'd be, Mr. Wren, to father an ugly crather loike that, so I would," and Bridget, who had an idea that young birds came into the world prepared at once to fly, shook her head sadly, and went into the house to inform the family of the event. One by one the children peeped into the nest and all agreed with Bridget that it was indeed a very ugly little birdling which lay there. "Wish I could take it out, mama," said Dorothy, "and put some of my doll's clothes on it. It is such a shivery looking little thing." "Ugh!" exclaimed Walter, "what are those big balls covered with skin on each side of its head; and when will it look like a bird, mama?" "Those balls are its eyes," she laughingly replied, "which will open in about five days. The third day you will perceive a slate-colored down or fuzz upon its head. On the fourth its wing feathers will begin to show. On the seventh the fuzz will become red-brown feathers on its back and white upon its breast. The ninth day it will fly a little way, and on the twelfth will leave its nest for good." "An' its a foine scholard ye's are, to be shure, mum," said Bridget in open-mouthed admiration. "Whoiver 'ud hev thought a mite ov a crather loike that 'ud be afther makin' so interesthing a study. Foreninst next spring, God willin," she added, "its meself, Bridget O'Flaherty, as will be one ov them same." "One of them same what?" inquired her mistress laughingly. "Horn-ith-owl-ogists, mum," replied Bridget, not without much difficulty, and with a flourish of her fine red arms and a triumphant smile upon her round face, Bridget returned to her kitchen and work again. [TO BE CONTINUED] ---- SUMMARY. ---- Page 126. OVENBIRD--_Seiurus aurocapellus._ Other names: "The Teacher," "Wood Wagtail," "Golden Crowned Accentor." RANGE--United States to Pacific Slope. NEST--On the ground, oven-shape. EGGS--Three to six, white or creamy white, glossy, spotted. ---- Page 130. ARCTIC THREE-TOED WOODPECKER--_Picoides arcticus._ Other name: "Black-backed Three-toed Woodpecker." RANGE--Northern North America, south to northern border of the United States, and farther on high mountain ranges. In the mountains of the west (Sierra Nevada, etc.) south to about 39°, where it breeds. NEST--In dead trees, not more than five or six feet from the ground. EGGS--Four to six, pure ivory white. ---- Page 134. BARTRAMIAN SANDPIPER--_Bartramia longicauda._ Other names: "Bartram's Tattler," "Prairie Pigeon," "Prairie Snipe," "Grass Plover," and "Quaily." RANGE--Eastern North America, north to Nova Scotia and Alaska, south in winter as far as southern South America. NEST--In a slight depression of the ground. EGGS--Four, of a pale clay or buff, thickly spotted with umber and yellowish brown. ---- Page 138. NIGHTINGALE--_Motacilla luscinia_ (Linn.) RANGE--England, Spain, Portugal, Austria, south to the interior of Africa. NEST--Cup shape, made of dry leaves, neatly lined with fibrous roots. EGGS--Four to six, of a deep olive color. ---- Page 143. ROSEATE SPOONBILL--_Ajaja ajaja._ RANGE--Southern United States and southward into southern South America. NEST--Platform of sticks, built close to the trunk of a tree, from eight to eighteen feet from the ground. EGGS--Three or four, white, or buffy-white, blotched, spotted, and stained with various shades of brown. ---- Page 147. DICKCISSEL--_Spiza americana._ Other names: "Black-throated Bunting," "Little Field Lark," and "Judas-bird." RANGE--Eastern United States to the Rocky Mountains, north to Massachusetts, New York, Wisconsin, Minnesota, etc., south in winter to northern South America. NEST--On the ground, in trees, and in bushes. EGGS--Four or five, almost exactly like those of the Bluebird. ---- Page 151. DUSKY GROUSE--_Dendragapus obscurus._ RANGE--Rocky Mountains, west to Wahsatch, north to central Montana, south to New Mexico and Arizona. NEST--On the ground, under shelter of a hollow log or projecting rock, with merely a a few pine needles scratched together. EGGS--Eight to fifteen, of buff or cream color, marked all over with small round spots of umber-brown. 
38315	----	+--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES | | | | Transcription used in this e-text: | | Texts in italics in the original work are transcribed between | | underscores, as in _text_. | | Bold-face text in the original work has been transcribed between | | equal signs, as in =text=. | | Small capitals have been transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. | | The author sometimes uses a different typeface to describe a | | shape, as the V in V-form. Where this different typeface is used,| | this has been transcribed as [V]. | | | | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ THE ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS BY ÉDOUARD CUYER, SUPPLEMENTARY PROF OF ANATOMY AT THE SCHOOL OF FINE ART PARIS, PROF OF ANATOMY AT THE SCHOOL OF FINE ART ROUEN TRANSLATED & EDITED BY GEORGE HAYWOOD LECTURER ON ANATOMY AT THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF ART SOUTH KENSINGTON [Illustration] LONDON BAILLIÈRE, TINDALL & COX 8 HENRIETTA ST COVENT GARDEN ANNO DOMINI MDCCCCV ALL RIGHTS RESVD PREFACE A few lines will suffice to explain why we have compiled the present volume, to what wants it responds, and what its sphere of usefulness may possibly embrace. In our teaching of plastic anatomy, especially at the École des Beaux-Arts--where, for the past nine years, we have had the very great honour of supplementing the teaching of our distinguished master, Mathias Duval, after having been prosector for his course of lectures since 1881--it is our practice to give, as a complement to the study of human anatomy, a certain number of lessons on the anatomy of those animals which artists might be called on to represent. Now, we were given to understand that the subject treated in our lectures interested our hearers, so much so that we were not surprised to learn that a certain number repeatedly expressed a desire to see these lectures united in book form. To us this idea was not new; for many years the work in question had been in course of preparation, and we had collected materials for it, with the object of filling up a void of which the existence was to be regretted. But our many engagements prevented us from executing our project as early as we would have wished. It is this work which we publish to-day. [Illustration: FIG. I.--REPRODUCTION OF A SKETCH BY BARYE (COLLECTIONS OF THE ANATOMICAL MUSEUM OF THE ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS--HUGUIER MUSEUM).] Putting aside for a moment the wish expressed by our hearers, we feel ourselves in duty bound to inquire whether the utility of this publication is self-evident. Let it be clearly understood that we wish to express here our opinion on this subject, while putting aside every personal sentiment of an author. No one now disputes the value of anatomical studies made in view of carrying out the artistic representation of man. Nevertheless--for we must provide against all contingencies--the conviction on this subject may be more or less absolute; and yet it must possess this character in an intense degree in order that these studies may be profitable, and permit the attainment of the goal which is proposed in undertaking them. It is in this way that we ever strive to train the students whose studies we direct; not only to admit the value of these studies, but to be materially and deeply convinced of the fact without any restriction. Such is the sentiment which we endeavour to create and vigorously encourage. And we may be permitted to add that we have often been successful in this direction. Therefore it is that, at the beginning of our lectures, and in anticipation of possible objections, we are accustomed to take up the question of the utility of plastic anatomy. And in so doing, it is in order to combat at the outset the idea--as mischievous as it is false--which is sometimes imprudently enunciated, that the possession of scientific knowledge is likely to tarnish the purity and freshness of the impressions received by the artist, and to place shackles on the emotional sincerity of their representation. [Illustration: FIG. II.--REPRODUCTION OF A SKETCH OF BARYE (COLLECTIONS OF THE ANATOMICAL MUSEUM OF THE ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS--HUGUIER MUSEUM).] It is chiefly by employment of examples that we approach the subject. These strike the imagination of the student more forcibly, and the presentation of models of a certain choice, although rough in execution, is, in our opinion, preferable to considerations of an order possibly more exalted, but of a character less clearly practical. Let us, then, ask the question: Those artists whose eminence nobody would dare to question, did they study anatomy? If the answer be in the affirmative, we surely cannot permit ourselves to believe that we can dispense with a similar course. And, as proof of the studies of this class which the masters have made, we may cite Raphael, Michelangelo, and, above all, Leonardo da Vinci; and, of the moderns, Géricault. And we may more clearly define these proofs by an examination of the reproductions of their anatomical works, chosen from certain of their special writings.[1] [1] Mathias Duval and A. Bical, 'L'anatomie des Maîtres.' Thirty plates reproduced from the originals of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Géricault, etc., with letterpress and a history of plastic anatomy, Paris, 1890. The manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci of the Royal Library, Windsor, 'Anatomy, Foliæ A.,' published by Théodore Sabachnikoff, with a French translation, written and annotated by Giovanni Piumati, with an introduction by Mathias Duval. Édouard Rouveyre, publisher, Paris, 1898. Mathias Duval and Édouard Cuyer, 'History of Plastic Anatomy: The Masters, their Books, and Anatomical Figures' (Library of Instruction of the School of Fine Arts), Paris, 1898. Accordingly, there is no scope for serious discussion, and it only remains for us to enunciate the opinion that it is necessary that we should imitate those masters, and, with a sense of respectful discipline, follow their example. Here, with regard to the anatomy of animals, we pursue the same method, and the example chosen shall be that of Barye. His talent is too far above all criticism to allow that this example should be refused. The admiration which the works of this great artist elicit is too wide-spread for us to remain uninfluenced by the lessons furnished by his studies. It is sufficient to see the sketches relating to these studies, and his admirable casts from nature which form part of the anatomical museum of the École des Beaux-Arts, to be convinced that the artistic temperament, of which Barye was one of the most brilliant examples, has nothing to lose by its association with researches the precision of which might seem likely to check its complete expansion. [Illustration: FIG. III.--REPRODUCTION OF A SKETCH OF BARYE (COLLECTIONS OF THE ANATOMICAL MUSEUM OF THE ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS--HUGUIER MUSEUM).] In those sketches we find proofs of observation so scrupulous that we cannot restrain our admiration for the man whose ardent imagination was voluntarily subjected to the toil of study so profound. If the example of Barye, with whom we associate the names of other great modern painters of animals, can determine the conviction which we seek to produce, we shall be sincerely glad. To contribute to the propagation of useful ideas, and to see them accepted, gives a feeling of satisfaction far too legitimate for us to hesitate to say what we should feel if our hope be realized in this instance. ÉDOUARD CUYER. [Illustration: FIG. IV.--REPRODUCTION OF A SKETCH OF BARYE (COLLECTIONS OF ANATOMICAL MUSEUM OF THE SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS--HUGUIER MUSEUM).] CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE GENERALITIES OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY 1 CHAPTER I OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY: THE TRUNK 4 THE POSTERIOR LIMBS 78 THE POSTERIOR LIMBS IN SOME ANIMALS 90 THE SKULL OF BIRDS 127 CHAPTER II MYOLOGY: THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK 131 MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR LIMBS 162 MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR LIMBS 200 MUSCLES OF THE HEAD 232 CHAPTER III EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS 247 CHAPTER IV PROPORTIONS PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE 273 CHAPTER V THE PACES OF THE HORSE 282 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1. A HUMAN SKELETON IN THE ATTITUDE OF A QUADRUPED, TO GIVE A GENERAL IDEA OF THE POSITION OF THE BONES IN OTHER VERTEBRATES 5 2. SIZE OF THE ATLAS COMPARED WITH THE TRANSVERSE DIMENSIONS OF THE CORRESPONDING PARTS OF THE SKULL IN MAN 7 3. SIZE OF THE ATLAS COMPARED WITH THE TRANSVERSE DIMENSIONS OF THE CORRESPONDING REGIONS OF THE SKULL IN A DOG 8 4. LUMBAR VERTEBRÆ OF A QUADRUPED (THE HORSE): SUPERIOR SURFACE 9 5. A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX OF A MAN PLACED VERTICALLY--THAT IS TO SAY, IN THE DIRECTION WHICH IT WOULD ASSUME IN A MAN PLACED IN THE ATTITUDE OF A QUADRUPED (A DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE) 13 6. A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE THORAX OF A QUADRUPED (DIAGRAMMATIC) 14 7. STERNUM OF A BIRD (THE COCK): LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 17 8. ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE BAT: LEFT SIDE, ANTERIOR SURFACE 20 9. ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE SEAL: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 21 10. SITUATION AND DIRECTION OF THE SCAPULA IN THE HUMAN BEING, THE TRUNK BEING HORIZONTAL, AS IN QUADRUPEDS. VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE) 22 11. POSITION AND DIRECTION OF THE SCAPULA IN QUADRUPEDS. VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE) 22 12. LEFT SCAPULA OF THE HUMAN BEING, POSTERIOR SURFACE, PLACED IN THE POSITION WHICH IT WOULD OCCUPY IN THE SKELETON OF A QUADRUPED 23 13. LEFT SCAPULA OF A HORSE: EXTERNAL SURFACE 23 14. VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION, AT THE SITE OF THE SHOULDERS, OF THE THORAX OF THE HORSE (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE) 24 15. VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION, AT THE PLANE OF THE SHOULDERS, OF THE THORAX OF THE DOG (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE) 24 16. LEFT CLAVICLE OF THE CAT: SUPERIOR SURFACE (NATURAL SIZE) 26 17. CLAVICLE OF THE DOG (NATURAL SIZE) 26 18. SKELETON OF THE SHOULDER OF A BIRD (VULTURE): ANTERO- EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE LEFT SIDE 27 19. INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE LEFT HUMERUS OF A FELIDÆ (LION) 31 20. INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE LEFT HUMAN HUMERUS, SHOWING THE PRESENCE OF A SUPRATROCHLEAR PROCESS 31 21. SKELETON OF A BIRD (VULTURE): LEFT SURFACE 33 22. THE HUMAN HAND RESTING FOR ITS WHOLE EXTENT ON ITS PALMAR SURFACE: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 35 23. THE HUMAN HAND RESTING ON ITS PHALANGES: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 36 24. THE HUMAN HAND RESTING ON THE TIPS OF SOME OF ITS THIRD PHALANGES: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL VIEW 36 25. SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE HUMAN FOREARM: LEFT SIDE, SUPERIOR SURFACE 39 26. SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF A DOG: LEFT LIMB, SUPERIOR SURFACE 39 27. SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF THE HORSE: LEFT LIMB, SUPERIOR SURFACE 40 28. INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF A MAN: LEFT SIDE, POSTERIOR SURFACE, POSITION OF SUPINATION 41 29. INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF A DOG: LEFT SIDE, ANTERIOR SURFACE, NORMAL POSITION--THAT IS, THE POSITION OF PRONATION 41 30. INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONE OF THE FOREARM OF THE HORSE: LEFT SIDE, ANTERIOR SURFACE 42 31. SKELETON OF THE SUPERIOR LIMB OF A BIRD (VULTURE): LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 47 32. SUPERIOR LIMB OF THE HUMAN BEING, THE DIFFERENT SEGMENTS BEING PLACED IN THE ATTITUDE WHICH THE CORRESPONDING PARTS OCCUPY IN BIRDS: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 48 33. SKELETON OF THE BEAR: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE 50 34. SKELETON OF THE DOG: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE 52 35. SCAPULA OF THE DOG: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 53 36. LEFT SCAPULA OF THE CAT: EXTERNAL SURFACE 53 37. SKELETON OF THE FINGER OF A FELIDE (LION): LEFT SIDE, INTERNAL SURFACE 57 38. SKELETON OF THE PIG: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE 58 39. SKELETON OF THE OX: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE 61 40. SKELETON OF THE HORSE: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE 64 41. FLEXION OF THE HUMERUS: RIGHT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE, EXTERNAL SURFACE (AFTER A CHROMOPHOTOGRAPHIC STUDY BY PROFESSOR MAREY) 74 42. EXTENSION OF THE HUMERUS: RIGHT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE, EXTERNAL SURFACE (AFTER A CHROMOPHOTOGRAPHIC STUDY BY PROFESSOR MAREY) 74 43. THE LEFT ILIAC BONE OF THE HUMAN BEING: EXTERNAL SURFACE, PLACED IN THE POSITION WHICH IT WOULD OCCUPY IN THE SKELETON OF A QUADRUPED 79 44. LEFT ILIAC BONE OF A QUADRUPED (HORSE): EXTERNAL SURFACE 79 45. PUBIC REGION OF THE PELVIS OF A MARSUPIAL (PHALANGER, FOX) 81 46. PELVIS OF A BIRD (THE COCK): EXTERNAL SURFACE, LEFT SIDE 82 47. POSTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE PLACED IN THE POSITION WHICH IT SHOULD OCCUPY IF THE ANIMAL WERE A PLANTIGRADE: LEFT LIMB, EXTERNAL SURFACE 89 48. SKELETON OF THE FOOT OF A BIRD (THE COCK): LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 90 49. PELVIS OF THE DOG, SEEN FROM ABOVE 91 50. PELVIS OF A FELIDE (LION), VIEWED FROM ABOVE 92 51. PELVIS OF THE OX: SUPERIOR SURFACE 95 52. TARSUS OF THE OX: POSTERIOR LEFT LIMB, ANTERO-EXTERNAL SURFACE 97 53. PELVIS OF THE HORSE: SUPERIOR SURFACE 101 54. TARSUS OF THE HORSE: LEFT POSTERIOR LIMB, ANTERIOR SURFACE 104 55. EXTENSION OF THE LEG: RIGHT POSTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE, EXTERNAL SURFACE (AFTER A CHRONOGRAPHIC STUDY BY PROFESSOR MAREY) 107 56. HUMAN SKULL: MEASURE OF THE FACIAL ANGLE BY THE METHOD OF CAMPER. ANGLE BAC = 80° 110 57. SKULL OF THE HORSE: MEASURE OF THE FACIAL ANGLE BY THE METHOD OF CAMPER. ANGLE BAC = 13° 110 58. SKULL OF ONE OF THE FELIDÆ (JAGUAR): LEFT LATERAL ASPECT 113 59. SKULL OF THE LION: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT 113 60. SKULL OF THE DOG: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT 115 61. SKULL OF THE PIG: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT 117 62. SKULL OF THE OX: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT 119 63. SKULL OF THE HORSE: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT 121 64. SKULL OF THE HARE: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT 123 65. SKULL OF THE COCK: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE 128 66. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: ANTERIOR ASPECT OF THE TRUNK 132 67. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: INFERIOR ASPECT OF THE TRUNK 135 68. MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES 141 69. MYOLOGY OF THE OX: SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES 143 70. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES 146 71. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: PANNICULUS MUSCLE OF THE TRUNK 148 72. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE--SHOULDER AND ARM: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE 166 73. MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT 178 74. MYOLOGY OF THE OX: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT 180 75. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT 182 76. MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, INTERNAL ASPECT 190 77. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: ANTERIOR LIMB, LEFT SIDE, INTERNAL ASPECT 192 78. LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE: INTERNAL ASPECT 194 79. LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT 196 80. LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT 196 81. DIAGRAM OF THE POSTERIOR PART OF A TRANSVERSE SECTION PASSING THROUGH THE MIDDLE OF THE LEFT FORE-LIMB OF THE DOG: SURFACE OF THE INFERIOR SEGMENT OF THE SECTION 198 82. DIAGRAM OF A HORIZONTAL SECTION OF THE MIDDLE OF THE FOREARM OF THE LEFT LEG OF THE HORSE: SURFACE OF THE INTERIOR SEGMENT OF THE SECTION 198 83. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: THE ANTERIOR TIBIAL MUSCLE (FLEXOR OF THE METATARSUS), LEFT LEG, ANTERIOR VIEW 214 84. MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT HIND-LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT 216 85. MYOLOGY OF THE OX: LEFT LEG, EXTERNAL ASPECT 218 86. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: LEFT HIND-LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT 220 87. MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT HIND-LIMB, INTERNAL ASPECT 222 88. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: LEFT HIND-LEG, INTERNAL ASPECT 223 89. MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: MASTICATORY MUSCLES (A DEEPER DISSECTION THAN THAT SHOWN IN FIG. 90) 233 90. MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: MUSCLES OF THE HEAD 235 91. MYOLOGY OF THE OX: MUSCLES OF THE HEAD 237 92. MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: MUSCLES OF THE HEAD 239 93. CLAW OF THE DOG: INFERIOR SURFACE 249 94. LEFT HAND OF THE DOG: INFERIOR SURFACE, PLANTAR TUBERCLES 249 95. VERTICAL ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE FOOT OF A HORSE 250 96. THIRD PHALANX OF THE HORSE: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL SURFACE 251 97. LEFT ANTERIOR FOOT OF THE HORSE: ANTERIOR ASPECT 253 98. LEFT ANTERIOR FOOT OF THE HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT 254 99. VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEFT HUMAN FOOT: OUTLINE OF THE SURFACE OF THE POSTERIOR SEGMENT OF THIS SECTION (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE) 255 100. INFERIOR SURFACE OF A FORE-HOOF OF THE HORSE: LEFT SIDE 256 101. THIRD PHALANX OF THE HORSE: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, INFERIOR VIEW 257 102. THIRD PHALANX OF THE HORSE: LEFT POSTERIOR LIMB, INFERIOR VIEW 257 103. INFERIOR SURFACE OF A HIND-HOOF OF A HORSE: LEFT SIDE 258 104. LEFT POSTERIOR FOOT OF A HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT 259 105. FOOT OF THE OX: LEFT SIDE, ANTERO-EXTERNAL VIEW 260 106. THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE (AFTER BOURGELAT) 265 107. PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE (AFTER COLONEL DUHOUSSET) 270 108. PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE, VIEWED IN PROFILE (AFTER COLONEL DUHOUSSET) 274 109. THE SAME DESIGN AS THAT OF FIG. 108, ON WHICH WE HAVE INDICATED, BY SIMILAR LINES, THE PRINCIPAL CORRESPONDING MEASUREMENTS 275 110. PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE, SEEN FROM THE FRONT (AFTER COLONEL DUHOUSSET) 276 111. THE SAME FIGURE AS FIG. 110, ON WHICH WE HAVE MARKED, BY SIMILAR LINES, THE PRINCIPAL MEASUREMENTS WHICH CORRESPOND THERETO 277 112. HORSE OF WHICH THE LENGTH CONTAINS MORE THAN TWO AND A HALF TIMES THAT OF THE HEAD, AND OF WHICH THIS DIMENSION (A, B) EXCEEDS THE HEIGHT 279 113. HORSE OF WHICH THE LENGTH CONTAINS MORE THAN TWO AND A HALF TIMES THAT OF THE HEAD, AND OF WHICH THIS DIMENSION (A, B) EXCEEDS THE HEIGHT 280 114. HORSE OF WHICH THE LENGTH CONTAINS MORE THAN TWO AND A HALF TIMES THAT OF THE HEAD, AND OF WHICH THIS DIMENSION (A, B) IS INFERIOR TO THE HEIGHT 281 115. EXPERIMENTAL SHOES, INTENDED TO RECORD THE PRESSURE OF THE FOOT ON THE GROUND 284 116. RUNNER FURNISHED WITH THE EXPLORATORY AND REGISTERING APPARATUS OF THE VARIOUS PACES 285 117. TRACING OF THE RUNNING OF A MAN (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 286 118. NOTATION OF A TRACING OF THE RUNNING OF A MAN (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 287 119. NOTATION OF VARIOUS MODES OF PROGRESSION OF A MAN (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 287 120. SWING OF THE RAISED ANTERIOR LIMB (AFTER G. COLIN) 289 121. SWING OF THE ANTERIOR LIMB ON THE POINT OF PRESSURE (AFTER G. COLIN) 290 122. POSTERIOR LIMB, GIVING THE IMPULSE (AFTER G. COLIN) 291 123. NOTATION OF THE AMBLING GAIT IN THE HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 292 124. THE AMBLE: RIGHT LATERAL PRESSURE 293 125. NOTATION OF THE GAIT OF THE TROT IN A HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 294 126. THE TROT: RIGHT DIAGONAL PRESSURE 295 127. THE TROT: TIME OF SUSPENSION 295 128. NOTATION OF THE PACE OF STEPPING IN THE HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 296 129. THE STEP: RIGHT LATERAL PRESSURE 297 130. THE STEP: RIGHT DIAGONAL PRESSURE 297 131. THE GALLOP: FIRST PERIOD 298 132. THE GALLOP: SECOND PERIOD 298 133. THE GALLOP: THIRD PERIOD 299 134. THE GALLOP: TIME OF SUSPENSION 299 135. NOTATION OF THE GALLOP DIVIDED INTO THREE PERIODS OF TIME (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 300 136. NOTATION OF THE GALLOP OF FOUR PERIODS IN THE HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY) 300 137. LEAP OF THE HARE (AFTER G. COLIN) 301 138. THE LEAP 302 139. THE LEAP 302 140. THE LEAP 303 141. THE LEAP 303 142. THE LEAP 305 143. THE LEAP 305 THE ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS INTRODUCTION GENERALITIES OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY Of the animals by which we are surrounded, there are some which, occupying a place in our lives by reason of their natural endowments, are frequently represented in the works of artists--either as accompanying man in his work or in his amusements, or as intended to occupy the whole interest of the composition. The necessity of knowing, from an artistic point of view, the structure of the human body makes clear the importance we attach, from the same point of view, to the study of the anatomy of animals--that is, the study of comparative anatomy. The name employed to designate this branch of anatomy shows that the object of this science is the study of the relative position and form which each region presents in all organized beings, taking for comparison the corresponding regions in man. The head in animals compared with the human head; the trunk and limbs compared to the trunk and limbs of the human being--this is the analysis we undertake, and the plan of the subject we are about to commence. Our intention being, as we have just said, the comparison of the structure of animals with that of man, should we describe the anatomy of the human being in the pages which follow? We do not think so. Plastic human anatomy having been previously studied in special works,[2] we take it for granted that these have been studied before undertaking the subject of comparative anatomy. We will therefore not occupy time with the elementary facts relative to the skeleton and the superficial layer of muscles. We will not dilate on the division of the bones into long, short, large, single, paired, etc. All these preliminary elements we shall suppose to have been already studied. [2] Mathias Duval, 'Précis of Anatomy for the Use of Artists': Paris, 1881. 'Artistic Anatomy of the Human Body,' third edition, plates by Dr. Fau, text with figures by Édouard Cuyer: Paris, 1896. 'Artistic Anatomy of Man,' by J. C. L. Sparkes, second edition, text with 50 plates: Baillière, Tindall and Cox, London, 1900. This being granted, it is, nevertheless, necessary to take a rapid bird's-eye view of organized beings, and to recall the terms used in their classification. Animals are primarily classed in great divisions, based on the general characters which differentiate them most. These divisions, or _branches_, allow of their being so grouped that in each of them we find united the individuals whose general structure is uniform; and under the name of vertebrates are included man and the animals with which our studies will be occupied. The vertebrates, as the name indicates, are recognised by the presence of an interior skeleton formed by a central axis, the vertebral column, round which the other parts of the skeleton are arranged. The vertebrate branch is divided into classes: fishes, amphibians or batrachians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The mammals--from the Latin _mamma_, a breast--are characterized by the presence of breasts designed for the alimentation of their young. Their bodies are covered with hair, hence the name _pilifères_ proposed by Blainville; and, notwithstanding that in some individuals the hairs are few, the character is sufficient to distinguish them from all other vertebrates. We find united in this class animals which, at first, seem out of place, such as the whale and the bat; and, from their external appearance alone, the former would appear to belong to the fishes, and the latter to birds. Yet, on studying their structure, we find that, not only do these animals merit a place in the class which they occupy, because they possess the distinctive characters of mammals; but, still further, their internal structure is analogous to that of man and of the other individuals of this class. Notwithstanding this similarity of structure, the whale is not without some points of difference from its neighbours the horse and the dog; therefore, in order to place each of these animals in a position suitable to it, mammals are divided into secondary groups called _orders_. The first of these orders includes, under the name _primates_, man and apes. The latter contain animals which approach birds in certain characters of their organism, forming a link between the latter and mammals. We find, in studying the regions of the body in some of the vertebrates, that, while they present differences from the corresponding regions of the human body, they also offer most striking analogies. We can, for example, recognise the upper limb of man in the anterior one of quadrupeds, in the wing of the bat, in the paddle of the seal, etc. It is, so to speak, those variations of a great plan which give such a charm to the study of comparative anatomy. The division of classes into orders, which we have just mentioned, being still too general, it was found necessary to establish subdivisions--more and more specialized--to which the names _families_, _genera_, _species_, and _varieties_ were given. CHAPTER I OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY THE TRUNK The Vertebral Column We commence the study of the skeleton with a description of the trunk. The trunk being, in quadrupeds, horizontal in direction (Fig. 1), the two regions of which it consists occupy, for this reason, the following positions: the thorax occupies the anterior part, the abdomen is placed behind it; the vertebral column is horizontal, and is situated at the superior aspect of the trunk; it projects beyond the latter: anteriorly, to articulate with the skull; and, posteriorly, to form the skeleton of the tail, or caudal appendix. The number of the vertebræ is not the same in all mammalia. Of the several regions of the vertebral column, the cervical shows the greatest uniformity in the number of the vertebræ of which it consists, with but two exceptions (eight or nine in the three-toed sloth, and six in the manatee); we always find seven cervical vertebræ, whatever the length of the neck of the animal. There are no more than seven vertebræ in the long neck of the giraffe, but they are very long ones; and not less than seven in the very short neck of the dolphin, in which they are reduced to mere plates of bone not thicker than sheets of cardboard. If the cervical region presents uniformity in the number of its bones, it is not so with the other regions of the column. The following table shows their classification in some animals: VERTEBRÆ. +------------+-----------+---------+---------+ | | Cervical. | Dorsal. | Lumbar. | +------------+-----------+---------+---------+ | Bear | 7 | 14 | 6 | | Dog | 7 | 13 | 7 | | Cat | 7 | 13 | 7 | | Rabbit | 7 | 12 | 7 | | Pig | 7 | 14 | 6 or 7 | | Horse | 7 | 18 | 6 or 5 | | Ass | 7 | 18 | 5 | | Camel | 7 | 12 | 7 | | Giraffe | 7 | 14 | 5 | | Ox | 7 | 13 | 6 | | Sheep | 7 | 13 | 6 | +------------+-----------+---------+---------+ [Illustration: FIG. 1.--A HUMAN SKELETON IN THE ATTITUDE OF A QUADRUPED. TO GIVE A GENERAL IDEA OF THE POSITION OF THE BONES IN OTHER VERTEBRATES.] It is worthy of notice that in birds the number of the cervical vertebræ is not constant, as in mammals; they are more numerous than the dorsal. These latter are almost always joined to one another by a fusion of their spinous processes; the two or three last vertebræ are similarly united to the iliac bones, between which they are fixed. The dorsal vertebræ thus form one piece, which gives solidity to the trunk, and provides a base of support to the wings, for the movements of flying. There are, so to speak, no lumbar vertebræ, the bones of that region, which cannot be differentiated from the sacrum, having coalesced with the bones of the pelvis. VERTEBRÆ. +------------------+-----------+---------+ | | Cervical. | Dorsal. | +------------------+-----------+---------+ | Vulture | 15 | 7 | | Eagle | 13 | 9 | | Cock | 14 | 7 | | Ostrich | 18 | 9 | | Swan | 23 | 10 | | Goose | 18 | 9 | | Duck | 15 | 9 | +------------------+-----------+---------+ In reptiles, the relation between the number of the cervical vertebræ and that of the dorsal is very variable; some serpents are devoid of cervical vertebræ, having only dorsal ones--that is, vertebræ carrying well-developed ribs. VERTEBRÆ. +-------------------+-----------+---------+---------+ | | Cervical. | Dorsal. | Lumbar. | +-------------------+-----------+---------+---------+ | Crocodile | 7 | 14 | 3 | | Caiman | 7 | 12 | 5 | | Boa | 3 | 248 | 0 | | Python | 0 | 320 | 0 | | Viper | 2 | 145 | 0 | +-------------------+-----------+---------+---------+ Regarding the direction of the vertebral column in animals, in which the trunk is not vertical, it is evident that the spinous processes point upward, and that in comparing them with those of man they must be arranged so that the superior surface of the human vertebra will correspond to the anterior surface of that of the quadruped. Of the cervical vertebræ, the atlas and axis call for special notice. Apropos of the atlas, we find that it, in the human being, is narrower than the corresponding parts of the skull, and is therefore hidden under the base of the cranium (Fig. 2); in quadrupeds its width is equal to that of the skull, and sometimes exceeds, because of the great development of its wing-shaped transverse processes, that of the neighbouring parts of the head (Fig. 3). On this account those transverse processes often project under the skin of the lateral surfaces of the upper part of the neck. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--SIZE OF THE ATLAS COMPARED WITH THE TRANSVERSE DIMENSIONS OF THE CORRESPONDING PARTS OF THE SKULL IN MAN. 1, Atlas; 2, mastoid process; 3, external occipital protuberance; 4, inferior maxilla.] The axis is furnished on its anterior surface with the odontoid process, which articulates with the anterior (or inferior) arch of the atlas, according to the direction of the neck. The spinous process, flattened from without inwards, is more or less pointed; it is elongated from before backwards, so as partly to overlap the atlas and the third cervical vertebra. We find that this process overlaps less and less the neighbouring vertebræ when we examine in succession the bear, the cat, the dog, the ox, and the horse. With regard to the other vertebræ of this region, they diminish in width from the second to the seventh; and, in some animals, the anterior surface of the body presents a tubercle which articulates with a cavity hollowed in the posterior surface of that of the vertebra before it; this feature dwindles away in the dorsal and lumbar regions. The spinous process, slightly developed in the third cervical vertebra, gradually increases in size to the seventh, the spinous process of which, long and pointed, well deserves the name of _the prominent_ which is bestowed on it; but it should not be forgotten that the spinous process of the axis is equally developed. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--SIZE OF THE ATLAS COMPARED WITH THE TRANSVERSE DIMENSIONS OF THE CORRESPONDING REGIONS OF THE SKULL IN A DOG. 1, Atlas; 2, zygomatic arch; 3, external occipital protuberance; 4, inferior maxilla.] On the inferior surface of the body of each of the vertebræ is found a prominent crest, especially well marked at the posterior part; this crest is but slightly developed in the bear and in the cat tribe, and is not found in swine. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebræ, from their relation to the trachea, are known as the _tracheal processes_. The most marked characteristic of the dorsal vertebræ is furnished by the spinous processes. They are long and narrow. As a rule, the spinous processes of the foremost dorsal vertebræ are the most developed and are directed obliquely upwards and backwards. As we approach the last vertebræ of this region, the processes become shorter and tend to become vertical, and the last ones are even, in some cases, directed upwards and forwards; this disposition is well marked in the dog and the cat. In the cetaceans, on the contrary, the length of the spinous processes increases from the first to the last. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--LUMBAR VERTEBRÆ OF A QUADRUPED (THE HORSE): SUPERIOR SURFACE. 1, Spinous process; 2, anterior articular process and transverse process of the first lumbar vertebra of the left side; 3, costiform process.] In the horse the spinous processes of the first dorsal vertebræ produce the prominence at the anterior limit of the trunk, where the mane ends, which is known as the _withers_. The lumbar vertebræ are thicker than the preceding; they are known by their short and latterly-flattened spinous processes, and still more readily by their transverse processes, which, as they are evidently atrophied ribs, it is more accurate to denominate costiform processes (Fig. 4). These are long, flattened from above downwards, and directed outwards and forwards. The true transverse processes are represented by tubercles situated on the superior borders of the articular processes of each of the vertebræ of the lumbar region. Apropos of these different osseous processes, we are reminded that they are also present in the human skeleton. In the horse the costiform processes of the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebræ articulate, and are sometimes ankylosed, one with the other; the terminal ones articulate with the base of the sacrum. Sometimes the processes of the fourth and fifth are thus related; this is the case in the figure (4) given; here the costiform processes of the fourth and fifth vertebræ articulate, and the two terminal ones have coalesced. In the ox, the same processes are more developed than in the horse; their summits elevating the skin, produce, especially in animals which have not much flesh, prominences which limit the flanks in the superior aspect. The costiform processes of the last lumbar vertebræ are separate from each other; those of the latter are not in contact with the sacrum. =The Sacrum.=[3]--This bone, single and median, is formed by the mutual coalescence of several vertebræ, which vary in number according to the species observed. [3] In human anatomy, the sacrum and the coccyx are studied as part of the pelvis; we, therefore, in the study of the artistic anatomy of man, study these bones with the bones of the lower limbs. Here we do not follow this plan. In animals the sacrum and the coccyx, as a matter of fact, clearly continue the superior border of the skeleton of the trunk; hence we study them with the vertebral column. _Vertebræ Constituting the Sacrum._--Bears, 5; dogs, 3; cats, 3; rabbits, 4; swine, 4; horses, 5; camels, 4; oxen, 5; sheep, 4. The sacrum is situated between the two iliac bones; with which it articulates, and contributes to the formation of the pelvis. It is obliquely placed, from before backwards, and from below upwards; immediately behind the lumbar section of the vertebral column; and is continued by the coccygeal vertebræ, which form the skeleton of the tail. It is triangular in outline, and is generally more narrow in proportion than in the human being. All things considered, it is more large and massive, and of greater density, in species which sometimes assume the upright posture, rather than in those which cannot assume that attitude; for example, the sacrum of the ape, of the bear, of the dog, and of the opossum are proportionately larger than those of the horse.[4] [4] This is particularly striking only in those portions of the sacrum that are not in relation with the other bones of the pelvis. We think that the general form of this bone depends on the mode of its connexions with the iliac bones and the extent of the articular surfaces by which it is in contact with the latter. Its superior surface presents a crest, formed by the fusion of the spinous processes of the vertebræ which form it. In certain species these processes are attached only by their bases, and are separated from each other superiorly. In the pig they are wholly wanting. =The Coccygeal Vertebræ.=--These vertebræ, few in number (and sometimes ankylosed) in the human being, form in the latter a small series, the coccyx; which is inclined forwards, that is to say, towards the interior of the pelvis. In quadrupeds, on the contrary, their number is large; they are not ankylosed, and they form the skeleton of the caudal appendix. The first coccygeal vertebræ--that is, those which are next the sacrum--present characters which are common to those of other regions: they have a body, a foramen, and processes. As we trace them backwards, these characters become gradually effaced; and they become little more than small osseous cylinders simply expanded at their extremities. Direction and Form of the Spinal Column The curves of the vertebral column are, in quadrupeds, slightly different from those which characterize the human spine. First, instead of their being, as in the latter, curves in the antero-posterior aspect, because of the general attitude of the body, they are turned in the supero-inferior direction. The cervical region is not a single curve, as in the human being. It presents two: one superior, with its convexity looking upwards; the other inferior, the convexity of which is turned downwards. This arrangement reminds one of that of a console. The dorsal and lumbar regions are placed in a single curved line, more or less concave downwards; so that in the lumbar region there is no curve analogous to that which exists in man; a form which, in the latter, is due to the biped attitude--that is to say, the vertical position of the trunk. Briefly, there is in quadrupeds one dorso-lumbar curve; and not both a dorsal and a lumbar, with convexities in opposite directions. At the extremity of the dorso-lumbar region is the sacrum and the caudal appendix, which describe a curve of which the concavity is directed downwards and forwards. It is necessary to point out that it is not the curves of the three anterior portions of the spinal column which determine the form of the superior border of the neck and shoulders, and of the same part of the trunk. For the first portion, there is a ligament which surmounts the cervical region, and substitutes its modelling influence for that of the vertebræ. It is the _superior cervical ligament_, which arises from the spinous process of the first cervical vertebræ, and is inserted into the external occipital protuberance on the upper part of the posterior surface of the skull. The summits of the spinous processes of the vertebræ alone give form to the superior median border of the trunk. In this connection we here repeat that it is not the general curvature of the vertebral column which produces the withers, but the great length of the spinous process of the first vertebræ of the dorsal region. The Thorax The dorsal vertebræ form the posterior limit in man, and superior in quadrupeds, of the region of the trunk known as the _thorax_. A single bone, the sternum, is situated at the aspect opposite; the ribs bound the thorax on its sides. In its general outlines the thorax in quadrupeds resembles that of man--that is to say, that, as in the latter, the anterior portion--superior in the human being--is narrower than the part opposite. But the progressive widening takes place in a more regular and continuous fashion, so that it presents a more definitely conical outline. This purely conical form is nevertheless found in the human species, but only during infancy; the inferior portion of the thoracic cage being then widely expanded, because of the development of the abdominal viscera, which at that period are relatively large. But the proportionate measurements of the thorax are different. Indeed, we may recall that in man the thorax is flattened from before backwards, so that the distance between the sternum and the vertebral column is shorter than the distance from the rib of one side to the corresponding one of the opposite side (Fig. 5). In animals, on the contrary, it is flattened laterally. Its vertical diameter--measured from the sternum to the vertebral column--is greater than the transverse measurement (Fig. 6). [Illustration: FIG. 5.--A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX OF A MAN PLACED VERTICALLY--THAT IS TO SAY, IN THE DIRECTION WHICH IT WOULD ASSUME IN A MAN PLACED IN THE ATTITUDE OF A QUADRUPED (A DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE). 1, Dorsal vertebra; 2, sternal region; 3, costal region of one side; 3´, costal region of the other side.] From this results a peculiar arrangement of the muscles that we are able to bring directly into prominence, which presents points of interest from the point of view of the contraction of the subcutaneous layer. Indeed, in man the region occupied by the pectorals is very broad; it is a wide surface turned directly forward. In quadrupeds, this region of the pectorals is narrowed. It is not spread out, as in the preceding instances; and the appearance it presents is explained by the fact that the thorax is compressed laterally. If we examine the thorax on one of its lateral surfaces, the muscles, on the contrary, are more extended. We see the contour of the vertebral column, and the median part of the abdomen; and, especially in the horse, between the great dorsal and the great oblique of the abdomen, we find a large space, in which the ribs, with the intercostals which join them, are uncovered; the muscles in question separate the one from the other, under the influence, it would seem, of the great dimensions of the lateral wall of the thorax. [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A VERTICAL SECTION OF THE THORAX OF A QUADRUPED (DIAGRAMMATIC). 1, Fifth dorsal vertebra; 2, sternal region; 3, costal region of one side; 3´, costal region of the opposite side.] =The Sternum.=--The sternum is, in quadrupeds, directed obliquely downwards and backwards; its form varies in different species. In the carnivora, it consists of eight bones, irregularly cylindrical in form, being slightly flattened from within outwards, and thickened at their extremities. They remain separate, and this contributes elasticity and flexibility to the thorax. The first nine costal cartilages articulate directly with the sternum. The first of these cartilages articulates with a nodule situated a little above the middle of the first bone of the sternum. In the horse the sternum is flattened laterally in its anterior portion, and from above downwards in its posterior half. The six bones which form the sternum are connected by cartilage. The keel-shaped piece, situated in front of the sternum, is also cartilaginous. This process, but slightly marked posteriorly, becomes more and more prominent in front, and terminates at its anterior extremity by a prolongation, slightly curved backwards, which projects for some centimetres beyond the cavity in which the first costal cartilage is received. This process is known as the _tracheal process_, or _rostral cartilage_. The posterior extremity of the sternum, flattened from above downwards, ends in a cartilaginous plate; concave superiorly, and convex inferiorly: this is the abdominal prolongation, or _xiphoid appendix_. In the ox, the sternum is formed of two distinct bones, which are united by an articulation. One, the anterior, is short, and forms the first portion of the sternum; it is slightly flattened from side to side, and vertical in direction. The other, the posterior, is longer, and is formed by the fusion of several small bones; it is placed horizontally, and is flattened from above downwards. At the level of articulation of these two portions, and because of their different directions, the bone is bent. This bend occurs at the point of articulation of the second costal cartilage. On the superior border of the anterior segment the cartilage of the first rib is articulated. The xiphoid appendix, which is cartilaginous, is attached to the extremity of a long process of the last bone of the sternum. The shape of the anterior extremity of the sternum is influenced by the presence or absence of clavicles. We have seen that in some quadrupeds the clavicles are wanting. In the first case, this extremity is large, and approaches in shape to the corresponding part of the human sternum, which is so clearly designed to give a point of support to the anterior bone of the shoulder. In the second, on the contrary, this extremity is narrow. The sternum in birds is very different from that in mammalia, which we have been studying. It varies greatly in extent and shape, under the influence of certain conditions. To understand the cause of these variations it is necessary to remember that in man (as, indeed, in other animals; but the example of man, for that which follows, will be more striking, on account of the mobility of his upper limbs) the sternum gives origin to the pectoral muscles, and that these muscles are inserted into other parts of the thoracic limbs, designed by their contraction to draw the arms downwards, forwards, and inwards--that is, when these are in a state of abduction and in a horizontal direction, they draw them towards the anterior surface of the thorax and downwards. Now, this movement is similar to that made by birds during flight. It is necessary to add that, in the latter case, the more the displacement of the upper limbs has of force and extent, the more the pectoral muscles are developed. For these reasons, birds, in which, during flight, the movements of the thoracic limbs--the wings--are necessarily energetic, present a great development of the pectoral muscles; having consequently, because an extent of surface for the origin of the muscles commensurate with their development is necessary, a very large and peculiarly shaped sternum (Figs. 18, 6; and 21, 6). Indeed, not only is the sternum large, but, further, in order to form a deeper surface, proportionately adapted to the muscles which arise from and cover it, its anterior surface presents, in the median line, a prominent crest known as the _keel_. This prominence forms two lateral fossæ. We cite as examples, the sternum of the eagle, the vulture, the falcon, and the hawk. All birds are not, however, equally adapted to flight, for in the domestic cock, which flies but a short distance, and badly, the sternum is less developed (Fig. 7); it is also diminished by slots, which diminish its surface. These slots, two on each side, are called from their position the internal and external slots. They are bounded by narrow, elongated, bony processes, an internal and an external; the expanded lower extremity of the latter overlaps the last inferior ribs (see p. 19). The part of the external border which surmounts this external process is hollowed out into grooves, which receive the inferior ribs, and terminates superiorly in an osseous projection known as _the costal prominence_. In the ostrich, the cassowary, and the apteryx, which run, but do not fly, the sternum has the form of a plate of bone slightly convex, but without a keel. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--STERNUM OF A BIRD (THE COCK): LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Keel; 2, internal slot; 3, external slot; 4, internal process; 5, external process; 6, inferior ribs; 7, costal process; 8, surface for articulation with the coracoid bone.] The shape of the sternum, correlated to the faculty of flight (or of swimming; apropos of which we may cite the penguin, of which the rudimentary wings resemble fins, and perform their functions only), or the absence of this faculty, has furnished the division of birds into two groups. In one are included, under the name _Carinates_ (_carina_, keel), those in which the sternum is provided with a keel; in the other division are those in which the sternum is not furnished with one. These latter, on account of their unique mode of progression, are more nearly allied to the mammals. The keel is developed in flying mammals (bats). =Ribs and Costal Cartilages.=--There are on each side of the thorax as many ribs as there are dorsal vertebræ. In animals, as in man, the ribs which articulate with the sternum by their cartilages are called _true_, or _sternal_ ribs; those whose cartilages do not articulate with the sternum are called _false_, or _asternal_. The longer ribs are those situated in the middle region of the thorax. The ribs are directed obliquely downwards and backwards, and this obliquity is more marked in the posterior ones than in the anterior. They are, however, less oblique than in the human being; what proves this is that the first rib in man is oblique, while in quadrupeds it is vertical. The curvature of the ribs is less pronounced in quadrupeds than in the human being, but this is not equal in all animals. The ribs of the bear are more curved than those of the dog; the latter has ribs more curved than those of the horse. Each rib, at its vertebral extremity, presents, from within outwards, a wedge-shaped head for articulation with two dorsal vertebræ, a neck, and a tuberosity. External to the tubercle are found some rough impressions, for muscular attachments, which correspond to the angle of the human rib. In the following table, we give the number and classification of the ribs of some animals: NUMBER OF THE RIBS ON EACH SIDE OF THE THORAX. Sternal. Asternal. Bear 14 divided into 9 and 5 Dog 13 " " 9 " 4 Cat 13 " " 9 " 4 Rabbit 12 " " 7 " 5 Pig 14 " " 7 " 7 Horse 18 " " 8 " 10 Camel 12 " " 8 " 4 Ox 13 " " 8 " 5 Sheep 13 " " 8 " 5 The costal cartilages, by which the first ribs are united to the sternum (sternal ribs), whilst the latter are united one to the other without being directly connected with the sternum (asternal ribs), are, as a rule, in quadrupeds, directed obliquely downwards, forwards, and inwards; each forms, with the rib to which it belongs, an obtuse angle more or less open anteriorly. Their length is proportionate to that of the ribs. The cartilages, which are continued from the asternal ribs, unite and form the borders, directed obliquely downwards and forwards, of the fossa which is found at the inferior and posterior part of the thorax, and which forms the lateral limits of the epigastric region. In the dog and cat the ribs are thick and almost cylindrical; the costal cartilages are thicker at the margin of the sternum than at their costal extremity. In the ox, the ribs are flattened laterally and are very broad, the more so as we examine a portion further from the vertebral column. From the second to the twelfth they are quadrangular in the superior fourth, and thicker than in the rest of their extent. The first costal cartilage is vertical; the following ones are progressively more oblique in a direction downwards and forwards. The four or five cartilages which succeed the first unite with slight obliquity to the sternum; their union with that bone gives the impression of a very strong, well-knit apparatus. The costal cartilages which unite with the sternum are flattened laterally in the portions next the ribs, and flattened from front to back in the rest of their extent. In the horse the ribs increase in length from the first to the ninth; they are flattened from without inwards, and increase in width from the first to the sixth or seventh, and the following ones become narrower. The costal cartilages, from the second to the eighth, are, as in the ox, at first flattened laterally, near the ribs; while near the sternum they are flattened from front to back. In birds, the ribs are each furnished with a flat process (Fig. 18, 10), which springs from the posterior border, is directed backwards, and overlaps the external surface of the succeeding rib. These processes are not found, as a rule, on the first or last ribs. As for the costal cartilages, they are, as a rule, ossified, and receive the name of inferior ribs (Fig. 18, 11), united to the preceding (superior ribs; Fig. 18, 9) by articulation; by the other extremity they are joined to the sternum; the first superior ribs generally want them. Sometimes the last inferior rib becomes connected with the one that precedes it, not articulating with the sternum; and thus recalls the relations of the asternal ribs which we have noticed in our study of the mammals. In the bat, as in birds, the costal cartilages are ossified. THE ANTERIOR LIMBS[5] [5] Consult Figs. 21, 33, 34, 38, 39, 46. The anterior limbs, homologous to the upper limbs in man, are formed, as in the latter, of four segments: the shoulder, the arm, the forearm, and the hand. These limbs, considered in the vertebral series, present themselves under very different aspects, which are determined by the functions they are called upon to perform. They constitute the forepaw in terrestrial mammals; in aerial vertebrates they form wings; in aqueous mammals they act as paddles. In whatever series we study them, we can readily find the relationship of the different parts; it is very easy to recognise the same bones in the upper limbs of the human being, the wings of the bat (Fig. 8) and of birds (Fig. 21), and in the anterior paddles of the seal (Fig. 9) and of the dolphin. [Illustration: FIG. 8.--ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE BAT: LEFT SIDE, ANTERIOR SURFACE. 1, Clavicle; 2, scapula; 3, humerus; 4, radius; 5, cubitus; 6, carpus; 7, thumb; 8, metacarpus; 9, phalanges.] In quadrupeds, the shoulder and arm are hidden, the latter more or less completely, in the muscular mass which binds it to the lateral wall of the trunk; so that the anterior limbs only present; free from the trunk: the elbow, forearm, and hand. The Shoulder In some vertebrates, the shoulder is formed of two bones--the scapula and clavicle; in others of only one bone--the scapula; the clavicle in this case does not exist. =The Scapula or Omoplate.=--The scapula is situated on the lateral surface of the thorax, and is directed obliquely, from above downwards and from behind forwards. We must first recall, so as to be able to make a comparison, that in man this bone is placed at the posterior surface of the thoracic cage; so that if we look at the human thorax on one of its lateral aspects we see chiefly the external border of the scapula; it is the external surface (homologous to the posterior surface of the human scapula) which we see in its full extent when we look on the same surface of the thorax in quadrupeds. [Illustration: FIG. 9.--ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE SEAL: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Scapula; 2, humerus; 3, radius; 4, ulna; 5, carpus; 6, metacarpus; 7, phalanges of the fingers.] To sum up, if we fancy the human being in the position of the quadruped, the scapula will have its surfaces almost parallel to the ground (Fig. 10); while in quadrupeds, the surfaces are situated in a plane which is almost perpendicular to the ground (Fig. 11). This position of the scapula in an almost vertical plane is designed to give the necessary point of support to the osseous columns that form the skeleton of the other portions of the anterior limbs. Because of this position of the scapula (Figs. 12 and 13), the spinal border is superior, the cervical, anterior, and the axillary, posterior. In direct contrast to what obtains in the human scapula, the spinal border is the shortest of the three; except in the bat, and the majority of the cetaceans. [Illustration: FIG. 10.--SITUATION AND DIRECTION OF THE SCAPULA IN THE HUMAN BEING, THE TRUNK BEING HORIZONTAL, AS IN QUADRUPEDS. VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE). 1, Contour of the thorax; 2, 2, the scapula.] [Illustration: FIG. 11.--POSITION AND DIRECTION OF THE SCAPULA IN QUADRUPEDS. VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE THORAX (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE). 1, Contour of the thorax; 2, 2, the scapula.] In certain animals (in the ungulates [_hoofed_[6]]--pigs, oxen, sheep, horses) the superior, or spinal, border of the scapula is surmounted by a cartilage called _the cartilage of prolongation_. [6] For the definition of the word _hoofed_, see p. 37. This is the cause why the border to which it is fixed is so slightly noticeable under the skin in these animals; indeed, in the upper part, the bone and cartilage are not distinguishable in the contour of the corresponding region of the back; being applied to the lateral surfaces of the spinous processes, the prominence formed by the extremities of which is directly continuous with the plane of the scapula (Fig. 16). [Illustration: FIG. 12.--LEFT SCAPULA OF THE HUMAN BEING, POSTERIOR SURFACE, PLACED IN THE POSITION WHICH IT WOULD OCCUPY IN THE SKELETON OF A QUADRUPED. 1, Cervical border; 2, spinal border; 3, axillary border; 4, supraspinous fossa; 5, subspinous fossa; 6, scapular spine; 7, glenoid cavity; 8, coracoid process; 9, acromion process.] [Illustration: FIG. 13.--LEFT SCAPULA OF A HORSE: EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Cervical border; 2, spinal border--the scapula here represented, being from a hoofed animal, has a cartilage of extension attached to its spinal border; 3, axillary border; 4, supraspinous fossa; 5, subspinous fossa; 6, spine of the scapula; 7, glenoid cavity; 8, coracoid process. The scapula of the horse has no acromion process, but it is easy, if we compare the human scapula, to judge of the position which this process would occupy if it were present.] In quadrupeds whose scapula, on the contrary, is wanting in the cartilage of prolongation (in the _clawed_,[7] such as the cat and dog), the superior border of the scapula is visible, especially when the animal is resting on its fore-limbs, particularly when it crouches; at such a time the skin is markedly raised by that border; and the spinous processes of the vertebræ, beyond which it projects, occupy the bottom of a fossa (Fig. 15). The internal surface of the scapula is turned towards the ribs; it is known, as in man (in whom this surface is anterior), as the subscapular fossa. [7] For the definition of this word, see p. 37. [Illustration: FIG. 14.--VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION, AT THE SITE OF THE SHOULDERS, OF THE THORAX OF THE HORSE (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE). 1, Outline of the thorax at the level of the third dorsal vertebra; 2, 2, scapula; 3, spinal border of the scapula; 4, cartilage of prolongation; 5, contour of the skin.] [Illustration: FIG. 15.--VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION, AT THE PLANE OF THE SHOULDERS, OF THE THORAX OF A DOG (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE). 1, Outline of the thorax at the level of the third dorsal vertebra; 2, 2, scapula; 3, spinal border of the scapula; 4, contour of the skin.] Its external surface is divided into two parts by the spine of the scapula; which, in some animals, terminates inferiorly in a flat and clearly distinct process, the homologue of the acromion process of the human scapula. The two regions separated by the spine are known as the supraspinous fossa and the infraspinous fossa. The supraspinous fossa is anterior to the spine, and the infraspinous is posterior to it. The surfaces of the scapula are, in quadrupeds, flatter than in the human being, and in particular the subscapular fossa, which is also less concave. Some authors attribute this to the lesser curvature of the ribs in quadrupeds. A few words will suffice to prove that there must be another reason. The scapula is not in immediate contact with the ribs; the subscapular fossa is not moulded on them. Besides, the form of the scapula is, as in other parts of the skeleton, dependent on the disposition of muscles, and the development of these latter is correlated to the extent and energy of the movements which the individual is able or required to execute. But the movements which those muscles produce (more especially the rotation of the humerus) are, in quadrupeds, less extensive than in the human being; and, consequently, the muscles which produce them are, proportionally, less strongly developed. The inferior angle (superior and external in man), situated at the junction of the cervical and axillary borders, presents the glenoid cavity, which, looking downwards, receives the articular surface of the superior extremity of the bone of the arm--that is to say, the head of the humerus. Above this cavity, on the lower part of the cervical border, is situated a tubercle which reminds us of the coracoid process of the human scapula. The region occupied by the glenoid cavity is separated from the body of the bone by a constriction--the neck of the scapula. In birds the scapula is elongated in a direction parallel to the vertebral column, and very narrow in the opposite (Fig. 18): it is also flat, and has no spine. Its coracoid process is represented by a peculiar bone--the coracoidean or coracoid bone--which we shall describe later on when we come to the study of the clavicle and of the anterior region of the shoulder (see p. 26). =The Clavicle.=--The clavicle is found only in the human being, and in animals whose anterior limbs, possessing great freedom of movement in all directions, require that the scapula should possess a point of support which, while affording this, can be displaced with it, or draw it in certain directions. Now, this point of support is furnished by the clavicle. In animals possessed of hoofs (ungulates), such as the sheep, ox, and horse, the clavicle does not exist. Indeed, in them the freedom of movement of the anterior limbs is limited; they move by projection in the forward and backward directions only; they merely fulfil the functions of giving support to and carrying about the body. The clavicle is rudimentary in the cat and the dog; in the cat it is a small, elongated bone (Fig. 16), 2 centimetres in length, thin and curved, connected with the sternum and the scapula by ligamentous bundles. In the dog it is represented by a small osseous plate only (Fig. 17), which is not connected with any of the neighbouring bones. It is on the deep surface of a muscle which passes from the head and neck to the humerus (mastoido-humeral, a muscle common to the arm, neck, and head) in which this rudimentary bone is found to be developed. The clavicle exists in perfect state in mammals which use their limbs for digging, grasping, or flying; the insectivora (hedgehog, mole) and some rodents (squirrel, woodchuck) are provided with it. The cheiroptera (bats) possess an extremely well-developed clavicle, on account of the varied movements which their thoracic limbs execute. [Illustration: FIG. 16.--LEFT CLAVICLE OF THE CAT: SUPERIOR SURFACE (NATURAL SIZE). 1, Internal extremity; 2, external extremity.] [Illustration: FIG. 17.--CLAVICLE OF THE DOG (NATURAL SIZE).] This formation of the shoulder which favours flight in the bat is even more remarkable in birds. In these latter (Fig. 18) the clavicles, fused together by their lower extremities, form one bone, having the shape of the letter V or U, which is known as the _fourchette_; this bone, acting as a true spring, keeps the shoulders apart, and prevents their approximation during the energetic movements which flight necessitates. In birds whose power of flight is strong, the two limbs of this bone are widely separated and thick, and the fourchette is U-shaped. Those whose flight is awkward and but slightly energetic have the limbs of the fourchette slender; they unite at a more acute angle, and the bone is V shaped. Furthermore, a bone named the _coracoid_ joins the scapula to the sternum; this bone, often fused with the scapula, where it contributes to the formation of the glenoid cavity, represents in birds the coracoid process of the human scapula. If we fancy this process directed inwards, and sufficiently lengthened to join the sternum, we shall have an idea of the disposition of the bone we are now discussing, and the reasons for which the name has been chosen by which it is designated. The coracoid bone, like the fourchette which it reinforces, offers to the wings a degree of support proportionate to the efforts developed by those limbs; for this reason it is thick and solid in birds of powerful flight. [Illustration: FIG. 18.--SKELETON OF THE SHOULDER OF A BIRD (VULTURE): ANTERO-EXTERNAL VIEW OF THE LEFT SIDE. 1, Left clavicle; 2, inferior portion of the right clavicle, forming by its ankylosis with that of the other side the fourchette; 3, coracoid bone; 4, scapula; 5, articular surface for humerus; 6, superior half of the sternum; 7, keel of sternum; 8, spinous process of the dorsal vertebræ; 9, superior ribs; 10, process of one of these ribs; 11, inferior ribs.] The superior extremity of each branch of the fourchette, at the level of its junction with the coracoid and the scapula, bounds, with these latter, a foramen which gives passage to the tendon of the elevator muscle of the wing, or small pectoral. The importance of the fourchette being, as we have seen, in proportion to the movements of flying, it is easy to understand that the bone is not found in the ostrich. The Arm A single bone, the humerus, forms the skeleton of this portion of the thoracic limb. =The Humerus.=--The bone of the arm is, in quadrupeds, inclined from above downwards and from before backwards. It is, with relation to other regions, short in proportion as the metacarpus is elongated, and as the number of digits is lessened. In the horse, for example, whose metacarpus is long, and in which but one digit is apparent, the humerus is very short. The slight development in length of the humerus explains its close application to the side of the animal as far as the elbow. In animals in which the humerus is longer, the bone is slightly free, as well as the elbow, at its inferior extremity. Later on we will return to the consideration of this peculiarity and of the proportions of the humerus, after we have studied the other parts of the fore-limbs. The humerus in quadrupeds is inflected like the letter S; in man this general form is less accentuated, the humerus being almost straight. On its body, which appears twisted on its own axis, we find the musculo-spiral groove,[8] which crosses the external surface, and is very deep in some animals. Above this groove, and on the external surface, there exists a rough surface which is the impression of the deltoid. In some species this rugosity is very prominent, and is called _the tuberosity of the deltoid_; it is prolonged downwards by a border which forms the anterior crest of the musculo-spiral groove and limits this latter in front. The external border of the bone, or posterior crest of the groove, limits it behind. [8] It would be going outside our province to discuss whether the humerus is really twisted on its axis. This question, often discussed, has been solved in some recent works in the following manner: the humerus has undergone torsion at the level of its superior extremity, and not at the level of its body; this does not authorize us further to accord any definite sense to the denomination 'groove of torsion' (musculo-spiral groove). That which we must especially remember in connection with this fact, is, as we shall afterwards see, the difference of direction which the articular head presents according as the torsion has been more or less considerable: because this is established, according to the same order, in man and in quadrupeds. The superior extremity is enlarged, and remarkable in three portions which it presents; these are: an articular surface and two tuberosities. The articular surface, or head of the humerus, smooth and round, is in contact with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. This head in the human skeleton is directed upwards and inwards; in quadrupeds its direction is upwards and backwards. The inferior extremity, having in both one and the other its long axis directed transversely, and the point of the elbow looking backwards in all, the result is that the head of the humerus is not situated vertically above the same regions; in the first, it is almost directly above the internal part of this extremity; in the latter, it is situated above its posterior surface, or the point of the elbow in the complete skeleton. This difference of direction is correlated with the position of the scapula, the glenoid cavity of which, as we have already seen, is in man turned outwards, whereas in quadrupeds it looks downwards. In the latter case the scapula consequently rests on the head of the humerus; and this position is most favourable for the performance of the functions which the anterior limbs have to fulfil in these latter. Of the tuberosities of the head of the humerus, one is situated on the external aspect--it is the great tuberosity, or _trochiter_; the other is placed internally--it is the small tuberosity, or _trochin_. The great tuberosity is divided into three parts--summit, convexity, and crest; these different parts give insertion to the muscles of the shoulder. We recollect that the facets (anterior, middle, and posterior) of the great tuberosity of the humerus in man give attachment to the muscles of the same region. The head of the humerus in the human body projects above the tuberosities. We shall see afterwards, when dealing with some special quadrupeds, that in some of these, on the other hand, the tuberosities are on a higher level than the articular head of the bone. Between the two tuberosities is the bicipital groove. In man, the superior extremity of the humerus, although covered by the deltoid, reveals its presence by elevating the corresponding portion of the latter. In quadrupeds, the anterior part of this extremity, although similarly covered by muscular bundles, produces a prominence under the skin. This prominence is situated at the summit of the angle formed by the opposing directions of the scapula and the bone of the arm, and constitutes what is known by the name of the _point of the shoulder_, or of the _point of the arm_. The inferior extremity, transversely enlarged, presents an undulating articular surface, which reminds us of the trochlea and the condyle of the human humerus; on which, however, the condyle is more sharply defined from the trochlea. In the human skeleton, the internal lip of the trochlea descends lower than the external; and also lower than the condyle. In the bear, the cat, and the dog, it is the same. In the ox and the sheep, the condyle is lower than the trochlea, but only very little lower. In the horse the arrangement is still the same, but a little more accentuated. On the lateral parts of this extremity we find: internally, a prominence, the epitrochlea; and, externally, another, the epicondyle. It is from this latter that the crest arises, which, passing upwards, forms the posterior limit of the groove of torsion. The two prominences, which we have just described from a general point of view, present special arrangements which it is necessary to point out. When we examine the form of the outline of the inferior extremity of the humerus in man, the bear, the cat, the dog, the ox, and the horse, we find in following this order that the extremity tends to become narrow transversely, and that the epicondyle and the epitrochlea are less and less prominent on the external and internal aspects respectively. These two processes, indeed, project backwards; the epitrochlea always remaining more developed than the epicondyle. Because of this projection backwards, the cavity situated on the posterior surface of the inferior extremity, the olecranon fossa, is very deep, more so than in the humerus of man. Its borders being thus formed by the two processes, are very prominent. In front we find the coronoid fossa, which is less deep than that of which we have just spoken. There exists in some mammals an osseous canal, situated above the epitrochlea, and known as the _supratrochlear canal_ (Fig. 19). It is bounded by a plate of bone which at its middle portion is detached from the shaft of the humerus, and blends with the latter at both its extremities. The brachial artery and median nerve pass through the foramen. [Illustration: FIG. 19.--INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE LEFT HUMERUS OF A FELIDE (LION). 1, Epitrochlea; 2, supra-epitrochlear foramen.] [Illustration: FIG. 20.--INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE LEFT HUMAN HUMERUS, SHOWING THE PRESENCE OF A SUPRATROCHLEAR PROCESS. 1, Epitrochlea; 2, supra-epitrochlear process.] A similar condition is sometimes found, as an abnormality, in man, which presents itself under the following aspect (Fig. 20): an osseous prominence more or less long, in the shape of a crochet-needle--supra-epitrochlear process--situated 5 or 6 centimetres above the epitrochlea; the summit of this process gives attachment to a fibrous band, which is inserted by its other end into the epitrochlea and the internal intermuscular aponeurosis. The fibro-osseous ring thus formed gives passage to the brachial artery and the median nerve, or in case of a premature division of this artery to the ulnar branch of the same.[9] [9] For further details of this anomaly, see Testut, 'The Epitrochlear Process in Man' (_International Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_, 1889); A. Nicolas, 'New Studies on the Supratrochlear Process in Man' (_Review of Biology of the North of France_, t. iii., 1890-1891). There is also found in some mammals a perforation of the thin plate of bone which, in others, separates the olecranon fossa from the coronoid. This perforation is sometimes found as an abnormality in the human humerus. As does the sternum and the skeleton of the shoulder, the humerus of birds presents differences correlated to the functions which the thoracic limbs are destined to fulfil. Lying on the side of the thorax, directed obliquely downwards and backwards (Fig. 21), it is proportionately longer in individuals of powerful flight than in those which fly less or not at all. In the vulture it projects beyond the posterior part of the pelvis; in the cock it does not even reach the anterior border of the same. To these differences in length are added differences in volume and in the development of the processes which serve for muscular attachment, which are more considerable in birds of powerful flight. The humerus is so placed that the radial border, external in man and quadrupeds, looks upwards, with the result that the surface of the bone of the arm, which in these latter is anterior, in the former looks outwards. The humeral head, which is turned forwards and a little inwards, is convex and elongated in the vertical direction. Behind and above this head is found a crest for the insertion of muscles. It is the same for the region below, where there is a tuberosity whose inferior surface presents a pretty large opening which looks inwards to a fossa from the floor of which a number of minute openings communicate with the interior of the bone. This is the pneumatic foramen of the humerus. It is of interest to remember in connection with this subject that in birds, in keeping with the conditions of flight, every system of organs is adapted to diminish the weight of the body. We particularly draw attention to the osseous framework, the structure of which is such that the weight of the animal is greatly lessened. This condition is secured by the pneumaticity. The bone consists of a cover of compact tissue, which, instead of enclosing marrow, is hollowed out by cavities which contain air, and communicate with special pouches, the air-sacs, which are appendages of the lungs.[10] [10] The presence of air in the bones does not seem to be always associated with the power of flight; as a matter of fact, we find air spaces in the bones of some birds which do not fly (E. J. Marey, 'The Flight of Birds,' Paris, 1890, p. 51). [Illustration: FIG. 21.--SKELETON OF A BIRD (VULTURE): LEFT SURFACE. 1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, cervical vertebræ; 4, spinous processes of the dorsal vertebræ; 5, coccygeal vertebræ; 6, sternum; 7, keel; 8, superior ribs; 9, inferior ribs; 10, clavicle; 11, coracoid bone (for the details of the skeleton of the shoulder, see Fig. 18); 12, humerus; 13, radius; 14, ulna; 15, carpus; 16, hand (for details of the skeleton of this region, see Fig. 31); 17, ilium; 18, ischium; 19, pubis (for the details of the pelvis, see Fig. 46); 20, femur; 21, tibia; 22, fibula; 23, osseous nodule, which some anatomists think represents the calcaneum; it is the sole vestige of the tarsus; 24, metatarsus; 25, foot; 26, first toe (for the details of the skeleton of the foot, see Fig. 48).] The antibrachial extremity of the humerus is flattened from without inwards. It terminates in two articular surfaces, which articulate with the radius and ulna. The olecranon process of the ulna being slightly developed, it follows that the olecranon fossa is not large; neither is the coronoid. General View of the Form of the Forearm and Hand We now proceed to the study of the two regions of the fore-limbs which present the greatest variety in regard to the number of bones and also in regard to form and proportions. These two regions are the forearm and the hand. It is first of all necessary to say that in man, when the fore-limb hangs beside the body, and the dorsum of the hand looks backwards, the two bones of the forearm are parallel, and that this position is known by the name of _supination_. It is also necessary to remember that there is another attitude, in which the radius, crossing the ulna, and carrying the hand with it, displaces the latter in such a way that the palmar surface looks backwards. This second position is known as _pronation_. Let us now suppose that a man wishes to walk in the attitude of a quadruped. It will be necessary, in order that his upper limbs, being for the moment anterior ones, may act as members of support, to place the forearm in pronation, in order that, as is more normal, the hands may rest on the ground by their palmar surfaces. In this position the radius, being rotated on its own axis at its upper extremity and around the ulna in the rest of its extent, shall have its inferior extremity situated on the inner side of the corresponding extremity of the latter. Such is the situation of the bones of the forearm and the attitude of the hand in quadrupeds. In short, quadrupeds have their anterior members in the position of pronation. The individual whom we have just supposed placed in the attitude of a quadruped would be able to maintain this position by pressing on the ground more or less extensive portions of his hands; the whole palm of the hand may be applied to the ground (Fig. 22); or the fingers only--that is to say, the phalanges (Fig. 23); or the extremities of the fingers only--that is to say, the third phalanges (Fig. 24). This last position, which is certainly difficult to maintain, should here be regarded rather as theoretical. We shall meet with each of these modes of support in certain groups of animals. Thus, the bear, badger, and the majority of rodents, have the paws applied to the ground by the whole extent of the palmar surface of the hand, from the wrist to the tips of the fingers. They are therefore called plantigrade, from the analogy, in this case, of the palm of the hand to the plantar surface, or sole of the foot. [Illustration: FIG. 22.--THE HUMAN HAND RESTING FOR ITS WHOLE EXTENT ON ITS PALMAR SURFACE: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE.] In others, such as the lion, tiger, panther, cat, wolf, and fox, the support is made no longer on the whole extent of the palmar surface, but on the corresponding surface of the fingers only--the metacarpus is turned back, and, consequently, the wrist--that is to say, the carpus--is removed from the ground. These are the digitigrades. Lastly, the ruminants (sheep, oxen, deer, etc.), and also the pig, ass, and horse, rest on the third phalanx only. In them not only is the metacarpus turned back, but also the two first phalanges. The wrist is very far removed from the ground. In these animals, the third phalanx is enclosed in a case of horn, a nail (the hoof), and because the support of the limb is on that nail, the name of unguligrades has been given them. Nevertheless, as the point of support is on the third phalanx, which is also known by the name of phalangette, we are of opinion that, in order to specify definitely, although they walk on their fingers, as do the digitigrades, the support is provided not by the whole extent of those appendages, they might receive the name of phalangettigrades. [Illustration: FIG. 23.--THE HUMAN HAND RESTING ON ITS PHALANGES: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE.] [Illustration: FIG. 24.--THE HUMAN HAND RESTING ON THE TIPS OF SOME OF ITS THIRD PHALANGES: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL VIEW.] It is necessary among the ruminants to make an exception of the camel and the llama, which are digitigrades. Just in proportion as the hand is raised from the ground, as we have just seen in passing from the plantigrades to the digitigrades and unguligrades, the number of bones of that region diminishes, the bones of the forearm coalesce, and the ulna tends to disappear; the hand becomes less and less suitable for grasping, climbing, or digging, so as to form an organ exclusively adapted for walking and supporting the body. Thus, the bear (plantigrade) has five digits, and the power of performing the movements of supination and pronation. Indeed, we know with what facility this animal is able to move his paws in every direction, and climb a tree by grasping it with his fore-limbs. It is well known, however, that no animal except the ape can perform the movements of rotation of the radius around the ulna with the same facility as man; and that none possesses the same degree of suppleness, extent, and variety of movements of the forearm and hand. In the digitigrades there is one finger which is but slightly developed, and which is always removed from the ground--that is, the thumb: there is also a little less mobility of the radius around the ulna. In the ungulates the limbs are simply required to perform the movements of walking, and form veritable columns of support, which become the more solid as they are less divided. The bones of the forearm are fused together; there is therefore no possibility of rotation of the radius around the ulna. The metacarpus is reduced to a single piece, which in the horse constitutes what is known as the _canon_. The number of digits becomes diminished, so that in ruminants there are not more than two, and in the horse but one. We should, however, add that, up to the present, we have taken into account only perfect digits, those that rest on the ground. We shall see further on that there exist supplementary digits, but that they are only slightly developed, and are represented in some cases by mere osseous spurs; it is this fact that has permitted us to ignore them in the general study which we have just made. Because, as we have already said, the unguligrades have the inferior extremity of the digit encased in a horny sheath, which forms the hoof of the horse and the corresponding structures (_onglons_) in the ox, those animals have been placed in a special group, which is based on that peculiarity--that is, the group of ungulate mammals. The plantigrades and digitigrades, of which the paws have their surfaces of support strengthened by an epidermic sole and fatty pads, have the free extremities of the third phalanges covered on their dorsal surface by nails or claws; hence they are named _unguiculate_ mammals. The bat and birds have the bones of the forearm so arranged that the radius cannot rotate around the ulna. This is necessary in order that during flight, when the wing is being lowered, the radius and hand shall not be able to turn; for, if such rotation took place, each stroke of the wing would place it in a vertical position, which would occasion a loss of resistance incompatible with the effect to be obtained. The Forearm The skeleton of the forearm in quadrupeds is vertical in direction; consequently, it forms with the arm an angle open anteriorly; this is well seen on examining the lateral surface. If we examine it on its anterior surface, we find a slight obliquity directed downwards and inwards. In animals in which the bones of the forearm are separate--that is to say, susceptible of supination and pronation--we find a more close resemblance to those of the human skeleton. The ulna, the superior extremity of which always projects beyond that of the radius, has a shaft which gradually narrows from above downwards. Its inferior extremity is terminated by a round head in those animals in which the ulna is fully developed; in others, as it is atrophied, it ends in a thin, long process. The ulna presents at its superior extremity a posterior process, the olecranon, which forms the point of the elbow. We find on the anterior surface of the same, another process, the coronoid. It is necessary to dwell on the relations of these parts. In man the head of the radius is situated at the anterior part of the external surface of the superior extremity of the ulna (Fig. 25); indeed, the small sigmoid cavity with which the head articulates is situated on the outer side of the coronoid process, and this apophysis is placed in front. In the plantigrades and digitigrades the head of the radius is placed still more forward, so much so that it is situated almost in front of the superior extremity of the ulna (Fig. 26). In the unguligrades it is placed directly in front of this latter (Fig. 27). Further, the displacement of the radius is made at the expense of the superior extremity of the neighbouring bone; the radius appears to appropriate more and more the parts which in man belong exclusively to the ulna--for example, the coronoid process. In the plantigrades and the digitigrades half of the process still belongs to the ulna and the remainder to the radius. In the ungulates--the horse, for example--the coronoid process belongs to the radius; the ulna, situated behind the latter, is correspondingly diminished in size. [Illustration: FIG. 25.--SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE HUMAN FOREARM: LEFT SIDE, SUPERIOR SURFACE. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, olecranon process; 4, coronoid process.] [Illustration: FIG. 26.--SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF THE DOG: LEFT LIMB, SUPERIOR SURFACE. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, olecranon process; 4, coronoid process.] In brief, when we study this region of the skeleton in plantigrades, then in digitigrades, and finally in unguligrades, we find a kind of progressive absorption of one of the two bones (ulna) by the other (radius), which thus becomes the more developed. It is easy to explain this partial disappearance of the ulna. When the forearm is capable of performing the movements of pronation and supination, the ulna is completely developed, for it is in its small sigmoid cavity that the head of the radius revolves, and it is around its inferior extremity, the head, that the corresponding extremity of the radius turns. But when the movements of rotation of the forearm do not exist, the inferior extremity of the ulna becomes functionally useless and disappears. As to its rôle in the movements of the region of the wrist, that is nil, for we may remember--we will observe it again when we come to treat of the articulations--that the hand articulates with the radius alone (radio-carpal articulation); this is the reason that, when the forearm possesses the fullest mobility, the hand follows the movements which that bone makes around the ulna. [Illustration: FIG. 27.--SUPERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF THE HORSE: LEFT LIMB, SUPERIOR SURFACE. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, olecranon process; 4, coronoid process.] It is not so with the articulation at the elbow-joint; there it is the ulna, which, with the humerus, forms the essential parts (humero-ulnar articulation); its olecranon process limits the movement of extension of the forearm. It is for this reason that, even in those quadrupeds in which the ulna is atrophied, the olecranon process presents a relatively considerable degree of development. [Illustration: FIG. 28.--INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF A MAN: LEFT SIDE, POSTERIOR SURFACE, POSITION OF SUPINATION. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; A, groove for the long abductor and short extensor muscles of the thumb; B, groove for the radial muscles; C, groove for the long extensor of the thumb; D, groove for the special extensor of the index finger and of the common extensor of the fingers; E, groove for the proper extensor of the little finger; F, groove for the posterior ulna.] [Illustration: FIG. 29.--INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONES OF THE FOREARM OF THE DOG: LEFT SIDE, ANTERIOR SURFACE, NORMAL POSITION--THAT IS, THE POSITION OF PRONATION. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; A, groove for the long abductor and for the short extensor of the thumb; B, groove for the radials; D, groove for the long extensor of the thumb, the special extensor of the index-finger, and the common extensor of the fingers; E, groove for the special extensor of the little finger.] We know that on the posterior surface of the inferior extremity of the bones of the human forearm are grooves in which pass the tendons of the posterior and external muscles which, belonging to this region, are directed for insertion towards the hand. In animals, because of the movement of rotation of the radius, the surface of this bone, which is anterior, corresponds to the posterior surface of the same in man. (To possess a clear conception of this, it is necessary to remember that, in this latter, the bones of the forearm are always described as in the position of supination; they are thus represented in Fig. 28. The direction of the surfaces of the radius is the reverse of that in animals, since the latter have the radius always in a state of pronation.) Consequently it is on the anterior surface of the bone that we find the grooves concerning which it is necessary to give some details. Regarding them in passing from the radius towards the ulna, those grooves give passage to the tendons of the muscles whose names occupy the columns on p. 43. The letters which are referred to each serve to define their order, and to facilitate reference to Figs. 28, 29, and 30. [Illustration: FIG. 30.--INFERIOR EXTREMITY OF THE BONE OF THE FOREARM OF THE HORSE: LEFT SIDE, ANTERIOR SURFACE. 1, Radius; A, groove for the long abductor and the short extensor of the thumb; B, groove for the radials; D, groove for the common extensor of the digits; E, groove for the special extensor of the little finger.] We should mention that the groove E is situated, both in man and in the dog, at the level of the inferior radio-ulnar articulation; but that in the horse, as the ulna does not exist at that level, the groove is situated on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the radius. It is necessary to add that, in some horses, the ulna is, nevertheless, represented in this region by a tongue-like process of bone; and in such cases the groove is situated in front of this process, at the level of the line of coalescence, which there represents the articulation. -----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- MAN. | DOG. | HORSE. -----------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- A. Long abductor of the|A. Long abductor of the|A. _Oblique extensor of of the thumb, and | thumb and short | the metacarpus_, the short extensor of | extensor of the | homologue of the the thumb. | thumb united as one | long abductor of the | muscle, _the oblique| thumb and the short | extensor of the | extensor of the | metacarpus_.[11] | thumb, united as one | | muscle. | | B. First and second |B. The two radials |B. The radials external radials | blended superiorly, | represented by a (_extensor carpi | distinct inferiorly;| single muscle, _the radialis longior_ | this is _the | anterior extensor of and _brevior_). | anterior extensor of| the metacarpus_. | the metacarpus_. | | | C. Long extensor of the|C. Long extensor of the|C. The long extensor of thumb. | thumb and special | the thumb and the | extensor of the | special extensor of | index finger united | the index are | superiorly. These | absent. | muscles pass in the | | following groove. | | | D. Special extensor of |D. Common extensor of |D. _Anterior extensor the index finger and| the digits and the | of the phalanges_, the common extensor | two preceding | the homologue of the of the fingers. | muscles. | common extensor of | | the digits. | | E. Special extensor of |E. _Extensor of the |E. Lateral extensor of the little finger. | third, fourth, and | the phalanges, the | fifth digits_, or | homologue of the | _the lateral | special extensor of | extensor of the | the little finger. | digits_, the | | homologue of the | | special extensor of | | the little finger. | | | F. The posterior ulnar |There does not exist on the forearm a groove (_extensor carpi |for the posterior ulnar muscle, or _external ulnaris_). |flexor of the metacarpus_. -----------------------+----------------------------------------------- [11] The words printed in italics are the names used in veterinary anatomy. It is also useful to note, with reference to the groove F, in which passes, in man, the tendon of the posterior ulnar muscle, that, when the forearm is in pronation, the radius alone being displaced, we can only see this groove on the surface which looks backwards; and that it is then separated from the groove which contains the tendon of the special extensor of the little finger by an interval equal to the thickness of the head of the ulna.[12] When the forearm is supinated, the two grooves are found, on the other hand, one beside the other: and the tendons which they contain are very naturally in contact. [12] Édouard Cuyer, 'Shape of the Region of the Wrist in Supination and Pronation' (_Bulletin de la Société d'Anthropologie_, Paris, 1888). In birds the forearm is flexed on the arm, and the latter being directed downwards and backwards, the former is, consequently, directed upwards and forwards. Further, because of the position of the humerus, which, as we mentioned on p. 32, has its inferior extremity so turned that the surface which is anterior in man becomes external, the radius, instead of being outside the ulna, is placed above it. This latter is larger than the radius, but its olecranon process is very slightly developed. The Hand The hand in animals, as in man, is formed of three parts--the carpus, metacarpus, and fingers. In man, the forearm and the hand being described in the position of supination; the bones of the carpus are named in passing from the most external to the most internal--that is to say, from that which corresponds to the radial side of the forearm to that which corresponds to the ulnar side. In animals in which, as we know, but it is not unprofitable to repeat, the hand is in pronation, the radial side of the forearm being placed inside, we enumerate the carpal bones in counting the most internal as the first; this is the only method which permits us, in taking our point of departure from the human skeleton as our standard, to recognise the homologies of the bones of the carpal region. These bones, eight in number, are arranged in two transverse rows, of which one, the first, is superior or antibrachial; the other, the second, is inferior or metacarpal. Each of these rows contains four bones. Considered in the order we have indicated above--that is to say, proceeding from the radial to the ulnar side--they are thus named: scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, and pisiform, in the first row; trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform, in the second. The number of these bones is not the same in all animals on account of the coalescence or absence of some. In each row the bones are placed side by side, with the exception of the pisiform, which being placed on the palmar surface of the cuneiform, produces a small projection in man, but a very pronounced one in quadrupeds. The pisiform is called the _hooked bone_ in some veterinary anatomies. If we consider the hook which it forms, we may recognise that the name is appropriate; but from the point of view of comparison with the human carpus, the name is unfortunate, for it creates confusion between the true pisiform (the fourth bone in the upper row), and the last bone in the lower row, which is the veritable unciform bone. We do not here seek for similarity of form, but homology of regions; and it is only by using the same names to denote the same things that we can succeed in determining such homology. Taken as a whole, the bones of the carpus form a mass which, by its superior border, articulates with the bones of the forearm, and by its inferior border is in relation with the metacarpal region. Its dorsal surface (anterior in quadrupeds) is slightly convex; its palmar surface (posterior in quadrupeds) is excavated, and forms a groove in which pass the tendons of the flexors of the fingers. This last, in man, has the appearance of a gutter, because of the prominences caused by the projection of the internal and external bones beyond their fellows. In quadrupeds the palmar groove is especially determined by the pisiform bone, of which we have just mentioned the great development. The region occupied by the carpus, in the unguligrades, is known as the _knee_; it would have been more appropriately named had it been called the _wrist_. The number of the metacarpal bones in mammals never exceeds five, but it often falls below it; the same is true for the digits. The first are generally equal in number to the latter; an exception is met with in ruminants, whose two metacarpals coalescing soon after birth, form but one bone; this, the _canon_ bone, articulates with two digits. The number of metacarpals and digits diminishes in proportion as the limbs cease to be organs of prehension, and become more exclusively organs of support and locomotion. The number of phalanges is two for the thumb and three for each of the other digits; except in the cetaceans, in which they are more numerous. In the bat, the metacarpals and phalanges are very long, and form the skeleton of the wing; these phalanges are not furnished with nails; the thumb, which is very short, is alone provided with one (Fig. 8). With regard to the relative dimensions of the bones of the metacarpus, it is necessary to remember that, in the human being, the second metacarpal is the longest; then, in the order of decrease, come the third, fourth, fifth, and first. In quadrupeds we shall also find differences in length (see the chapter relating to the anterior limbs in certain animals), but the order of decrease is not always that which we have just mentioned. In man the articular surface, situated at the inferior extremity of each of the metacarpals, is rounded, and is called the head. This allows the first phalanx, which is in relation with that surface, to be displaced in every direction; indeed, this phalanx can not only be flexed and extended, but it can also be moved laterally; this latter movement allows of the fingers being separated and drawn together. In quadrupeds which can only perform the movements of flexion and extension of the digits--for example, the horse--the inferior extremity of the metacarpal has not a rounded head of a regular outline; it is marked by a prominent median crest, directed from before backwards, so that the articular surfaces, which fit more exactly, form a sort of hinge which allows of backward and forward movements only, and permits no lateral displacement. In man, at the level of the inferior extremity of the first metacarpal, in the vicinity of the articulation of this bone with the first phalanx of the thumb, we find two sesamoid bones--small bones developed in the fibrous tissue which surrounds the articulation. We also meet with such structures, but more rarely, at the level of the corresponding articulation of the index and auricular digits; and, more rarely still, at those of the middle and ring fingers. In quadrupeds, these bones are normally developed, and we shall see afterwards that in some animals, as they reach a considerable size, they are able to influence the external outlines; we shall see this, for example, in the horse. The hand, in birds, is directed obliquely downwards and backwards (Fig. 31). For the better understanding of its position in relation to the forearm, we should remember that this latter, as we have described (p. 44), directed obliquely upwards and forwards, has the radius placed above the ulna; the hand being oblique in the opposite direction and placed under the forearm is, by this arrangement, inclined towards the ulnar border of the latter. [Illustration: FIG. 31.--SKELETON OF THE SUPERIOR LIMB OF A BIRD (VULTURE): LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Humerus; 2, radius; 3, ulna; 4, radial bone of the carpus; 5, ulnar bone of the carpus; 6, first metacarpal; 7, second metacarpal; 8, third metacarpal; 9, first digit, the homologue of the thumb; 10, first phalanx of the second digit; 11, second phalanx of the second digit; 12, third digit.] For the rest, in order to be able to distinguish readily the corresponding parts in the hand of a bird and that of a man, we merely have to place the human forearm obliquely, in a direction upwards and forwards (Fig. 32), the radius being above; this position we can obtain by semi-pronation; then, to incline strongly the hand downwards and backwards, moving the ulnar border of the hand towards the ulna; the thumb is then anterior, the little finger posterior, and the palm of the hand is turned towards the trunk. The carpus in birds is formed by two bones only, with which the skeleton of the forearm articulates. That which is in contact with the radius is called the _radial bone of the carpus_; and that with which the ulna articulates is named the _ulnar bone_. [Illustration: FIG. 32.--SUPERIOR LIMB OF THE HUMAN BEING, THE DIFFERENT SEGMENTS BEING PLACED IN THE ATTITUDE WHICH THE CORRESPONDING PARTS OCCUPY IN BIRDS: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE.] The metacarpus is formed of three bones; the first, which is very short, is fused at its superior extremity with the adjoining one; this latter and the third, both longer than the first, but of unequal size, are fused at their extremities. The metacarpal, which articulates with the radial bone of the carpus, is larger than the one which is in line with the ulna. To the metacarpus succeed three digits, of which the central is the longest, and is formed of two phalanges; the other two are formed each by a small, stylet-shaped bone. The middle finger, situated on the prolongation of the metacarpal, which articulates with the radial bone of the carpus, has its first phalanx large and flattened transversely; this phalanx seems to have been formed by the union of two bones of unequal development; the second phalanx is styloid in form. As to the other two fingers, they are placed, one in front and the other behind; the first, which articulates with the short metacarpal, fused at its upper end with the principal bone of the metacarpus, in position represents the thumb. The other, which is the third finger, articulates with the inferior extremity of the thinnest bone of the metacarpus; it is sometimes closely united to the corresponding border of the first phalanx of the large--that is to say, of the median--digit. The Anterior Limbs in Certain Animals =Plantigrades=: =Bear= (Fig. 33).--The scapula of the bear approaches in shape to a trapezium, of which the angles have been rounded off. The anterior border (cervical) is strongly convex in the part next the glenoid cavity. The junction of the superior (spinal) and the cervical border forms almost a right angle, the summit of which corresponds to the origin of the spine. At its posterior angle there is a prominence, directed downwards, the surface of which is hollowed and is separated from the infraspinous fossa by a crest, so that at this level a third fossa is added to the infraspinous one. The neck of the scapula is but slightly marked. The acromion is prominent, and projects a little beyond the glenoid cavity. The clavicle is rudimentary, but, as an example of the complete development of this bone in plantigrade quadrupeds, we may cite the marmoset. The humerus is furnished at its superior extremity with a large tuberosity, wide, and situated in front of the head of the bone; the effect of this is that the bicipital groove is internal. As in man, the great tuberosity does not reach so high as the humeral head, but it approaches more nearly to that level. The deltoid impression is very extensive, and descends pretty far down on the body of the bone. The epitrochlea is prominent; the epicondyle is surmounted by a well-marked crest, curved and flexuous in outline. [Illustration: FIG. 33.--SKELETON OF THE BEAR: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE. 1. Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra; 6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, fourteenth and last dorsal vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebræ; 9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebræ; 11, sternum; 12, ninth and last sternal rib; 13, costal cartilages; 14, acromion process; 15, third fossa on the external surface of the scapula; 16, great tuberosity of the humerus; 17, musculo-spiral groove; 18, epicondyle; 19, radius; 20, ulna; 21, olecranon process; 22, carpus; 23, pisiform; 24, metacarpus; 25, phalanges; 26, ilium, external fossa; 27, pubis; 28, tuberosity of the ischium; 29, obturator foramen; 30, great trochanter of the femur; 31, condyles of the femur; 32, patella, or knee-cap; 33, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 34, fibula; 35, tarsus; 36, calcaneum, or heel-bone; 37, metatarsus; 38, phalanges.] The articular surface, which is in contact with the radius, is not a regularly formed condyle; it is a little flattened on its anterior surface, and presents at this level a slight depression which corresponds to a small eminence on the anterior aspect of the superior extremity of the radius. The surface which articulates with the ulna, viewed on its anterior aspect, has the shape of a slightly-marked trochlea; except at the level of the internal lip, which, as in man, descends lower than the surface for articulation with the radius (condyle). Behind, the trochlea is more clearly defined. The bear possesses a considerable power of rotation of the radius; the bones of the forearm are joined only at their extremities, while in the remainder of their extent they are widely separated. The ulna terminates below in a head and a styloid process; these articulate with the two last bones of the first row of the carpus--viz., the cuneiform and pisiform. The bones of the carpus are seven in number, the scaphoid and the semilunar being fused together. The metacarpals, five in number, differ very little from one another in regard to length, though they increase in size from the first to the fifth; this may be demonstrated by looking at the palmar surface of the hand. It is the reverse of that which we find in man, for the fifth metacarpal is the thickest of all, and the first is the most slender. At the level of each metacarpo-phalangeal articulation are two sesamoid bones. The third digit is the longest. The terminal phalanges present two very different portions: one, the anterior, is curved and pointed; it serves to support the nail, whose shape it assumes; the other, posterior, forms a sort of sheath into which the base of the nail is received. The inferior portion of the posterior surface of this latter part articulates with the second phalanx in the case of each of the last four digits, but with the first phalanx in the case of the thumb. [Illustration: FIG. 34.--SKELETON OF THE DOG: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE. 1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra; 6, thirteenth and last dorsal vertebra; 7, lumbar vertebræ; 8, sacrum; 9, coccygeal vertebræ; 10, anterior extremity of the sternum; 11, xiphoid appendix; 12, ninth and last sternal rib; 13, costal cartilages; 14, spinal border of the scapula; 15, supraspinous fossa of the scapula; 16, infraspinous fossa of the scapula; 17, great tuberosity of the humerus; 18, deltoid impression; 19, musculo-spiral groove; 20, olecranon process; 21, radius; 22, carpus; 23, pisiform; 24, metacarpus; 25, sesamoid bones; 26, phalanges; 27, ilium, iliac crest; 28, pubis; 29, tuberosity of the ischium; 30, great trochanter of the femur; 31, patella, or knee-cap; 32, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 33, fibula; 34, tarsus; 35, calcaneum, or heel-bone; 36, metatarsus; 37, sesamoid bones; 38, phalanges.] [Illustration: FIG. 35.--SCAPULA OF THE DOG: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Posterior or axillary border; 2, superior or spinal border; 3, anterior or cervical border; 4, spine of scapula; 5, coracoid process; AA´, length of spinal border.] [Illustration: FIG. 36.--LEFT SCAPULA OF THE CAT: EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Posterior or axillary border; 2, superior or spinal border; 3, anterior or cervical border; 4, spine of the scapula; 5, coracoid process; AA´, length of the spinal border.] =Digitigrades=: =Cat=, =Dog= (Fig. 34).--In these animals the anterior (cervical) border of the scapula is convex; the posterior (axillary) border is straight or slightly concave. The supraspinous and infraspinous fossæ are of equal extent (Figs. 35 and 36). The neck is short. The spine of the scapula becomes more and more prominent towards its inferior extremity, where it ends in a twisted and inflexed portion, which represents the acromion process; this process terminates at the level of the glenoid cavity. The coracoid process is represented by a small tubercle, slightly curved inwards; this tubercle is situated above the glenoid cavity, at the inferior part of the cervical border. In the dog, the posterior angle, formed by the junction of the axillary and the superior (spinal) borders, is obtuse; the spine rises perpendicularly from the surface of the bone. The width of the scapula, measured at the level of the spinal border (from A to A´, Fig. 35), equals about half the length of the spine. We must, however, make an exception for the turnspit dog, in which the superior border equals three-fourths of that length. The scapula is, in this case, of a more compact type; it is broader, but shorter. In the cat, the anterior outline of the scapula, formed by the union of the cervical border and the corresponding half of the spinal, is more convex; the posterior angle is not obtuse, as in the dog. The spine is bent slightly downwards and backwards; before terminating in the acromion process it presents a triangular projection, the apex of which is directed downwards. The tubercle which represents the coracoid process is curved inwards more strongly than that of the dog, thus resembling more closely the appearance of this process in the human being. All proportions considered, the scapula of the cat is broader than that of the dog; its width, measured along the length of its spinal border (from A to A´, Fig. 36), equals three-fourths of the length of the spine. The clavicle is rudimentary; it is, however, better developed in the cat than in the dog. The clavicle of the cat is represented by a small, elongated bone, curved in outline, the convexity being turned forward; it is united to the acromion and the sternum by ligamentous fibres; that of the dog is merely a scale-like osseous plate situated on the posterior surface of a muscle of this region (see Figs. 16 and 17). The humerus is long and twisted in the shape of an S. The inferior articular surface has the form of a simple pulley, for the condyle is very slightly marked. The internal part of this articular surface descends lower than the external; this condition resembles that found in the human being, where the inner lip of the trochlea is lower than the condyle. In the dog, the olecranon fossa communicates with the coronoid by an opening. In the cat, there is a supra-epitrochlear canal (see Fig. 19), but no olecranon perforation. The bones of the forearm articulate at their extremities. The body of the radius is united to the body of the ulna by a short, thick, interosseous ligament; the fibres of this ligament, though short, do not prevent the production of some movements at the articulations of the bones. The radius so crosses the ulna that above, it is in front and external to the latter, while below, it is internal. This bone is flattened from front to back, and slightly convex anteriorly. Its superior extremity is formed, externally, of a portion which represents the head of the radius in man; internally, by another portion which represents half of the coronoid process of the ulna, which, in the human being, belongs exclusively to the latter (see p. 39, the encroachment of the radius on the ulna). This extremity is surrounded with a vertical articular surface which is placed in contact with a small cavity which is hollowed out on the ulna (the lesser sigmoid cavity); and presents at its superior aspect a surface which articulates with the inferior extremity of the humerus. The shaft of the bone has on its internal border rugosities analogous to the imprint of the pronator radii teres of the human skeleton; these rugosities, indeed, give insertion to a muscle of the same function, and bearing the same name. The inferior extremity, broader than the superior, is hollowed on its external aspect by a small cavity which receives the inferior extremity of the ulna; its inferior surface (concave) articulates with the carpus; its anterior surface (the homologue of the posterior surface of the corresponding extremity of the human radius) presents grooves which serve for the passage of the tendons of the muscles which pass from the forearm to the back of the hand. (For the names of the muscles whose tendons pass in these grooves, see Fig. 29.) The ulna is furnished at its superior extremity with an olecranon process, which is more prominent than that of the human ulna; this process is compressed laterally, and its internal surface is hollowed; there we also find a great sigmoid cavity, and a coronoid process situated at the internal part of the anterior surface, a process which, as we have previously shown, it shares with the radius. The shaft of the bone, prismatic and triangular, diminishes in thickness as it approaches the lower extremity, which articulates with the corresponding extremity of the radius. In the dog, the ulna terminates inferiorly in a blunt point, without enlargement, analogous to the head of the human ulna; in the cat, by a head which is prolonged into a styloid process, by which it articulates with a portion of the carpus. The carpus consists of seven bones--three in the superior row and four in the inferior. In the superior row the scaphoid and semilunar bones are fused together. The pisiform is elongated and expanded at its two extremities; it forms a prominence which, directed backwards, projects beyond the level of the other bones of this region. The metacarpal bones are five in number; they are enumerated from within outwards; they articulate with the carpus and with each other. The inferior extremity of each metacarpal bone presents the form of a condyle in front; and is divided behind so as to form two lateral condyles, which are separated by a median crest; on these posterior condyles are applied two small sesamoid bones. The metacarpal bone of the thumb is very short; the third and fourth are the longest. The metacarpus, as a whole, is directed vertically. The phalanges are three in number for each finger, except the thumb, which has but two. The first phalanx, directed almost horizontally forwards, is the longest; the second is directed downwards and forwards; the third consists of two portions: a posterior part, which forms a sort of sheath into which the base of the nail is received; and an anterior, conical in form, and curved in crochet shape, which forms a support for the nail (Fig. 37). The third and fourth digits are the longest; the second and fifth are of equal length; the thumb is the shortest; it does not touch the ground, and does not even reach the articulation of the metacarpal bone and first phalanx of the second finger. In the cat, the metacarpal bone of the thumb, although shorter than any of the others, is quite as thick. The third digit is a little longer than either the second or fourth. In animals of this genus, the claws, in the condition of repose, are retracted, and removed from the ground; this prevents their being worn, and thus preserves their sharpness. At such times the third phalanx is received into a groove which is found on the external surface of the second phalanx. In the dog, the claws are not tractile. [Illustration: FIG. 37.--SKELETON OF THE FINGER OF A FELIDE (LION): LEFT SIDE, INTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Metacarpus; 2, sesamoid bones; 3, first phalanx; 4, second phalanx; 5, third phalanx; 6, gutter for the reception of the base of the nail; 7, prominent osseous crest formed to lodge in the concavity of the nail.] [Illustration: FIG. 38.--SKELETON OF THE PIG: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE. 1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra; 6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, fourteenth and last dorsal vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebræ; 9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebræ; 11, anterior extremity of the sternum; 12, xiphoid appendix; 13, seventh and last sternal rib; 14, costal cartilage; 15, cartilage of prolongation of the scapula; 16, great tuberosity of the humerus; 17, olecranon process; 18, radius; 19, ulna; 20, pisiform; 21, metacarpus; 22, phalanges of the two great toes; 23, phalanges of the external toe; 24, ilium; 25, pubis; 26, tuberosity of the ischium; 27, great trochanter; 28, knee-cap; 29, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 30, fibula; 31, tarsus; 32, calcaneum; 33, metatarsus; 34, phalanges of the two great toes; 35, phalanges of the external toe.] =Unguligrades=: =Pig= (Fig. 38).--The scapula is markedly narrowed in the region above the glenoid cavity. The spine is atrophied at both its extremities, so that at its inferior part we do not find the acromion process. In its middle portion the spine is prominent, and presents a triangular process which turns backwards, overlapping a part of the infraspinous fossa; this latter is much larger than the supraspinous. The spinal border is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation, the superior margin of which is convex; this cartilage extends posteriorly beyond the posterior (axillary) border of the bone. The small tuberosity of the superior extremity of the humerus is but slightly developed; the great tuberosity, on the contrary, is very large. The bicipital groove is situated internal to this. The deltoid impression is scarcely marked. The forearm is short, directed obliquely downwards and inwards, thus forming with the hand an angle, of which the apex is directed inwards. The two bones of the forearm are strongly bound to one another by an interosseous ligament, which is formed of very short fibres. The radius appropriates, at its superior extremity, the coronoid process of the ulna. The latter is, notwithstanding, well developed in the rest of its extent; it has a flattened shaft which almost completely overlaps the posterior surface of the radius; its inferior extremity reaches to the carpus. The carpus is formed of eight bones--four in the superior row, and four in the inferior. The third bone of the superior row (cuneiform) is more in contact with the ulna than with the radius. There are but four metacarpal bones; there is no metacarpal of the thumb. The two median metacarpal bones are the longest; they are those which correspond to the digits which alone touch the ground. The internal digit and the external one are thin and short; they are functionless, as a rule, taking no part in supporting the limbs on the ground. Notwithstanding this, they are formed, as the other digits, of a number of phalanges, which give them the semblance of perfect digits. (We shall soon see that in certain animals there exist digits which, being incomplete with regard to the numbers of their constituent bones, more accurately merit the name of imperfect digits.) The third phalanges are each enclosed in a horny hoof, to which the name of _onglon_ has been given. We have already drawn attention to the smaller lateral digits, and noted the general fact that they do not come in contact with the ground. It is necessary to modify this statement by adding that under certain conditions they give a slight amount of support; for example, when the individual is the subject of excessive obesity, the limbs yield under the weight, and the nails of the lateral digits may touch the ground. A similar fact may be noticed in pigs of ordinary bulk at the moment when, during walking, each of the fore-limbs commences to bear the weight--that is to say, when it is directed obliquely downwards and forwards; then all the digits are in contact with the ground. =Unguligrades (Ungulates)=: =Sheep=, =Ox= (Fig. 39).--The scapula, which is of elongated form, is very narrow in the vicinity of the glenoid cavity. The spine, which becomes more and more salient towards its inferior part, terminates abruptly in a border, which, forming an acute angle with the crest, produces a projection which represents the acromion process--a very rudimentary acromion, for it does not reach the level of the glenoid cavity. The supraspinous fossa is much smaller than the infraspinous; it hardly equals one-third the extent of the latter. The anterior border, thin and convex in its superior portion, is concave in the rest of its extent; the posterior border is thick and slightly concave; the spinal border is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation. In the ox the spine of the scapula, in its middle portion, is flexed a little backwards on the infraspinous fossa. [Illustration: FIG. 39.--SKELETON OF THE OX: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE. 1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra; 6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, thirteenth and last dorsal vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebræ; 9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebræ; 11, sternum; 12, xiphoid appendix; 13, eighth and last sternal rib; 14, costal cartilages; 15, spine of scapula; 16, cartilage of prolongation of the scapula; 17, great tuberosity of the humerus; 18, musculo-spiral groove; 19, olecranon process; 20, radius; 21, carpus; 22, pisiform; 23, metacarpus; 24, rudimentary metacarpal; 25, sesamoid bones; 26, first phalanges; 27, second phalanges; 28, third phalanges; 29, anterior iliac spine; 30, pubis; 31, tuberosity of the ischium; 32, great trochanter; 33, supracondyloid fossa of the femur; 34, patella, or knee-cap; 35, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 36, fibula; 37, coronoid tarsal bone; 38, tarsus; 39, calcaneum; 40, metatarsus; 41, rudimentary metatarsus; 42, sesamoid bones; 43, first phalanges; 44, second phalanges; 45, third phalanges.] The great tuberosity of the humerus is highly developed; its summit, very prominent, is flexed over the bicipital groove; a prominence of the small tuberosity also bends over the groove, with the result that at this level the latter is converted into a sort of canal. At the inferior extremity the condyle, although not large, is recognisable; for it is separated from the trochlea by a depression in form of a groove. In contrast to the condition found in man, the condyle descends to a level a little below that of the internal lip of the trochlea. (For the arrangement of the epicondyle and the epitrochlea, see p. 30.) In the sheep, the deltoid impression is but slightly marked; in the ox, it is more evident. The forearm is directed obliquely downwards and inwards, so as to form, with the hand, an angle of which the apex is internal; this angular outline of the _knee_ (wrist) is so characteristic of ruminants that the corresponding region of the horse, when salient inwards, receives the name of _ox-knee_. The radius bears the coronoid process, and the larger part of the articular surface which comes in contact with the inferior extremity of the humerus; the condyle and the trochlea articulate with the radius in front; while behind, the trochlea articulates with that part of the sigmoid cavity which belongs to the ulna. The posterior surface of the shaft of the radius is flattened; its anterior surface is slightly convex. The inferior extremity articulates with the carpus by a surface which is directed obliquely downwards and inwards. The shaft of the ulna is very slender, and fused in its middle third with the body of the radius; it terminates below, at the level of the external part of the inferior extremity of the radius, by a slightly expanded portion which, fused with this latter, forms the articular surface for the carpal bones. In the ox the forearm is short; in the sheep it is proportionally longer. The bones of the carpus are six in number--four in the upper row, and two in the lower; they form an irregular cuboid mass which contributes to the formation of the region known as _the knee_ in ruminants, as in the horse; we have already remarked that the name 'wrist' would be more accurate. The anterior surface in its foremost part is vertical, and is slightly convex from side to side. At its posterior and external part the pisiform bone forms a prominence. The metacarpus consists of two bones only--one, well developed, which is known as the principal metacarpal, or the _canon_ bone (this is the name given to the region in the hoofed animals); and a rudimentary one, which is situated at the superior and external aspect of the preceding metacarpal. Sometimes there is found a third metacarpal at the internal aspect; but, when present, it is but very slightly developed. The principal metacarpal consists of two metacarpals fused together; on this account the bone is longitudinally marked in the median line by a slight depression which marks the junction of the two bones of which it is formed. In some ruminants (certain species of chevrotains) the coalescence does not take place, and the two metacarpals remain separate. The anterior surface of the principal metacarpal is convex transversely; its posterior surface is flattened. The superior extremity of this bone articulates by two facets with the two bones of the inferior row of the carpus; on the internal part of the anterior surface of this extremity is found a tubercle. The inferior extremity is divided into two parts by a fissure or notch; each part is articular, and consists of two separate condyles, which are separated from each other by an antero-posterior crest; on each side of this crest, and behind, are found two sesamoid bones. As for the external rudimentary metacarpal bone, it is nothing more than a small, short tongue of bone; which, in goats and sheep, is often absent. The division of the inferior extremity of the principal metacarpal into two parts is correlated with the two perfect digits which give the foot of the ruminant its forked appearance. Each digit consists of three phalanges, which are directed obliquely downwards and forwards; further, these phalanges are inclined a little outwards from the axis of the limb, so that the two digits diverge from each other as they descend. The first phalanx, which is the longest, articulates superiorly with the principal metacarpal; its inferior extremity terminates in a trochlea, and the lip of this, which is situated towards the axis of the limb, descends lower than that of the opposite side; this arrangement is correlated with the divergent direction of the digits. The second phalanx has its superior extremity moulded on the trochlea which terminates the extremity of the first; its inferior extremity is articular, and elongated from before backwards. On the posterior surface of this extremity is found a sesamoid bone. With regard to the third phalanx, it presents the form of a triangular pyramid, and displays a postero-superior concave surface with which the second phalanx articulates; an anterior, convex surface, which terminates in a point on its anterior part; and an internal surface, which is flattened. The third phalanx of each digit is contained in a hoof (_onglon_). There is also found in ruminants two imperfect rudimentary digits, which are represented by two small bones situated behind the articulation of the metacarpal and the digits which we have just been studying. These rudimentary digits are each enveloped in a layer of horn; they constitute the _spurs_. The two digits of the ruminants represent the third and fourth fingers of the human hand; the two lateral digits, greatly atrophied, are the homologues of the second and fifth fingers; the thumb is not present. It is the same as regards the metacarpal bones, which form, by their union, the principal metacarpal; the external represents the fourth metacarpal, and the internal the third. It is to the latter that the tubercle, of which we have already made mention, belongs; and with the signification of which, because it gives attachment to a muscle, we shall concern ourselves in the section on myology (see Radial Muscles). =Unguligrades=: =Horse= (Fig. 40).--The scapula is narrow, compared with that of the animals we have just been considering. The anterior border is convex in its superior portion, and concave in its inferior; the posterior border is slightly hollowed out. The supraspinous fossa is less in extent than the infraspinous; but the difference is less than that between the same fossæ in the ox and the sheep; in the ox, as we have already indicated, the proportion is one-third; in the horse, one-half. The spine, which disappears at the extremities, is rough and thick in its middle third, there forming a kind of tuberosity--_tuberosity of the spine_. Above and in front of the glenoid cavity is found a strong process consisting of a rugous base, and a summit which is directed inwards. This forms a kind of hook curved towards the inside; it represents the coracoid process. The scapula is surmounted by the cartilage of prolongation, of which the superior border, which is thin and curved, is parallel to the superior border of the prominence of the withers; the cartilage forms, consequently, the lateral surface of this region. The cartilage of prolongation undergoes ossification in old horses. The humerus is short; the bicipital groove, situated on the anterior surface of the superior extremity, separates the greater tuberosity from the lesser, and is divided into two parts by a median ridge; it is this portion of the humerus which forms the prominence known as the _point of the shoulder_, or _point of the arm_. The deltoid impression well deserves the name of tuberosity which has been given to it, for it is very prominent; the musculo-spiral groove is very deep. [Illustration: FIG. 40.--SKELETON OF THE HORSE: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE. 1, Cranium; 2, face; 3, atlas; 4, axis; 5, seventh cervical vertebra; 6, first dorsal vertebra; 7, eighteenth and last dorsal vertebra; 8, lumbar vertebræ; 9, sacrum; 10, coccygeal vertebræ; 11, sternum; 12, xiphoid appendix; 13, eighteenth and last sternal rib; 14, costal cartilage; 15, scapula; 16, cartilage of extension; 17, great tuberosity of the humerus; 18, deltoid crest; 19, olecranon process; 20, radius; 21, carpus; 22, pisiform; 23, principal metacarpal; 24, metacarpal, external rudimentary; 25, large sesamoids; 26, first phalanx; 27, second phalanx; 28, third phalanx; 29, ilium, showing external iliac fossa; 30, pubis; 31, tuberosity of the ischium; 32, great trochanter; 33, infratrochanteric crest, or third trochanter; 34, supracondyloid fossa of the femur; 35, knee-cap; 36, anterior tuberosity of the tibia; 37, the fibula; 38, tarsus astragalus; 39, calcaneum; 40, principal metatarsal; 41, rudimentary external metatarsal; 42, large sesamoids; 43, first phalanx; 44, second phalanx; 45, third phalanx. _To face p. 64._] At the inferior extremity, the trochlea is large; the portion corresponding to the condyle of the humerus in man is, in proportion to the latter, of small extent. The olecranon fossa is deep. The epicondyle and the epitrochlea are somewhat different from those of the human bone. In the latter, the epitrochlea is salient towards the inner side, causing an increased transverse diameter of the inferior extremity of the humerus. In the horse--it is the same in ruminants--this tuberosity projects backwards, folds on itself in forming the internal boundary of the olecranon cavity, and exceeds in diameter, in the antero-posterior direction, the prominence of the epicondyle, which presents a nearly similar arrangement. This latter has, however, a part which, projecting externally, is situated at the inferior part of a crest, that forms the posterior boundary of the musculo-spiral groove. The result is that, contrary to the condition found in the human being, the epicondyle is more prominent transversely than the epitrochlea, but this latter is more salient on the posterior aspect. The epitrochlea and the epicondyle offer a larger surface for the origin of muscles of the forearm than the same prominences in the human bone do for the analogous muscles of the same region. Some veterinary anatomists have given to the inferior and external articular surface of the humerus the name of trochlea; and to the internal one, that of condyle. On this account they designate the external prominence as the epitrochlea, and the internal one as the epicondyle. In addition to the fact that this point of view is not legitimate, it produces inevitable confusion when comparing the parts with those of the human humerus, and this confusion exists, not alone in describing the bone, but also in the description of the muscular attachments, and in the comparison of the muscles of the forearm of quadrupeds with the corresponding muscles in the human species. The radius is placed in front of the ulna; its body, slightly convex forwards, has the anterior surface convex transversely, and the posterior surface plane in the same direction. It is to the external part of this latter that the ulna is applied, which is completely fused with the radius. The superior extremity of the radius is a little larger than the inferior. Its superior aspect, concavo-convex, moulded on the inferior articular surface of the humerus, presents internally two cavities, which receive the lips of the trochlea, and, externally, another, smaller, cavity, which receives the condyle. The radius articulates with the trochlea and the condyle, having appropriated a portion of the ulna, as is proved by the presence of the coronoid process, which belongs to the former. This superior extremity presents, internally, a tuberosity into which the biceps is inserted; this is the bicipital tuberosity; and on the other side is another tuberosity, which is a little more prominent than the preceding. The inferior extremity, which is flattened from before backwards, is furrowed on its anterior surface by grooves for the passage of muscles (the names of the muscles whose tendons pass in these grooves have already been given on p. 43). It articulates at the lower end with the superior row of the carpus, and it terminates laterally in tuberosities: one, external, on which is found a groove for the tendon of the lateral extensor of the phalanges, the homologue of the special extensor of the little finger; the other, internal, is a little more prominent than the one we have just described. These tuberosities are visible under the skin which covers the superior and lateral parts of the region known as the _knee_; but which, we again repeat, is no other than the wrist. The ulna has a triangular shaft, situated at the posterior surface of the radius, with which it is fused. It disappears completely at the level of the inferior third of the forearm. Occasionally, in some horses, the ulna is abnormally long, in the form of a slender tongue of bone; and extends to the neighbourhood of the external tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the radius (see Fig. 79, p. 196). Its superior extremity is chiefly represented by the olecranon process, which is voluminous in bulk, and forms the projection known as the point of the elbow. This process is flattened laterally; its internal surface is excavated; the anterior surface, which is concave, forms a part of the great sigmoid cavity; the remainder of the cavity is formed by the radius. In the ass, the ulna is a little longer than in the horse--that is to say, it descends lower; and the radius is a little more convex anteriorly. The carpal bones are seven in number--four in the superior row, and three in the inferior. The trapezium is wanting in the latter. Sometimes, however, in certain varieties of horses the trapezium is developed, but then it is no more than a very small osseous nodule. The pisiform bone, situated at the external part of the first row of bone, is prominent posteriorly. It is of rounder form and flattened from without inwards. It articulates with the trapezium and the radius. It presents, on its external surface, a groove for the passage of the tendon of the posterior ulnar muscle, which is named by veterinary anatomists the _external flexor of the metacarpus_. The carpus, as a whole, is of an irregularly cuboid shape; its anterior surface, slightly convex from side to side, forms the skeleton of the region of the _knee_ (wrist). The metacarpus is formed of three bones: the principal metacarpal and the two rudimentary ones. The principal metacarpal, which forms the region of the _canon_, is directed vertically; its anterior surface is slightly convex transversely. This surface is covered by a number of tendons, which slightly alter its appearance; so that it is the principal base of this part of the fore-limb. Its posterior surface is flattened. The superior extremity of this metacarpal presents plane surfaces, variously inclined, with which the bones of the inferior row of the carpus articulate. On the anterior surface, and a little to the inner side, is found a tuberosity, which is destined for the insertion of _the anterior extensor of the metacarpus_, the homologue of the radial muscles. The inferior extremity is formed by two condyles, an internal and an external; between which is found a median crest. This extremity, the superior extremity of the first phalanx, which articulates with it, together with two sesamoid bones--the great sesamoids--which are situated on its posterior surface, collectively form the region which from its rounded outlines is called the _ball_. With regard to the rudimentary metacarpals, external and internal, to which some authors give the name of _fibulæ_, they are applied to the sides of the posterior surface of the principal metacarpal. They are elongated bones, of which the superior extremity, which is a little thickened, is called the _head_; the lateral bones of the second row of the carpus partly rest on the heads of these. They become more slender as they descend, and terminate opposite the inferior fourth of the principal metacarpal. Each ends in a slight swelling, to which the name _button_ has been given. The internal one is the better developed. The rudimentary metacarpals are vestiges of atrophied digits, as will be explained further on. The single finger of the horse consists of three phalanges. The first phalanx, which is directed obliquely downwards and forwards, corresponds to the constricted region situated below the 'ball,' and known as the _pastern_. It is flattened from before backwards; its anterior surface is convex transversely, while the posterior surface is plane. Its superior extremity is moulded on the inferior extremity of the principal metacarpal, and its inferior extremity, which is smaller, presents a trochlea with which the second phalanx articulates. This is also directed downwards and forwards, and is shorter. It corresponds to the region which, situated between the pastern and the hoof, is known as the _cornet_. The third phalanx, situated entirely within the hoof, has the same direction as the first and second. It is large and broad, and presents three surfaces separated by well-marked angular borders (see Fig. 96). The anterior surface is oblique downwards and forwards; it is convex transversely. The inferior surface is slightly hollowed, and is in relation with the sole, or plantar surface of the hoof. The superior surface, which is articular, is divided by a median ridge into two lateral cavities, which correspond to the trochlea on the inferior surface of the lower extremity of the second phalanx. The inferior border corresponds in shape with the hoof. The superior border presents in its median part a projection, _the pyramidal eminence_, which prolongs at this level the anterior surface of the bone. Finally, the posterior border, which is concave, is in contact with a sesamoid bone, _the lesser sesamoid_, which increases the superior articular surface behind, and is also in contact with the second phalanx. As we have just seen, the horse possesses but one digit. In the ancestors of the animal--that is, in the prehistoric species which are now extinct (_orohippus_, _miohippus_, _protohippus_, or _hipparion_)--the number of digits was larger; this fact conclusively proves that the rudimentary metacarpals of the existing horse are vestiges of digits which have disappeared through want of use. In the first of those ancestors--orohippus--there were four digits; all save the first, the thumb, being then developed. In the others of the series there existed but three digits. It must, however, be noted that in those animals it is always the digit which corresponds to the middle finger of the pentedactyl hand that is longest. In other less ancient species the lateral fingers are reduced to the condition of mere splints of bone. It follows from what has been said that the digit which persists in the equine species should be considered as the third finger, and that the rudimentary metacarpals represent lateral digits considerably atrophied. This disappearance of the lateral digits cannot excite surprise when we consider the functions of the organs. Becoming useless, they must undergo gradual atrophy from want of use. There undoubtedly is, in this former existence of supplementary digits in the horse, something analogous to what we still find in the pig; where the two principal digits are accompanied by two shorter ones, which very probably, from their infrequent use, are destined to disappear in a more or less distant future. Proportions of the Arm, the Forearm, and the Metacarpus As a supplement to the study of the anterior limbs which we have just finished, it appears necessary to give some indications of the relative proportions of certain of the segments which form these limbs in the plantigrades, the digitigrades, and the ungulates. First, we would remark that, in following this order of classification, the scapula becomes less and less narrow, and assumes a form more and more elongated. In order to convince ourselves of this, it will be sufficient to study the bone first in man, then in the bear, the cat, dog, ox, and finally in the horse. As to the proportions of length, which are those we should chiefly study, we shall commence with the comparison of the forearm and arm--that is to say, the radius and the humerus. The radius is found to be longer in proportion to the humerus, as the number of digits is smaller, and the hand loses more and more the functions of an organ of prehension. In man, the radius is shorter than the humerus; in the horse, on the contrary, it is longer. To give an idea of this proportion, we shall employ what is known as the antibrachial index. This index gives the relation which exists between the length of the forearm and that of the humerus; the length of this latter, whatever may be the actual measurement, is represented by a fixed figure, the number 100. A very simple arithmetical operation gives the proportion-- forearm × 100 -------------, the quotient obtained furnishes the index. humerus The index is less than 100 if the forearm is shorter than the bone of the arm. The index is more than 100 if, on the contrary, the forearm is longer. In man, the radius is shorter than the humerus; indeed, in adult individuals of the white race the average index is 74. In the bear, the length of the radius approaches closely to that of the humerus; the index is about 90. In the skeleton of a bear in the anatomical museum of the École des Beaux-Arts, the humerus is 33 centimetres in length, and the radius 30 centimetres. In the cat, the radius is very little shorter than the humerus. In the dog they are equal. The antibrachial index of the latter is, accordingly, 100. In the horse, the radius is longer than the humerus; the index is therefore above 100. Thus, in the skeleton of the horse which we have in the museum of the École des Beaux-Arts, the index is 113--length of humerus, 29 centimetres; length of radius, 33 centimetres. In other skeletons which we have measured we found: in one, 108--humerus, 34 centimetres; radius, 37 centimetres; in another, 116--humerus, 25 centimetres; radius, 29 centimetres. The metacarpal bone undergoes, relatively to the humerus, a proportional elongation, analogous to that of the forearm. In man, the length of the metacarpus is contained about 5-1/2 times in that of the humerus; in the bear, it is contained 4 times; in the dog, 2-1/2 times; in the horse, 1-1/3 times only. It is well known that the proportions vary according to race, and that what we have here given are but the general indications. The Articulations of the Anterior Limbs The knowledge of human arthrology which we presume the reader to have previously acquired makes it unnecessary for us to enter into numerous details regarding the configuration of the articular osseous surfaces and the disposition of the fibrous bands that retain them in position. Accordingly, in the description which follows, and also in that of the articulations of the posterior limbs, we shall occupy ourselves but very briefly with the details above referred to, so as to devote ourselves especially to the indication of the movements--that is to say, of that which, while easily comprehended on recollection of former studies, presents the greatest interest from the artistic standpoint in these studies in comparative anatomy. =The Scapulo-Humeral Articulation.=--The head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula being in contact, the two bones are bound together by a rather loose articular capsule, which is strengthened by the muscles of this region which fulfil the function of active ligaments. This articulation, so movable in every direction in the human species, is not so much so in quadrupeds; the arm in the latter, as also the shoulder, being kept in contact with the lateral region of the thorax by the numerous muscles which surround it. Of the movements performed by the humerus, flexion and extension are the most extensive; those of abduction and adduction are much less so. It is necessary, before proceeding further, to determine what the two principal movements which we have just mentioned really are, viz., flexion and extension. We know that in man the displacements of the humerus which take place in the antero-posterior direction are known as movement or projection forwards, and movement or projection backwards, respectively. We do not say that the humerus is flexed or extended, because, in reality, on account of the position which the skeleton of the shoulder occupies, it is not able to flex or place itself on the line of prolongation of the scapula with which it articulates. In quadrupeds it is not so. The humerus and the scapula are contained in almost the same vertical plane; and the bone of the arm can take, in relation to the latter, the positions characteristic of flexion and extension--that is, of approach to the scapula and removal from it. What makes the meanings of these terms a little confusing is that, in human anatomy, some authors consider the backward movement of the humerus as extension, and the forward movement as flexion; in order to be able to compare these movements to those that the femur executes in relation to the pelvis. Now, in our opinion, the indication of this correspondence is not absolutely necessary; since it ceases to be exact if we wished, from the point of view of the direction given to other segments of the skeleton, to establish the same relation between the elbow and the articulation of the knee. It is therefore indispensable, when discussing quadrupeds, to discontinue these terms, in order the more readily to recognise that: in flexion the inferior extremity of the humerus is directed backwards; in extension, on the contrary, it is directed forwards. In the first case the humerus approaches the scapula; in the second, on the contrary, it moves away from it. These movements, which take place during walking, are executed in the following manner: When one of the anterior limbs is at the end of that stage of progression which is called support (see p. 289, Displacements of the Limbs)--that is to say, during the time that the foot remains in contact with the ground, whilst the trunk is moving forward--the direction of this limb becomes more and more oblique downwards and backwards. At a certain moment the limb is raised from the ground, to be carried forwards, in order to be again pressed on the ground, and recommence a new resting stage. In these different phases the humerus is flexed. But at the moment that the limb, when carried forwards, is about to resume its contact with the ground it becomes directed obliquely downwards and forwards; then the humerus is in the position of extension. During these movements of the humerus, there exists an essential factor--that is, the scapular balance. (It is the same as what occurs in man when he balances his arm in the antero-posterior plane.) When the humerus is flexed, the scapula moves in such a way that the superior portion projects forwards; when it is extended, the scapula, on the other hand, is inclined more backwards. But it is necessary to add that, during these displacements, the scapulo-humeral angle varies; it tends to close during the flexion of the humerus, and becomes more open during extension. The movements and the relations of the humerus and the scapula are clearly represented in Figs. 41 and 42, reproduced from the chromophotographic studies of Professor Marey--studies relative to the analyses of the movements of the horse.[13] They show clearly the movements of flexion and extension of the humerus, also the balancing of the scapula which accompanies the movements. [13] E. J. Marey, 'Analyses of the Movements of the Horse by the Chromophotograph' (_La Nature_, June 11, 1898). [Illustration: FIG. 41.--FLEXION OF THE HUMERUS: RIGHT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE, EXTERNAL SURFACE (AFTER A CHROMOPHOTOGRAPHIC STUDY BY PROFESSOR MAREY).] [Illustration: FIG. 42.--EXTENSION OF THE HUMERUS: RIGHT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE, EXTERNAL SURFACE (AFTER A CHROMOPHOTOGRAPHIC STUDY BY PROFESSOR MAREY).] =The Articulation of the Elbow, or the Humero-ulnar Articulation.=--In this articulation, which is constructed in the form of a true hinge, the movements of flexion and extension alone are possible. In flexion, the forearm, directed forwards, is folded on the arm, with which, in certain circumstances, it comes in contact. For example, in a horse of mettle which leaps over an elevated obstacle, the animal forcibly raises his fore-limbs by flexing them. Flexion is produced to the same extent, and even more so, and for a longer period, in felides which crouch. In extension, on the contrary, the forearm is carried backward. This movement being limited only by the contact of the tip of the olecranon with the bottom of the olecranon fossa of the humerus, the forearm is enabled, in this case, to move until it is in line with the arm. For example, during walking, when one of the anterior limbs, having reached the end of its resting stage, is considerably inclined downwards and backwards. The apex of the olecranon process--that is to say, the point of the elbow--forms a marked prominence, more salient in flexion than in extension, as in the corresponding region of the human elbow. =The Radio-ulnar Articulation.=--It is in the dog and the cat, in which the two bones of the forearm articulate by their extremities only, and remain separate in the rest of their extent, that the articulations call for special notice. In the upper part, the radius rotates on itself; while below, it rotates around the ulna. It follows that the forearm, which in all quadrupeds is in a state of permanent pronation, can, in carnivora, take the position of supination, or rather, of demi-supination. In fact, whatever be the mobility of the two bones of the forearm, the movement is not able to bring the palmar surface to the front, but only to direct it towards the median line. =The Articulation of the Wrist.=--Here are found, as in man, three superimposed articulations: the radio-carpal, intercarpal, and carpo-metacarpal. If we remember the movements which take place at the plane of these articulations in man, and take account of the fact that the mobility of the limbs is reduced just in proportion as they are simplified in structure so as to become organs of support only, we can easily comprehend that, in the horse and the ox, and, in a word, animals that have a canon bone, the movements of the wrist are little varied in character, while in carnivoræ, on the other hand, they are relatively more so. We will remember that in the ox and the horse the region of the wrist is called the _knee_. In flexion, the hand is bent backwards; in extension it is carried forwards. These two movements take place especially in the radiocarpal and intercarpal articulations. In the first of these articulations, it is the superior row of the carpus which glides backwards and forwards on the corresponding articular surface of the forearm. In the second articulation, it is the second row which moves; gliding on the inferior articular surfaces of the row above it. This inferior row carries the metacarpus with it; for the carpo-metacarpal articulation is much less mobile than either of the other two. In flexion, the articular surfaces are separated from one another in front; and the changes of form which result from this are noticeable on the anterior surface of the 'knee.' Moreover, at that moment this region contrasts markedly in its outlines with the parts above it and below it--that is to say, with the corresponding surfaces of the forearm and of the canon bone. As for the lateral movements, by which the hand is inclined outwards and inwards in its movements at the wrist, they exist to an appreciable extent in the cat and the dog only; in order to understand this, it is enough to compare the shape of the articular surfaces of this region in carnivora and the horse, for example. In the latter, those surfaces are almost plane; in the cat, on the contrary, they are curved (inferior surface of the forearm, concave; superior border of the carpus, convex). These latter, then, are, in form, similar to those which exist at the same level in the human being; this explains the possibility of analogous movements of the whole hand--that is to say, of the movements of abduction and adduction. =The Metacarpo-phalangeal Articulations.=--With regard to the mobility, it is in these articulations, as in those of the wrist--that is to say, although in all quadrupeds the first phalanges can be flexed and extended on the metacarpus, it is only in the cat and dog that lateral movement is possible. Indeed, in the horse, in which the principal metacarpal terminates inferiorly in two convex surfaces, which are separated by a crest; and where the whole articulates with a cavity on the superior extremity of the first phalanx; because of the hinging of these surfaces, there can only be movements of opening and closing of this articulation. The first phalanx is directed backwards during flexion and forwards during extension. In the dog and the cat the digits can be separated from each other, and also drawn together--that is to say, abducted and adducted; but, as in man, these movements can be made only when the first phalanges are in the state of extension. During flexion they are impossible, because of the tension of the lateral ligaments, which increases as the flexion is more pronounced. This can be demonstrated, for example, in the cat, which, in order to separate the digits, opens the hand widely--that is to say, forcibly raises the first phalanges. =The Interphalangeal Articulations.=--The phalanges are in contact with one another by surfaces, which, on one side, are of trochlear form, and, on the other, are moulded on these trochleæ; accordingly, at the level of these articulations, the movements of flexion and extension only can take place. In the felidæ, the claws which the third phalanges bear cannot be utilized when the latter are in a state of extension, at which time, being forcibly raised, they are, in fact, placed on the outer sides of the phalanges, which are grooved to receive them. But when the animal wishes to use them, it flexes those third phalanges, of which the terminal extremity is then projected forward, and the claws are ready to fulfil their function. But at the same time it extends the first phalanges, to produce a certain tension of the flexors of the digits, and thus enable the latter to act with greater efficacy, with a minimum of contraction. We can demonstrate this action experimentally on ourselves. It is enough to carry the first phalanges forcibly into a state of extension; the third phalanges then become flexed, quite spontaneously, by the tension of the tendons of the flexors which are inserted into them. At the same time, if we examine the felidæ which we have taken as examples, when the first phalanges are in the state of extension, the digits will be found to be separable, as we have already indicated in connection with the metacarpo-phalangeal articulations, with the result that the claws are then able to lacerate a wider surface. The extension of the ungual phalanx, which determines the retraction of the claw and stops its action, is the mechanical result of an elastic, fibrous apparatus which is attached to each of the third phalanges, and has its origin of the second. THE POSTERIOR LIMBS[14] [14] Examine Figs. 21, 33, 34, 38, 39, 49. The posterior limbs are divided, as are the inferior limbs of the human being, of which they are the homologues, into four parts: pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot. The Pelvis The pelvis, which incompletely limits the abdominal cavity, inferiorly in the vertical position of the body and posteriorly in the normal attitude of quadrupeds, is formed by the iliac bones and sacrum--the coccyx forming a prolongation of the latter. We have already described the two latter (pp. 10 and 11) in connection with the vertebral column, of which they form the inferior or posterior portion or segment, according to the attitude of the individual. =The Iliac Bone.=--The iliac or coxal bone, is a paired or non-symmetrical bone, united below to its fellow of the opposite side, while it is separated from it above by the sacrum. In all animals, as well as in man, the iliac bone, at the beginning of life, consists of three parts, which afterwards unite and fuse together and join at the middle of the bottom of a deep cavity which is situated on the outer aspect of the bone--the cotyloid cavity. Of those three portions when examined in the human iliac bone, that above the cavity is the ilium; that on the inside is the pubis; and the last, the lower one, is the ischium. In quadrupeds, the iliac bone being, in its entirety, directed much more obliquely downwards and backwards, the relative position of these constituent parts is a little modified: the ilium is in front, the pubis is still internal, but in a more inferior position, and the ischium is behind the cotyloid cavity. We notice this peculiarity of the development of the iliac bone because it is customary to continue to apply to the osseous regions which correspond to these parts the names by which they were known when independent bones. [Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE LEFT ILIAC BONE OF THE HUMAN BEING: EXTERNAL SURFACE, PLACED IN THE POSITION WHICH IT WOULD OCCUPY IN THE SKELETON OF A QUADRUPED. 1, Cotyloid cavity; 2, ilium; 3, iliac crest; 4, anterior iliac crest; 5, posterior iliac spine; 6, pubis; 7, tuberosity of the ischium; 8, obturator foramen; 9, ischiadic spine.] [Illustration: FIG. 44.--LEFT ILIAC BONE OF A QUADRUPED (HORSE): EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Cotyloid cavity; 2, ilium, external iliac fossa (directed upward in the horse); 3, iliac crest; 4, anterior iliac spine (directed inwards in the horse, it is the angle of the haunch); 5, posterior iliac spine (directed inwards in the horse; it is the angle of the haunch); 6, pubis; 7, tuberosity of the ischium; 8, obturator foramen; 9, ischiadic spine, or subcotyloid foramen.] The bones which form the skeleton of the pelvis of quadrupeds are proportionally more elongated and less massive than those of the human pelvis (Figs. 43 and 44). We find, on the external surface of the iliac bone, the cotyloid cavity, whose border is interrupted by the cotyloid notch; a deep notch which looks downwards. In front of this cavity is the ilium. This portion, narrow in the part which is next the cavity, is directed forwards and upwards, expanding more and more as it passes upwards. It presents an external or superior surface (external in some animals, superior in others), which recalls the external iliac fossa; and an internal or inferior surface, at the superior part of which is found the auricular surface for articulation with the sacrum. The anterior border of the ilium is rough; this is the iliac crest, at the extremities of which we find, below or outside, a prominence which corresponds to the anterior superior iliac spine of man; and internally another projection which corresponds to the posterior iliac spine. Immediately above the cotyloid cavity is a rough crest, which is known as the _supracotyloid crest_, which is, however, no other than the homologue of the sciatic spine. In front of this prominence, the border of the ilium, which is notched, forms the great sciatic notch. If, still taking the cotyloid cavity as the point of departure, we proceed inwards--that is, towards the median line of the body--we find the pubis; if in a posterior direction, the ischium. These two portions, pubis and ischium, limit an oval orifice, the subpubic foramen. In the human skeleton, the pubis of one side is united to that of the opposite side, to form the pubic symphysis. In the animals which we are now studying a portion of the ischium enters into the formation of the symphysis; in other words, it is formed, not only by the body of the pubis, but also by the descending branch or ramus of the pubis and a portion of the ascending branch or ramus of the ischium, which are fused with those of the opposite side. It results that, though in the human being the symphysis is short and the ischio-pubic arch large, in quadrupeds it is the opposite. In them the arch is a mere slot, and being formed by the ischium alone, merits the name of the ischial arch. The ischio-pubic symphysis is very large, and forms a horizontal surface relatively extensive, a sort of floor, on which rest certain organs which occupy the cavity of the pelvis. The posterior and external angle of the ischium is rough and prominent; it is the tuberosity of the ischium. This forms a projection under the skin; it also does in man when the trunk is strongly inclined forwards, while the thighs are maintained in the vertical position. In marsupials--opossum, kangaroo, and phalanger--the pelvis at its pubic region is surmounted by two bones, situated one on each side of the median line, and arranged in the form of a fork of two prongs (Fig. 45). These, which are called _marsupial bones_, support the pouch which, in animals of this genus, lodges their young, which, at the time of birth, are incapable of supporting a separate existence, their development being absolutely incomplete. [Illustration: FIG. 45.--PUBIC REGION OF THE PELVIS OF A MARSUPIAL (PHALANGER, FOX). 1, Symphysis pubis; 2, obturator foramen; 3, marsupial bones.] In the cetaceans--for example, the dolphin--because of the absence of posterior limbs, the pelvis is represented by two separate bones only, which have no connection with the vertebral column. In birds, the pelvis is remarkable for its elongated form (see for its form Fig. 21, and for details Fig. 46). The cotyloid cavity is pierced by an opening, and presents on its posterior border, which is here a little prominent, a surface with which the great trochanter is in contact. The ilium is very highly developed, and is fused in the median line with the ilium of the opposite side, the last dorsal vertebræ, the lumbar vertebræ, and the sacrum. Because of these relations with the dorsal vertebræ, it is in contact anteriorly with the last ribs, which consequently emerge from each side of the iliac region of the pelvis. The ischium forms a plate of bone which, in part, closes the external portion of the cavity of the pelvis. Its superior border is separate for a certain distance from the external border of the ilium; there is thus left an opening of more or less considerable size, which represents or takes the place of the great sciatic notch. [Illustration: FIG. 46.--PELVIS OF A BIRD (THE COCK): EXTERNAL SURFACE, LEFT SIDE. 1, Ilium; 2, ischium; 3, pubis; 4, inferior extremity of the pubis; 5, sciatic foramen; 6, oval foramen, homologous to the obturator; 7, coccygeal vertebræ.] The pubis, long and slender, is in connection with the inferior border of the ischium, of which it follows the general direction; and circumscribes with this latter, below the cotyloid cavity, an oval orifice, which is the homologue of the obturator foramen. Its inferior extremity reaches beyond the corresponding part of the ischium, bending towards the middle line, but without joining the pubis of the opposite side. On this account there is no symphysis pubis in birds. Nevertheless, an exception must be noted in the case of the ostrich, the pubic bones of which meet in the middle line, and are articulated in form of a symphysis. The Thigh A single bone, the femur, forms the skeleton of this portion of the lower limb. =The Femur.=--The bone of the thigh is, in man, directed downwards and inwards; this obliquity, we may remind the reader, is due to the difference in length of the two condyles which form its inferior extremity; the internal is the more prominent, the result of which is that when the femur is held vertically, the internal condyle descends lower than the external. Now, as those two articular expansions rest on the horizontal plane formed by the upper extremity of the tibia, it follows that the superior part of the femur inclines towards the side of the shorter condyle--that is to say, outwards--and that, the leg being vertical, it and the bone of the thigh unite in forming an angle, of which the apex is directed towards the inner side of the knee. In many mammals the two condyles are equally prominent, the result of which is that the femur inclines neither inwards nor outwards, but is contained in a plane parallel to the axis of the trunk; while the leg is included in the same plane. Nevertheless, although contained in the plane which we have just indicated, the femur is obliquely placed, and directed downwards and forwards; it accordingly forms, with the pelvis, an angle, of which the opening is directed to the anterior aspect of the body. In reptiles and in birds the femur and leg are both placed in the same plane, but this plane is not parallel to the axis of the trunk. This is the result, on the one hand, of the thorax being wide, and, on the other hand, of the femur, which is directed forwards, being in contact by its anterior extremity with the lateral aspect of the costal region, it is thus necessarily placed in a direction forwards and outwards, and the knee is further removed from the axis of the trunk than is the articulation which unites the thigh with the pelvis. The femur, like the humerus, is almost completely enveloped by muscular masses, which bind it to the lateral walls of the abdomen. Its inferior extremity alone is free, and is always the more so in proportion to its elongation--that is to say, as it belongs to an animal whose foot is more divided. The femur in this respect conforms to the law which we have indicated in connection with the bone of the arm, in which the development, as to length, is in proportion to the division of the hand. If we compare the femur of certain animals with that of man, we see that the corresponding details of form are readily recognisable, but they are slightly modified. Thus, on examining the superior extremity, we find there a head, a neck, a great trochanter, and a lesser; but the neck is usually short and thick, and the great trochanter does not occupy the same level with regard to the articular head of the bone. In man, the great trochanter does not rise to the level of the head of the femur; in the dog and the cat it approaches that level; in the horse and in ruminants it rises above it. With regard to the inferior extremity, its surfaces undergo modifications which are further accentuated as we pass from the digitigrades to the ungulates, or unguligrades. We know that in man the femoral trochlea is continuous behind, without interruption, with the condyles--that is to say, that each of the condyles is the continuation of one of the lips of the trochlea. We have just said that the trochlea is continuous without interruption with the condyles; this is accurate. Nevertheless, we must remark that, at the level of the junction of these surfaces, the bone presents a slight constriction, which is more marked on the external than on the internal aspect. This constriction, which is but slightly marked in man, is accentuated in the dog and the cat; in the ruminants and the solipeds it is still more pronounced so that we may say that in these latter the trochlea and the condyles are almost completely separated. There is another modification in regard to the prominence and extent of the two lips of the trochlea. In man, the external lip of the trochlea reaches higher than the internal, and it is more prominent in front. In the dog, these lips are equal with regard to thickness, but the external still reaches higher than the internal; in the cat, they are equal in every respect; in ruminants and solipeds the internal lip is wider, thicker, and rises higher than the external. In animals the trochlea is, as a general rule, narrower than in man, and the condyles are more prominent posteriorly; so that, when viewed from one of the lateral aspects, the inferior extremity of the femur is, in them, better developed in the antero-posterior direction. In birds, the femur is shorter than the bones of the leg; its great trochanter is in contact with a prominence which occupies the posterior part of the border of the cotyloid cavity. Instead of articulating at the level of the knee, with the knee-cap and tibia only, as in man, it articulates, in addition, with the superior extremity of the fibula. A similar arrangement is found in marsupials and reptiles. =The Knee-cap.=--This bone, developed in the thickness of the tendon of the triceps muscle of the thigh, is in contact, by its posterior surface, with the femoral trochlea. The two articular surfaces which are applied to the lips of the trochlea present, with regard to their extent, an inequality which is in proportion to the arrangement which we have above indicated--that is, while in man it is the external surface which is the larger, in the horse it is the internal. We shall see what the general form of the knee-cap is when we come, later on, to study more particularly the posterior limbs of some animals. The Leg The skeleton of the leg consists of two bones: the tibia and the fibula. The tibia is the more internal and the larger of the two; the fibula is slender, and situated on the outer side, and a little posterior to, the preceding. The fibula is more or less developed according to the species; in some it is complete, in others it is very much atrophied. This peculiarity may be compared with that which we have drawn attention to regarding the development of the ulna; but here the seriation is less distinct. Not only in the different species, but even in the individuals of the same species, the development of the fibula presents little regularity. In quadrupeds, the bones of the leg are directed obliquely downwards and backwards, so that they form, with the femur, which is directed obliquely downwards and forwards, an angle, the apex of which is placed at the anterior surface of the knee. =Tibia.=--The tibia of quadrupeds is readily comparable with that of man; as in the case of the latter, its shaft has three surfaces--an external, which is hollowed out in its upper portion, and becomes anterior below; an internal, slightly convex and subcutaneous; the posterior, which presents, in its superior part, a crest, the oblique line of the tibia, and some rugosities. The borders separate the surfaces. The anterior border, or crest of the tibia, is prominent in its superior part; below it gradually disappears in passing towards the internal aspect of the inferior extremity. The external and internal borders separate the corresponding surfaces from the posterior one. The superior extremity is thick, and expands in forming three tuberosities: two lateral and an anterior. The anterior tuberosity, situated at the superior part of the crest of the tibia, is very prominent; for this reason the superior extremity is very much expanded in the antero-posterior direction--hence it results that this diameter is equal to the transverse, and sometimes even greater. In man, it is the latter which is the larger. The anterior tuberosity is visible under the skin. The inferior extremity, less thick, is prolonged internally by a prominence which corresponds to the internal malleolus of man. In animals whose fibula is but slightly developed the tibia presents, on the external part of its inferior extremity, a small prominence, which replaces the fibular malleolus. The ruminants must, however, be excepted, in which we find in this region a special bone, which certain authors look on as the inferior part of the fibula (see p. 97). The inferior surface of this extremity of the tibia is articular; and is in contact with one of the tarsal bones, the astragalus. Because the superior surface of this latter has the form of a pulley, a pulley much more marked than that on the human astragalus, the corresponding surface of the tibia, which has the opposite form, presents two lateral cavities, separated by a median ridge, which is directed forwards and slightly outwards; this ridge projects into the groove of the pulley. =The Fibula.=--This bone, situated at the back of the external surface of the tibia, is, as we have said, more or less developed. Its superior extremity, or head, articulates with the external tuberosity of the tibia. Its inferior extremity, when it exists--it is this which disappears in animals which have the fibula incompletely developed--forms a prominence which, placed on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the tibia, articulates with the astragalus, and recalls the external malleolus of man. We have stated above that it is the inferior extremity of the fibula which disappears when the bone is incompletely developed; it is necessary to except the bat, in which the fibula, fairly well developed at its inferior extremity, by which it articulates with the tibia, thins off in its superior portion, and does not reach the corresponding extremity of the latter. Further, as in this animal the surface of the knee, which corresponds to the anterior surface of the same region in other animals, is turned backwards, the result is that the fibula is situated on the inner side of the tibia, instead of being placed on the outer. The Foot The foot, in animals, as well as in man, is formed of three portions, which, as we pass from the part which articulates with the leg towards the terminal extremity, are: the tarsus, the metatarsus, and the toes. These three portions are the homologues of the carpus, the metacarpus, and the fingers, which, as we have already seen in the case of the hand, are the osseous groups which form its skeleton. The tarsus is formed of short bones, as the carpus is; these are, in man, seven in number. The bones are arranged in two rows: one, the posterior, formed of two bones superimposed--the astragalus, by which the tarsus articulates with the leg, and the calcaneum, which forms the prominence of the heel; and an anterior row formed of five juxtaposed ones--the cuboid, situated externally, and the scaphoid internally, in front of which are found the three cuneiforms. To the tarsus succeeds the metatarsus, whose form reminds us very much of that of the metacarpals. With regard to the toes, which we enumerate in proceeding from the most internal to the most external, they are formed of phalanges, which are three in number for the four outer toes; but the number is reduced to two in the case of the first--that is, the so-called great-toe. The bones of the tarsus are not seven in all animals; they are fewer in ruminants and solipeds. We already know that, in the latter, the metacarpals and the digits are equally reduced in number; the same is the case for the metatarsals and the toes. We will analyze these differences when dealing with the species individually. When we studied the anterior limbs, we saw in passing from the plantigrades to the digitigrades, and finally the ungulates, or unguligrades, as the hand became hyperextended, the carpus was raised and more and more removed from the ground. We shall establish the existence of the same condition in the posterior limbs; in the plantigrades the tarsus rests on the ground; in the digitigrades it is removed from it; while in the unguligrades the distance which separates it from the point of support is still more considerable; and it is, indeed, necessary to imagine that if these latter were plantigrades, would occupy the position on the ground which is indicated by Fig. 47. In veterinary anatomy the tarsus is called the _ham_; a name we adopt in conformity with usage, but which we cannot but regret, as in human anatomy the ham is the region of the posterior surface of the knee. The general arrangement of the region of the digits of the posterior limbs in birds, presents some points of interest. We shall merely say with regard to the metatarsus, that it is formed by a single bone, which in the cock is furnished towards its inferior third with a pointed process, the _spur_. At the inferior part, there is, however, found another, which is but very slightly developed, and with which the first phalanx of the innermost toe articulates. The toes are, in the majority of species, four in number:[15] an internal, which is directed backwards, and corresponds to the great-toe; the others are directed forwards. This arrangement is constant in grallatores (wading birds), gallinaceæ[16] (domestic fowls), and raptores (birds of prey). [15] In spite of the fact that the custom is to designate the terminal portions of the foot of birds by the name of digits, we prefer to employ here the terms _foot_ and _toes_. In adopting this decision we believe we are acting according to a more didactic method. Homology of names should, in our opinion, always accompany homology of regions. [16] With regard to the gallinaceæ, we must add that in certain varieties the number of toes is five; those which are directed forwards are three in number; the internal one which passes backward, is double. The two toes which are the subject of this special arrangement are placed very close together, and are nearly always superimposed. This condition is found in the Houdan and Dorking breeds. [Illustration: FIG. 47.--POSTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE PLACED IN THE POSITION WHICH IT SHOULD OCCUPY IF THE ANIMAL WERE A PLANTIGRADE: LEFT LIMB, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Tibia; 2, astragalus; 3, calcaneum; 4, metatarsus; 5, first phalanx; 6, second phalanx; 7, third phalanx.] In climbing birds (parrots, woodpeckers, and toucans), the innermost toe is not only directed backward, but the external toe accompanies it in that direction; consequently, there are two posterior and two anterior toes. Sometimes they are all directed forwards; this disposition is found in the martins. In some birds, the number of toes is reduced to three: the cassowary shows this reduction; in others, the number is still further diminished--the ostrich, for example, has but two. [Illustration: FIG. 48.--SKELETON OF THE FOOT OF A BIRD (THE COCK): LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Metatarsus; 2, spur; 3, rudimentary metatarsal; 4, first toe; 5, second toe; 6, third toe; 7, fourth toe.] Further, we find that, in general, the number of the phalanges increases, when we examine the toes in commencing with the most internal (Fig. 48): this has two; then the following one three; that which comes next in order has four; and the most external toe has five. The phalanges of this last are short; so that, although it is formed by a larger number of bones, it is not the longest of the toes. THE POSTERIOR LIMBS IN SOME ANIMALS. =Plantigrades=: =Bear= (Fig. 33, p. 50).--The external iliac fossa is very deep. The femur is longer than the bones of the leg; the great trochanter does not reach the level of the head of the femur. The fibula is well developed; it is united to the tibia at its superior and inferior extremities only. The foot, which, as in the case of the hand, rests on the ground by the whole extent of its plantar surface, presents five toes; the shortest of these is the internal--that is, the toe which corresponds to the great-toe in man; the third and fourth are the longest, and they are almost equal; there is a very slight difference in favour of the fourth, which is slightly superior in dimensions to the third. =Digitigrades=: =Cat=, =Dog= (Fig. 34, p. 52).--The external iliac fossa, which looks outwards, is deep; the iliac crest is convex anteriorly, the convexity is continued from one iliac spine to the other. [Illustration: FIG. 49.--PELVIS OF THE DOG, SEEN FROM ABOVE. 1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA´, bi-iliac diameter; BB´, bi-ischial diameter.] In the dog, the distance which separates the anterior iliac spines is less than that which separates the ischia (Fig. 49). On a skeleton which we measured, the transverse diameter, the distance from the anterior iliac spine of one side to that of the opposite side, was 8 centimetres, whilst the distance which separated the ischia was 105 millimetres; on another skeleton, the first measurement was 127 metres, and the second was 146 millimetres. It seems to us unnecessary to multiply examples. In the cat, the iliac spines are but slightly marked; the result is that the iliac crest is almost confounded with the inferior and superior borders of the ilium. The two diameters referred to above are almost equal (Fig. 50). We draw particular attention to what we have just noted in regard to the transverse proportions of the iliac and ischiatic regions of the dog and the cat. These relations are evidently of importance with regard to shape, since the iliac crests and the ischia are noticeable beneath the skin. [Illustration: FIG. 50.--PELVIS OF A FELIDE (LION), VIEWED FROM ABOVE. 1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA´, bi-iliac diameter; BB´, bi-ischial diameter.] In the dog, the shaft of the femur is slightly convex in front; but in the cat it is straight. The borders of the shaft are slightly marked, so that it is almost cylindrical. The _linea aspera_, less prominent than in man, gains in width what it loses in elevation; it constitutes what may almost be called a rough _surface_. This surface is narrower in its middle portion than at its extremities, where it bifurcates to go upwards to the two trochanters, and downwards to the two condyles. At the superior extremity, the neck is short, the great trochanter reaching almost to the level of the head of the femur; the digital _cavity_, which is situated on the internal surface of the great trochanter, is very deep. At its inferior extremity it projects strongly backward. The trochlea is narrow; in the cat its two lips are equally prominent, while in the dog the external is a little more elevated than the internal, which on its part is a little thicker. The trochlea is still more independent of the condyles than in the human femur; it is separated from these latter by a slight constriction. The knee-cap is long and narrow. The tibia of the dog is slightly curved from before backward: it has the form of an elongated S; this conformation is in great part due to the very marked projection of the anterior tuberosity and of the superior portion of the crest, which, a little below that tuberosity, turns abruptly backwards, and thus describes a curve the concavity of which is directed forward. The superior part of the external surface is very much hollowed out. The superior extremity is much thicker than the inferior one. It is not only wide in the transverse direction, but is more especially extended from before backwards; the prominence of the anterior tuberosity is the cause of the elongation of this antero-posterior diameter. On the posterior part of the external tuberosity is found a surface to which the superior extremity of the fibula is applied. The inferior extremity presents an articular surface, which is formed of two lateral cavities, separated by a crest, which is directed obliquely forwards and outwards. The internal part is prominent, and forms the internal malleolus. With regard to the fibula, it is united to the tibia by its extremities and by the inferior half of its shaft. This latter is more expanded below than in its upper part. The superior extremity is flattened from without inwards. The inferior extremity projects beyond the articular surface of the tibia, and forms the external malleolus, which, instead of, as in man, descending further than the tibial malleolus, stops at the same level, and even descends a little less than does the latter. In the cat, the curve of the tibia is less pronounced; this is due to the fact that the crest, instead of being concave in its middle portion, is slightly convex anteriorly. The fibula, less flattened than that of the dog, is united to the tibia by its extremities only, and is separate in the rest of its extent. The bones of the tarsus are seven in number, and arranged as in man, with this difference (which is easily comprehended), that their general relations are changed on account of the vertical direction of the tarsus. For example, the astragalus, instead of being above the calcaneum, is situated in front of it; the cuneiform bones, instead of being situated in front of the scaphoid, are found below it, etc. These animals have but four well-developed metatarsals; that which corresponds to the great-toe is represented merely by a small style-shaped bone, situate at the internal part of the region. Nevertheless, we find this toe fully developed in some dogs. Notwithstanding this, the bones which form it are, however, but rudimentary, and much smaller than those of the innermost digit of the fore-limb. Sometimes it is double; this condition is demonstrable in individuals belonging to breeds of large size. The median metatarsals are more fully developed than the other bones of the same region which are next them. Viewed as a whole, the metatarsal bones are a little longer than the metacarpals; the result is that the distance which separates the tarsus from the ground is a little greater than that which separates the carpus from the plane on which the anterior limbs rest. The length of the calcaneum still further exaggerates this difference, and, as in the animals with which we shall occupy ourselves later on, the projection which this bone forms is distinctly higher than that which is produced by the pisiform. The metatarsus, as a whole, is a little narrower than the metacarpus; not only on account of the presence of a thumb in the anterior limb, but, further, because the bones of this latter region are wider than those of the corresponding part of the posterior limb. The phalanges closely resemble those of the anterior limbs. =Unguligrades=: =Pig= (Fig. 38, p. 58).--The pelvis in this animal presents a few of the characters which we shall again meet with in the ruminants and the solipeds; however, the posterior (or internal) iliac spines are relatively more widely separated from one another than in the latter. This arrangement reminds us of that found in the carnivora. The femur presents nothing very special. The knee-cap is thick, and ovoid in outline. The fibula is completely developed, as in the carnivora; and is connected with the tibia at both its extremities. The tarsus consists of seven bones. The astragalus and the calcaneum differ slightly from those of ruminants. The foot, like the hand, has two median digits which rest on the ground by their third phalanges; and an internal and an external digit, which are removed from it. The metatarsals are a little longer than the metacarpals. [Illustration: FIG. 51.--PELVIS OF THE OX: SUPERIOR SURFACE. 1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA´, bi-iliac diameter; BB´, bi-ischiadic diameter.] =Unguligrades=: =Sheep=, =Ox= (Fig. 39, p. 61).--The pelvis of ruminants of this group closely resembles that of the horse, which we will study later on (see p. 99). That which we must at once point out is that, with regard to the ratio formed by a comparison of the bi-iliac and bi-ischiatic diameters, it may be placed between the ratio obtained in comparing those diameters in the pelvis of the carnivora and that of the solipeds. Indeed, in the ruminants, the distance which separates the ischia exceeds the width of one iliac only, and does not equal, as in the felide, the total width of the anterior part of the pelvis (Fig. 51). In the skeleton of the ox, which forms part of the anatomical museum of the École des Beaux-Arts, the bi-ischiadic diameter is 39 centimetres, whilst the width of one iliac crest is 29 centimetres, so that, in contrast to that which we find in the dog, the width of the ischiadic region is less than that formed in front by the addition of the iliac crests. The great trochanter is large, and extends beyond the level of the plane in which the head of the femur is found. In the ox, the linea aspera, instead of being a narrow crest, is spread out, and forms in reality a surface; the posterior surface of the femur. At the inferior and external part of this surface is situated a cavity which surmounts the corresponding condyle, and is known as the _supracondyloid fossa_. On the internal part of the same region there are a series of tubercles, which, because of their position in relation to the corresponding condyle, constitute the _supracondyloid crest_. The internal lip of the trochlea is much thicker and much more prominent than the external. The details which we have just now examined in connection with the ox are less marked in the sheep. The trochlea, narrow as a whole, is clearly separate from the condyles by a very marked constriction. The patella, which is thickened in the antero-posterior direction, has the shape of a triangular pyramid with the base upwards. Its posterior surface, which articulates with the trochlea, presents an arrangement which is adapted to the disposition of this latter--that is to say, the surface which is in contact with the internal lip is larger than that which articulates with the lip of the opposite side. The tibia of the ox is proportionately shorter than that of the sheep. The shaft of this bone is flattened from before backwards, in its inferior half. The median crest of the articular surface of the inferior extremity is the most prominent part of that region. [Illustration: FIG. 52.--TARSUS OF THE OX: POSTERIOR LEFT LIMB, ANTERO-EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Tibia; 2, coronoid bone of the tarsus; 3, superior articular surface of the astragalus; 4, inferior articular surface of the astragalus; 5, calcaneum; 6, cuboido-scaphoid bone; 7, great cuneiform bone--the small cuneiform bone is situated at the back of the latter; 8, principal metatarsal--the small, or rudimentary, metatarsal bone is very small; it is situated at the back of the preceding, and is not to be seen in the sketch. It would be visible if the view were directly lateral, but then the superior and inferior articular surfaces of the astragalus would be less apparent.] The fibula is extremely atrophied. The shaft and superior extremity of this bone are represented merely by a simple ligamentous cord, which is sometimes ossified. There remains of the fibula, as a portion well and distinctly developed, the inferior extremity only. This presents itself under the form of a small bone situated in the region ordinarily occupied by the inferior extremity of the outer bone of the leg--that is to say, the external part of the inferior extremity of the tibia; this little bone articulates with the astragalus and the calcaneum. Some authors consider it to be a tarsal bone, and describe it under the name of the coronoid bone of the tarsus (Fig. 52, 2). It is not, perhaps, quite legitimate to describe it as a bone of this region, for it has not a homologue in the tarsus of other animals. Its external surface is rough; its superior border is furnished with a small pointed process occupying a depression which is provided for it by the tibia. It reaches lower down than the latter, and forms in this way a sort of external malleolus, which frames, on the outer aspect, the mortise in which the astragalus is maintained. The tarsus, as a whole, has an elongated form; it is formed of five bones: the astragalus, calcaneum, cuboid and scaphoid, which coalesce, to form a single bone, and two cuneiform bones, which correspond to the second and third cuneiform bones of the human foot. These cuneiforms are called, from their size, commencing internally, by the names small and great cuneiform. The calcaneum is long and narrow; it is longer than that of the horse; it is on the anterior and external part that the bone (coronoid tarsal bone) which represents the inferior extremity of the fibula is situated. It forms the prominence known as _the point of the ham_, a prominence which is no other than the heel, which, in the unguligrades, is, as we have already said, very far removed from the ground. The astragalus, which is elongated in the vertical direction, has three articular surfaces disposed in the form of trochleæ: a superior trochlea, which is in contact with the skeleton of the leg, and which is present in all animals; an inferior, which replaces the articular head found on the anterior aspect of the astragalus in man; this articulates with the portion of the scaphoido-cuboid that corresponds to the scaphoid; and, lastly, a posterior trochlea with which the calcaneum articulates. Of these three trochleæ, the superior is the most strongly marked. Between this latter and the inferior is found, on the anterior surface of the astragalus, a deep depression, which, during flexion of the foot on the leg, receives a prominence which the inferior extremity of the tibia presents in its median portion. We can easily recognise the trochleæ which we have been discussing, in the little bones which children use 'to play at bones'; these bones are no other than the astragali of sheep. We have already mentioned that the scaphoid and the cuboid are ankylosed; they form by their union an irregular bone, on which the astragalus and calcaneum are supported. The cuneiforms articulate with the internal half of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal; the external half of this metatarsal articulates with the portion of bone which represents the cuboid. The metatarsus is represented by a principal metatarsal, formed by the coalescence of two metatarsals; we also find in this region a very small rudimentary metatarsal. The metatarsus is a little longer than the metacarpus; its transverse measurement is a little less; on the other hand, it is a little thicker in antero-posterior direction; from these two differences it results that the body of the metatarsus is quadrilateral, whereas the metacarpus presents only an anterior and a posterior surface. The rudimentary metatarsal is a very small roundish bone, situated at the back of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal. The phalanges closely resemble those of the anterior limbs; nevertheless, the first and second phalanges differ from the latter in the fact that they are a little longer and narrower. At the back of the metatarso-phalangeal articulations, as in the corresponding region of the anterior limbs, are found the sesamoid bones. Such also exist at the articulations of the second and third phalanges. =Unguligrades=: =Horse= (Fig. 40, p. 64).--The pelvis of the horse presents a general form which sharply differentiates it from that of the carnivora; in fact, the ilium is twisted in such a way that the external iliac fossa does not look outwards, but upwards. It results from this twist that the anterior iliac spine, which we have seen to be directed downwards in the carnivora, has become external; and this prominence is much farther removed from the vertebral column than in the dog or cat. On the other hand, the posterior iliac spine, which is directed upwards in the carnivora, has become internal; it is also placed nearer to the vertebral column, with the result that the distance which separates this spine from that of the bone of the opposite side is proportionately less. The internal iliac spine, which is conical in shape, and curved upwards, forms a prominence known as _the angle of the crupper_; the external iliac spine, thick and provided with tuberosities, forms a clearly-defined prominence; this is the angle of the _haunch_. The iliac crest, extending directly from one spine to the other, is curved, its concavity being turned upwards. The external iliac fossa, which looks upward, is limited anteriorly by this crest, and is, like the latter, slightly hollowed. The portion of the bone which connects the ilium to the region occupied by the cotyloid cavity is extremely narrow; posteriorly, the bone enlarges again to form the ischial and pubic portions. The tuberosity of the ischium, thick and curved upwards, but less so than in the ox, forms the most prominent part of the posterior border of the region of the thigh; this projecting portion, so sharply defined in spare subjects, is known as the _point_ or _angle of the buttock_. Contrary to what we have indicated in the case of the dog, the distance which separates the ischiatic tuberosities is inconsiderable in proportion to that which we find between the external iliac spine of one side and that of the opposite. The bi-ischiatic diameter does not even equal the width of one iliac bone measured at the level of its crest (Fig. 53). On the skeleton of the horse in the École des Beaux-Arts, the distance which separates the tuberosities of the ischia is 225 millimetres; that between the two spines of each iliac bone is 25 centimetres. The anterior region of the crupper is thus much broader than that occupied by the ischia. The femur is relatively short. Its shaft is rectilinear, and does not present the anterior convexity which is found on the human femur, and which we indicated when discussing that of the dog. The shaft of the bone, instead of being prismatic and triangular, presents four surfaces; the anterior, internal, and external, almost pass into each other, being separated one from the other merely by rounded and slightly marked borders; the posterior surface, which is plane, replaces the linea aspera, which in the horse, instead of presenting the appearance of a crest, is considerably widened. The numerous irregularities which this surface presents give insertion to the muscles which correspond to those attached to the linea aspera. Between this posterior surface and the external is found a rough prominence which curves forward; this was designated by Cuvier the _third trochanter_; it replaces the external branch of the superior line of bifurcation of the linea aspera; other authors call it the _infratrochanteric crest_, because it is situated below the great trochanter. At the inferior part of the same region is found a deep fossa, the borders of which are rough; this is the _supracondyloid fossa_. [Illustration: FIG 53.--PELVIS OF THE HORSE: SUPERIOR SURFACE. 1, Iliac crest; 2, external iliac fossa; 3, sacrum; AA´, bi-iliac diameter; BB´, bi-ischiatic diameter.] Between the posterior surface and the internal are found: above, the lesser trochanter, which is long and rough; below, at the level of the supracondyloid fossa, an equally rough surface known by the name of the _supracondyloid crest_. The superior extremity is flattened from before backwards. The neck is not well marked. The great trochanter is very prominent, and projects beyond the level of the head of the femur. We divide the great trochanter into three parts: the summit, which is the most elevated portion; the convexity, which is situated in front; and the crest, formed by muscular impressions, situated outside and below the convexity. The digital fossa is situated behind and below the summit of the great trochanter. With regard to the lesser trochanter, it is placed so far down that it really forms part of the shaft of the bone, with which, besides, we have described it. On the inferior extremity of the femur are two condyles and a trochlea; the condyles are clearly separated from this latter by a marked constriction. The trochlea is directed with a slight obliquity downwards and inwards; its internal lip is much thicker and more prominent than the external; this is, accordingly, a condition exactly the opposite of that which characterizes the corresponding region of the human femur. The knee-cap is lozenge-shaped; its superior angle projects upward, and produces a prominence at the part which corresponds to the base of the human patella, the part which is here the thickest portion of the bone. Its anterior surface is convex and rough. Its posterior surface presents two lateral articular facets, separated by a crest; this surface is in contact with the trochlea of the femur, and, as it is the internal lip of the latter which is the more developed, it results therefrom that the internal articular surface of the knee-cap is larger than the external. The knee-cap contributes to the formation of the region of the posterior limb which is called the _stifle_. The tibia is large in its upper portion; in its inferior part it is flattened from before backwards. The posterior surface of the shaft presents an oblique line, below which are found vertical rough lines for the insertion of muscles. The external surface is hollowed out in its upper part. The anterior tuberosity of the tibia rises just to the level of the flat articular surface; it is hollowed in its median portion by a vertical groove of elongated form, which receives the ligament that binds the knee-cap to the tibia. The external tuberosity is more prominent than the internal; in it is found a groove for the passage of the anterior tibial muscle. The inferior extremity, flattened from before backwards, presents a surface which is moulded on the trochlea of the astragalus; the median crest of this surface is thick, and descends lower posteriorly than the tuberosities which are situated on the external and internal aspects of this extremity. Of the two tuberosities, that which is internal is comparable to the internal malleolus of man, the one on the outer side forms a sort of external malleolus; but this latter here belongs to the tibia, and not to the fibula. The fibula, in fact, does not reach the inferior extremity of the tibia; it is a poorly developed bone, elongated and terminating inferiorly in a point, at the middle of the shaft of the tibia or at its lower third. Its superior extremity, which is slightly expanded, articulates with the tuberosity which occupies the outer aspect of the corresponding extremity of the tibia. The bones of the tarsus are six in number: the calcaneum and astragalus form the upper row; the cuboid, scaphoid, and two cuneiforms form the lower (Fig. 54). The astragalus has not, as in ruminants, an inferior trochlea for articulation with the scaphoid; this portion of the bone presents a surface which is slightly convex. It articulates with the tibia by a trochlea that occupies not only the superior surface, but also the anterior. This trochlea, which is directed slightly obliquely downwards and outwards, has a very pronounced form; its lips, which are extremely prominent, determine by their anterior part one of the features which we recognise on the anterior aspect of the _ham_--a feature which is still more accentuated when the metatarsus (_canon_) is extended on the leg. On the internal surface of the astragalus is found a tubercle, which forms a projection in the corresponding region of the ham. The calcaneum, which is not quite so long as that of the ox, forms by its summit a prominence which is called _the point of the ham_. The cuboid is small; the scaphoid is large, and flattened from above downwards. Of the two cuneiforms, the more external is the larger; it closely resembles the scaphoid; it is flattened from above downwards as is the latter; but it is a little smaller in size. The small cuneiform, which occupies the inner side of the tarsus, is the smallest bone in this region; it is sometimes divided into two parts; this raises the number of the cuneiforms to three, and that of the bones of the tarsus to seven. [Illustration: FIG. 54.--TARSUS OF THE HORSE: LEFT POSTERIOR LIMB, ANTERIOR SURFACE. 1, Tibia; 2, internal tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the tibia (homologue of the internal malleolus of man); 3, external tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the tibia (homologue of the external malleolus); 4, median crest lodged in the groove of the pulley of the astragalus; 5, pulley of the astragalus; 6, internal tuberosity of the astragalus; 7, calcaneum; 8, cuboid; 9, scaphoid; 10, great cuneiform, the small cuneiform is placed behind this latter; 11, principal metatarsal; 12, external rudimentary metatarsal. The internal rudimentary metatarsal, being more slender than the external, does not appear in the figure.] The bones of the metatarsus and the phalanges are equal in number to the corresponding bones in the anterior limbs; they are formed on a type analogous to that of these latter. Accordingly, we shall merely indicate the differences which characterize them. The principal metatarsal is longer than the metacarpal of the same class; its shaft is more cylindrical; its inferior extremity is somewhat thicker. The external rudimentary metatarsal is better developed than the internal; in the metacarpus the reverse is the case. The phalanges so far resemble those of the anterior limb that, as differential characters, we need point out only the following: the first phalanx of the hind-foot is a little shorter than that of the fore-foot; its inferior extremity is a little narrower, and its superior extremity a little thicker. The second phalanx is a little less expanded laterally. The difference in appearance which the three phalanges, anterior and posterior, respectively present are to be borne in mind; for they are correlated to the general form of the fore and hind feet. We will establish this point when we come to study the hoof (see Figs. 101 and 102, p. 257). In the fore-foot the ungual phalanx has its inferior surface limited externally by a circular border, while the same bone of the hind-foot has this surface a little narrower, more concave, and limited by two curved borders which unite anteriorly to form an angle--an arrangement which gives to the general outline of this region the form of the letter V. Articulations of the Posterior Limbs =The Coxo-femoral Articulation.=--The head of the femur is received in the cotyloid cavity; these are the osseous surfaces in contact in this articulation. They are maintained in position by a fibrous capsule and a round ligament. To this latter is found attached, in the horse, a fasciculus which, commencing, as does the round ligament, at the depression on the head of the femur, emerges from the cotyloid cavity by the notch which is present in its circumference, and is attached to the anterior border of the pubes, to blend with the tendon of the rectus muscle of the abdomen. This is the pubio-femoral ligament. The movements which this joint permits are the same in the quadrupeds as in man, but less extensive. They are: flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, the two latter being much more limited than the former. There is also rotation. By flexion, the inferior extremity of the femur is directed forwards; the bone of the thigh then takes a more oblique direction than the normal. This movement takes place, for example, when the animal carries forward one of its hinder limbs. Extension, which takes place in an inverse sense, is produced when the foot is fixed on the ground, while the body is projected forward. It is also produced in the action of kicking. As for the lateral movements--viz., abduction and adduction--they are less extensive than the preceding movements. The absence of the pubio-femoral ligament in other quadrupeds than the horse explains why in them abduction is less limited than in the latter. Indeed, it is the tension of this ligament, occasioned by the abduction of the thighs, which arrests more quickly the movement in question. =Articulation of the Knee.=--This articulation, as in man, is formed by the femur, the patella, and the tibia. In the horse the ligament of the patella is not single, but consists of three parts, designated, on account of their position, by the respective names of external, internal, and median patellar ligaments. The two former come from the angles on the corresponding borders of the knee-cap; the median springs from the anterior surface and inferior angle of the same bone. They all three pass to their termination on the anterior tubercle of the tibia. The external ligament is the strongest, and the internal ligament the least developed. In the dog, the cat, the pig, and the sheep, the patellar ligament consists of a single band. The articulation is further strengthened on the sides by lateral ligaments--an internal and an external. With regard to the principal movements, these are flexion and extension, to which may be added movements of rotation of limited extent. In flexion, the leg bends on the thigh; its inferior extremity is directed upwards and backwards; the angle which the tibia naturally forms with the femur becomes less obtuse. But it should be understood that one part of this description--that which has relation to the leg--holds good only when the femur is in its normal condition, or in flexion. Indeed, at the close of the movement in which, during a step, the foot is in contact with the ground--that is, at the termination of the resting stage--the inferior extremity of the tibia is directed backwards. But the femur is then in a state of extension, and in regard to this latter the attitude of the leg is unchanged. [Illustration: FIG. 55.--EXTENSION OF THE LEG: RIGHT POSTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE, EXTERNAL SURFACE. (AFTER A CHRONOGRAPHIC STUDY BY PROFESSOR MAREY.)] At this moment, notwithstanding the direction, which recalls that which it has at the time of flexion, the leg is not bent on the thigh; on the contrary, it is almost in the line of its continuation (Fig. 55). As we have done in connection with the articulations of the anterior limbs, we borrow this figure from the interesting chronophotographic studies of Professor Marey.[17] [17] E. J. Marey, 'Analysis of the Movements of the Horse by the Chronophotograph' (_La Nature_, June 11, 1898). =The Tibio-tarsal Articulation and of the Bones of the Tarsus.=--In the region which veterinary anatomists call the ham, the articulations of the leg and foot alone call for special study in the case of the horse. The articulations of the bones of the tarsus, and of these with the metatarsus, do not offer any interest with regard to mobility, this being almost wholly absent at that level. The leg and the astragalus, in a general way, are placed in contact by such articular surfaces that the resulting joint, which is a true hinge, permits movements of flexion and extension only. Indeed, as we have indicated above, the tibia is furnished, on the inferior surface, with a crest that fits into the deep groove which is situated on the corresponding surface of the astragalus. During flexion, the anterior surface of the foot tends to approach the anterior surface of the leg, the angle formed by these two segments becoming more and more narrowed. The displacement in the opposite direction characterizes extension. In other quadrupeds, the articulations which bind together the bones of the tarsus possess a little more freedom of movement. The shape of these bones, and particularly the shape of the surfaces of the astragalus, which are in contact with them, allow movements in this region, in the case of the dog and cat, which, without being so extensive as those of the human foot, in the subastragaloid articulation, nevertheless, recall the mobility which we find in the human species at this level--that is to say, rotation, abduction, and adduction of the foot. As for the articulations of the metatarsus with the phalanges, and of the phalanges with one another, they resemble those of the anterior limb too closely that it should be necessary to study them here. Such a study would be, in this case, but a repetition (see p. 76, a description of the articulations in question). THE HEAD IN GENERAL, AND IN SOME ANIMALS IN PARTICULAR When we compare, by the examination of one of their lateral aspects, the skull of man and the same region in other mammals, it is easy to observe that the relative development of the cranium and face is entirely different. In the case of man the cranium is large, and the face relatively small; in animals the face is proportionally much more highly developed. The measure of the facial angle permits us to note these differences, and the figures relative to the value of this angle are sufficiently demonstrative to induce us to indicate those which are, in a general way, connected with some of the forms in individuals which here occupy our attention. In the first place, we must remember that the angle in question is more acute, as the cranium is less developed in proportion to the facial region (Figs. 56 and 57). It is especially to this character that we wish to draw attention. Man 70°-80° Cat 41° Dog 28°-41° Sheep 20°-25° Ox 18°-20° Ass 12°-16° Horse 11°-13° Besides, in animals the cranium is very prominent superiorly, and the face, more or less elongated, is sharply projected downwards and forwards; in man the cranial region occupies not only the superior, but also the posterior part; the face is short and of a compact form. The human head, in its general aspect, may be compared to a sphere, while the skull of the quadrupeds presents the aspect of a quadrangular pyramid, with the base turned upwards and the summit at the incisor teeth. =Direction of the Head.=--Before entering on the study of the bones of the head, it is necessary, in our opinion, to agree as to the position in which we shall suppose it to be placed. The question may seem to be one of little importance; nevertheless, it cannot be regarded as indifferent, since authors are not all agreed on this subject. Some suppose it to be placed vertically--that is, with the incisor teeth turned directly downwards. Others, on the contrary, suppose it to be placed horizontally, resting on the whole length of the lower jaw, the face being then turned upwards. These two extreme methods of arrangement appear to us to possess inconveniences--at least, for comparison with the human head. [Illustration: FIG. 56.--HUMAN SKULL: MEASURE OF THE FACIAL ANGLE BY THE METHOD OF CAMPER. ANGLE BAC = 80°. The internal wall of the cranial cavity is marked by the dotted line.] [Illustration: FIG. 57.--SKULL OF THE HORSE: MEASURE OF THE FACIAL ANGLE BY THE METHOD OF CAMPER.[18] ANGLE BAC = 13°. The internal wall of the cranial cavity is shown by the dotted line.] [18] We have indicated on this sketch of the skull of the horse the facial angle measured by the method of Camper, in order that the correspondence with Fig. 56 may be more complete. But it is certain that the procedure here employed is in practice not satisfactory, since the apex of the angle, as we can demonstrate, is found to be situated within the contour of the head, and that, consequently, it is rather difficult to localize it precisely in the case of a given skeleton. Further, because of the absence of the base of the nose in the complete skull, the auriculo-nasal line cannot be accurately fixed. It would be the same for most other animals. This is why the method employed for these latter is preferably that of Cuvier, or, again, that of Cloquet. In the former, the apex of the angle of Camper is transferred to the free border of the upper incisors, but these teeth may be absent, and, on the other hand, ruminants are destitute of them. In the second, the same apex is placed at the alveolar border, and the angle then becomes fairly easy to appreciate. Indeed, if, when the head is vertical, the same regions of the face (forehead, nose) are, in the case of animals as well as man, turned forward, the lower jaw ceases to merit its appellation, as it is then situated, not below, but behind the upper. Furthermore, if this position is chosen, for example, for modelling or drawing, it cannot be obtained without difficulty when we have to deal with an isolated piece of the skeleton, on account of the absence of equilibrium, which it is necessary to obviate. It is true that the question of convenience should not take precedence of all others, and it suffices for us in this connection to recall, in regard to the human pelvis, that, although the older anatomists used to represent it as resting commodiously on the three angles which terminate it at its lower part (ischial tuberosities and coccyx), this attitude being false, it is customary now to incline the superior aspect forwards, inasmuch as this arrangement more nearly conforms to reality, in spite of the fact that it is a little more difficult so to dispose an isolated pelvis. Further, to return to the head; if its vertical direction can be demonstrated, for example, in many horses, it is not sufficiently general to be adopted as the classic position. In regard to the facility of placing in position, the horizontal direction is certainly to be preferred; but this is also far removed from the natural position in the animal while in the state of repose. On the other hand, the mind is not satisfied with the idea that certain regions of the face, such as the nose and the forehead, are then directed upwards. And yet it is necessary to come to a decision, seeing that what we are now investigating applies also to the position to which it is necessary to give the preference in placing the skeleton of the head when we wish to draw it in profile. That which we adopt is a compromise, but to us it seems more rational. The position of the head of the horse, to be normal, should be such as to give it an inclination of 45°. In this case the lower jaw is still posterior; and, for this reason, we see in adopting this position some inconveniences from a didactic point of view. Accordingly, we will suppose the head brought a little nearer to the horizontal, and this, from the imaginative point of view, has certainly an advantage which we cannot afford to neglect when addressing artists. Indeed, let us suppose that to a clay model of a human head we wish to give the aspect of the head of a quadruped. We should elevate the occiput; and then, taking hold of the lower part of the face, we should lengthen it, not in a direction precisely antero-posterior, but downwards and forwards. It is obviously this latter procedure which, on the other hand, is carried out when a person wishes to give to his own face some resemblance to the muzzle of a quadruped. It is true that, in the position we have adopted, the face is directed obliquely downwards and forwards, and that there may result a certain confusion in describing the position of its different parts. On this account, with the object of not making complications, we purpose, for the present, to substitute, for example, for the term 'antero-superior'--which when speaking of the position of the forehead and nose would be more exact--the term 'anterior,' which is sufficiently comprehensible. The mouth will be, for the same reason, referred to as being situated at the inferior part of the face, and not the antero-inferior. =The Skull.=--The elevation of the cranial region becomes especially appreciable when we examine the occipital bone. Before verifying this fact, it is not superfluous to recall the general arrangement which this bone presents in the human skull. A portion of the occipital bone occupies the base of the skull; but this base in man is horizontal; to this region succeeds the shell-shaped portion of the occipital bone, which, passing vertically upwards, forms with the preceding portion an angle situated at the level of the external occipital protuberance, and of the curved line which starts from it on each side. In animals a portion of the occipital bone is horizontal, it is true; but this bone being sharply bent at the level of the occipital foramen and condyles, the result is that the portion which surmounts these latter looks backwards, and is limited above by the external occipital protuberance, which forms the culminating point of the skull; this point is situated between the ears. [Illustration: FIG. 58.--SKULL OF ONE OF THE FELIDÆ (JAGUAR): LEFT LATERAL ASPECT. 1, Posterior surface of the occipital bone; 2, external occipital protuberance; 3, condyle of the occipital bone; 4, jugular process; 5, parietal bone; 6, frontal bone; 7, orbital process; 8, orbital cavity; 9, squamous portion of the temporal bone; 10, external auditory canal, in front of which is situated the zygomatic process; 11, tympanic bulla; 12, superior maxillary bone; 13, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 14, nasal bone; 15, anterior orifice of the nasal cavity; 16, malar bone; 17, ungual or lachrymal bone; 18, inferior maxillary bone; 19, condyle of the inferior maxillary bone; 20, coronoid process; 21, incisor teeth; 22, canine teeth; 23, molar teeth.] [Illustration: FIG. 59.--SKULL OF THE LION: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT. This figure is intended to show that in the lion the contour of the face between the nasal bones and the cranial region is more flattened than in other felidæ, such as the tiger, jaguar, panther, and domestic cat. This difference is shown by comparison of this figure with the preceding one (Fig. 58). We are indebted to M. Tramond, the well-known naturalist, for the indication of this differential character which, from the artistic plastic point of view, is one of real interest.] This protuberance, prolonged on each side by the superior curved line of the occipital bone, is so much the more prominent as this bone bends sharply a second time, so as to form a third portion, which, looking forwards, forms part of the anterior aspect of the skull, and proceeds to articulate with the parietals. On this third portion is found a crest which, proceeding from the occipital protuberance, is continuous in front with the parietal crests, to which we will again refer in speaking of the parietal bones. On the inferior surface of the human occipital bone are found, at the level of, and external to, the condyles two bony elevations which bear the name of _jugular eminences_. They are long in quadrupeds, and constitute what are designated by some authors the _styloid processes_, but they must not be confounded with the processes of the same name which in the case of man form part of the temporal bone. These processes are very highly developed in the pig, horse, ox, and sheep. In the ox, the occipital bone is deprived of the protuberance, and is not bent on itself in the anterior portion, neither does it form the most salient part of the skull; this latter, which is situated at the level of the horns, belongs to the frontal bone. In the pig, also, the occipital bone is not bent upon itself in its anterior portion, but forms the summit of the head. The occipital protuberance, hollowed on its posterior surface, rises vertically, and rests upon the parietal bone, with which it forms an acute angle. The parietals, two separate bones in the dog and the cat, but fused in the median line in the ox, sheep, and horse, are of special interest in regard to the two crests which, in the carnivora, and also in the pig and the horse, occupy their external surface, and, after diverging from one another, are continued by a crest which crosses the frontal bone and ends at the external orbital process of the latter bone. These crests, known as the _parietal_ or _temporal crests_, recall both in position and relations the temporal curved line of the parietal bone of man. They contribute, as in the case of the latter, to the formation of the boundaries of the temporal fossa. [Illustration: FIG. 60.--SKULL OF THE DOG: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT. 1, Posterior surface of the occipital bone; 2, external occipital protuberance; 3, occipital condyle; 4, jugular process; 5, parietal bone; 6, frontal bone; 7, orbital process; 8, orbital cavity; 9, external auditory canal, in front of which is found the zygomatic process; 10, tympanic bulla; 11, superior maxillary bone; 12, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 13, nasal bone; 14, anterior opening of the cavity of the nasal fossæ; 15, malar bone; 16, lachrymal bone; 17, inferior maxillary bone; 18, condyle of the inferior maxillary bone; 19, coronoid process; 20, incisor teeth; 21, canine teeth; 22, molar teeth.] In the carnivora, these crests are situated, throughout their whole length, in the median line, the temporal fossæ being, accordingly, as extended as they possibly can be. In certain species, the development of these crests is such that they form by their union a vertical plate, which, in separating the two temporal fossæ, gives them a greater depth. In the pig, the parietal crests, analogous in this respect to the temporal curved lines of the parietal bones of man, are separated by an interval, proportionately less extended, however, than that of the human skull. The parietal bone in the ox and the sheep does not enter into the formation of the anterior surface of the skull; it is formed by an osseous plate, narrow and elongated transversely, which, with the occipital bone, constitutes the base of the region of _the nape of the neck_. It is bent upon itself at the level of its lateral portions so as to occupy the temporal fossa. The anterior surface of the frontal bone, which is depressed in the median line in the dog, but plane in the horse, is limited by two crests, which, situated on the prolongation of the parietal crests, diverge more and more from one another in proportion as they occupy a lower position. This surface terminates externally in two processes, which are the homologues of the external orbital processes of the human frontal bone. The superior border of these orbital processes, situated on the prolongation of the corresponding parietal crests, contributes to limit the temporal fossa. Each of these orbital processes terminates in the following manner: In the bear, dog, cat, and pig, in which the orbital cavities are incompletely bounded by bone, this process, slightly developed, is not in connection, by its inferior extremity, with any other part of the skeleton of the region. In the ox and the sheep, it articulates with a process of the malar bone. In the horse, it articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone. The inferior margin of this process forms a part of the boundary of the anterior opening of the orbital cavity. The supra-orbital foramen, which does not exist in carnivora, occupies in the horse the base of the orbital process. In the ox, it is situated a little nearer the middle line; and its anterior orifice opens into an osseous gutter which is directed upwards towards the base of the horn, while inferiorly it meets the inferior border of the frontal bone; in the sheep this groove is but slightly developed. In this latter, as in the ox, it is the frontal bone which forms the most elevated portion of the skull. In fact, being bent upon itself at a certain level, its external surface is formed of two planes: one, posterior, which is inclined downwards and directed backwards; the other, anterior, is also inclined downwards, but with a forward obliquity. At the union of these planes the bone forms an elbow, on either side of which are found the osseous processes on which the horns are mounted. [Illustration: FIG. 61.--SKULL OF THE PIG: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT. 1, Occipital bone; 2, condyle of the occipital; 3, jugular process; 4, parietal bone; 5, parietal crests; 6, frontal bone; 7, orbital process; 8, orbital cavity; 9, external auditory canal; 10, zygomatic process; 11, superior maxillary bone; 12, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 13, nasal bone; 14, anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossæ; 15, malar bone; 16, lachrymal bone; 17, inferior maxillary bone; 18, condyle of the inferior maxillary bone; 19, incisor teeth; 20, canine teeth; 21, molar teeth.] In the bear, the anterior margin of the frontal bone is prolonged by two small tongues of bone, which, descending on the lateral borders of the nasal bones, articulate with the superior half of the latter. The temporal bone is, as in man, furnished with a squamous portion, from which springs the zygomatic process, which is directed towards the face, to terminate in the following manner: in the carnivora, the pig, and ruminants, it articulates with the malar bone by its inferior border; in the horse, it insinuates itself as a sort of wedge between the malar bone and the orbital process of the frontal bone, with which it articulates, as we have already pointed out, and contributes, by a portion situated in front of this articulation, to form the boundary of the anterior opening of the corresponding orbital cavity. As in man, the zygomatic process arises by two roots: one, transverse, behind which is situated the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone; the other, antero-posterior, which proceeds to join above with the superior curved line of the occipital bone. Behind the glenoid cavity is found the external auditory canal, and, further back still, the mastoid process. This latter, but slightly developed in the carnivora, a little more so in the ruminants, and still more in the horse, has its external surface traversed by a crest, _the mastoid crest_, which, after becoming blended with the antero-posterior root of the zygomatic process, proceeds with this latter to join the superior occipital curved line. Below the auditory canal is situated a round prominence, highly developed in carnivora; this is _the tympanic bulla_, also called _the mastoid protuberance_; it is an appendage of the tympanum. The Face The bone of this region, around which all the others come to be grouped, is, as in man, the superior maxillary. The relations of this maxillary with the neighbouring bones is not exactly the same in all animals; for example, in the ox, sheep, and horse, in which the bones of the nose are wide in their upper part, and in which the lachrymal bone, which is very highly developed, encroaches on the face, the superior maxillary does not meet the frontal bone; it is separated from it by the above-named bones. It unites with it, on the other hand, in the dog and the cat. In the bear, it is separated from the bones of the nose by a small tongue of bone which springs from the anterior border of the frontal--a process which we have noticed in connection with this latter. [Illustration: FIG. 62.--THE SKULL OF THE OX: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT. 1, Occipital condyle; 2, jugular process; 3, parietal bone; 4, frontal bone; 5, osseous process, which serves to support the horn (horn-core); 6, orbital cavity; 7, external auditory canal, in front of which is found the zygomatic process; 8, temporal fossa; 9, superior maxillary bone; 10, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 11, nasal bone; 12, anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossæ; 13, malar bone; 14, lachrymal bone; 15, inferior maxillary bone; 16, condyle of the inferior maxillary bone; 17, incisor teeth; 18, molar teeth.] In the pig, ox, sheep, and horse, the external surface is traversed, to a greater or less extent, by a crest which is situated on the prolongation of the inferior border of the malar bone. This crest, which is straight in the horse, but curved with its convexity upwards in the ox and the sheep, is known as _the maxillary spine_ or _the malar tuberosity_: it gives attachment to the masseter muscle, and, in the horse, is distinctly visible under the skin. It does not exist in the carnivora. On the same surface is situated the sub-orbital foramen. The inferior border is hollowed out into alveoli, in which are implanted the superior molar and canine teeth. This border is prolonged forwards from the alveolus, which corresponds to the first molar tooth, to terminate, after a course more or less prolonged, at the alveolus of the canine. This space, more or less considerably expanded, which thus separates these teeth is called the _interdental space_; but this denomination is not applicable to ruminants, because these latter possess neither canine nor incisor teeth in the upper jaw (see p. 125, dentition of the ox and sheep). The superior maxillary bone of one side and that of the opposite side do not meet in the median line in the region which corresponds to the incisor teeth; they are separated by a bone which, in the human species, is present only at the commencement of life, and afterwards coalesces with the maxilla; this is the intermaxillary or incisor bone. This bone, which is paired, is formed of a central part, which bears the superior incisor teeth; it is prolonged upwards and backwards by two processes: one, external, which insinuates itself between the superior maxillary and the nasal bone, except in the sheep, in which it remains widely separated from the latter; the other, internal, which is united to that which belongs to the bone of the opposite side to form part of the floor of the cavity of the nasal fossæ; the external border of this process, which is separated from the body of the bone by a notch, forms the internal boundary of the corresponding _incisor opening_ or the _incisor slit_. Owing to the absence of superior incisors in ruminants, the intermaxillary bone presents no alveoli. The malar bone, and the os unguis or lachrymal, are more or less developed according to the species considered. With regard to the malar bone, it is most important to notice the part which it takes in the formation of the zygomatic arch, and that its inferior border contributes to form the crest to which is attached the masseter muscle. As for the nasal bones, they present differential characters which, as they affect the form of the region which they occupy, are worthy of notice. [Illustration: FIG. 63.--SKULL OF THE HORSE: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT. 1, Posterior surface of the occipital bone; 2, external occipital protuberance; 3, occipital condyle; 4, jugular process; 5, parietal bone; 6, frontal bone; 7, orbital cavity; 8, zygomatic process of the temporal bone; 9, external auditory canal; 10, mastoid process; 11, superior maxillary bone or _maxilla_; 12, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 13, nasal bone; 14, anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossæ; 14´, malar bone; 15, lachrymal bone; 16, inferior maxillary bone or _mandible_; 17, inferior maxillary fissure; 18, condyle of the inferior maxillary bone; 19, coronoid process of the inferior maxillary bone; 20, incisor teeth; 21, canine teeth; 22, molar teeth.] Their dimensions in length are proportional to those of the face. Very small in man, they are more developed in carnivora. We recognise in the latter the two curves which characterize them in the human species, and which we clearly notice when we view them on one of their lateral aspects: a concavity above, and a convexity below. These curves are more or less accentuated--very strongly marked in the bulldog, and scarcely at all in the greyhound. Moreover, in the carnivora also the nasal bones are wider below than above, and form, by their junction, a semicircular notch which limits, in its superior portion, the anterior opening of the cavity of the nasal fossæ. In the horse they present an opposite arrangement with regard to their dimensions in width; broad above, each terminates below by forming a pointed process which, separated from the intermaxillary bones, is prolonged in front of the nasal orifice. The inferior maxillary bone is, as in man, formed of a body and two branches. But among the many special characteristics of form and size which sharply differentiate it from the human bone, one detail must be indicated; this is the absence of a mental prominence. Hence it results that the anterior border of the body of the lower jaw, instead of being directed obliquely downwards and forwards, is, on the contrary, oblique downwards and backwards, and that in certain animals this border is actually found almost exactly on the prolongation of the inferior border of the body of the bone. On the external surface of the body are found the three mental foramina. The superior border is hollowed out by alveoli. With regard to the branches (_rami_), they terminate in two processes: one, the posterior, is the condyle; the other, situated more forwards, is the coronoid process, which gives insertion to the temporal muscle. These two processes are separated by the sigmoid notch. For reasons which we will explain further on (see p. 127, movements of the lower jaw), the condyle presents differences of form. In the carnivora, it is strongly convex from before backwards, expanded transversely, and firmly mortised in the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone; in the ruminants, it is less convex from before backwards, it is more slightly concave in the transverse direction; in the rodents--we give as an example the hare (Fig. 64)--the condyle is still convex from before backwards, but it is flattened from without inwards. In the animals in which the muscles of mastication are very highly developed, and especially in the carnivora, the osseous regions occupied by these muscles are more extensive and more deep than in the human species. The length of the coronoid process, the depth of the temporal fossa, the extent of the zygomatic arch, the appearance of the external surface of each of the rami of the lower jaw, deeply hollowed out for accommodation of the masseter, and to provide extensive surfaces of insertion for this muscle, are sure proofs furnished by the skeleton of the occasionally enormous development of the muscles of mastication. In the carnivora, a rather strong process, which is directed backwards, occupies the angle of the inferior maxilla; it is, accordingly, situated below the region of the condyle. [Illustration: FIG. 64.--SKULL OF THE HARE: LEFT LATERAL ASPECT. 1, External occipital protuberance; 2, occipital condyle; 3, parietal bone; 4, frontal bone; 5, orbital process; 6, orbital cavity; 7, zygomatic process; 8, external auditory canal; 9, superior maxillary bone; 10, intermaxillary or incisor bone; 11, nasal bone; 12, anterior opening of the nasal fossa; 13, malar bone; 14, inferior maxillary bone; 15, condyle of the inferior maxillary bone; 16, incisor teeth; 17, molar teeth.] The teeth which the jaws carry vary in number, and even in appearance, according to species; it is useful to note their differences. In order to establish the nature of these latter more effectively, we will first recall the fact that in man the teeth, thirty-two in number, are equally distributed between the jaws, and are divided into incisors, canines, and molars, of which the arrangement is thus formulated: 5_m._ 1_c._ 2_i._ | 2_i._ 1_c._ 5_m._ --------------------+-------------------- = 32.[19] 5_m._ 1_c._ 2_i._ | 2_i._ 1_c._ 5_m._ [19] _I.e._, _i_, incisors; _c_, canines; _m_, molars. We also note that the incisors are edged, the canines are pointed, and that the molars, cubical in shape, have their surface of contact provided with tubercles. The teeth of the cat are thirty in number; they are thus arranged: 4_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 4_m._ --------------------+-------------------- = 30. 3_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 3_m._ Those of the dog number forty-two: 6_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 6_m._ --------------------+-------------------- = 42. 7_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 7_m._ In these animals, the incisors, such as are not damaged by use, are furnished, on the free border of their crown, with three tubercles, of which one, the median, is more developed than those which are situated laterally. We denote these teeth, commencing with those nearest the median line, by the names _central incisors_ or _nippers_, _intermediate_ and _corner incisors_. The canines, or _fangs_, are long and conical; they are curved backwards and outwards. The upper canines, which are larger than those of the lower jaw, are separated from the most external of the incisors (_corner_) by an interval in which the canines of the lower jaw are received. The lower canines, on the other hand, are in contact with the neighbouring incisors, and are each separated from the first molar which succeeds them by a wider interval than that which is situated between the corresponding teeth in the upper jaw. The molars differ essentially from the teeth of the same class in the human species. Their crown terminates in a cutting border bristling with sharp-pointed projections; this formation indicates that these teeth are principally designed for tearing. During the movement of raising the lower jaw, which is so energetic in the carnivora, they act, indeed, in the same manner as the two blades of a pair of scissors. The largest molars are: in the dog, the fourth of the upper jaw, and the fifth in the opposite one; in the cat, the third both above and below. The pig has forty-four teeth disposed in the following manner: 7_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 7_m._ --------------------+-------------------- = 44. 7_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 7_m._ Of the incisors, the nippers and the intermediate ones of the upper jaw have their analogues in those of the horse; in the lower jaw, the corresponding teeth, straight, and directed forward, rather resemble the same incisors in rodents. The corner incisor teeth are much smaller, and are separated from the neighbouring teeth. The canine teeth, also called _tusks_ or _tushes_, are greatly developed, especially in the male. The molars increase in size from the first to the last; they are not cutting, as in the carnivora, but they are not flattened and provided with tubercles on their surfaces of contact as in the herbivora. In the ox and the sheep the teeth are thirty-two in number: 6_m._ 0_c._ 0_i._ | 0_i._ 0_c._ 6_m._ --------------------+-------------------- = 32. 6_m._ 0_c._ 4_i._ | 4_i._ 0_c._ 6_m._ As we see from this dental formula, the incisors are found only in the lower jaw; they are replaced in the upper jaw by a thick cartilaginous pad on which the inferior incisors find a surface of resistance. These have their crowns flattened from above downwards, and gradually become thinner from the root to the anterior border, which is edged and slightly convex. These teeth gradually wear away. In proportion to the progress of this wear, on account of the fact that it involves the anterior borders and upper surfaces of the incisor teeth, and that these teeth are narrower towards the root than at the opposite extremity, the intervals which separate them tend to become wider and wider; and when the roots become exposed by the retraction of the gums, they are then separated from one another by a considerable interval. The molars have their grinding surface comparable to that of the horse; they increase in size from the first to the sixth. The teeth of the horse are forty in number; they are thus distributed: 6_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 6_m._ --------------------+-------------------- = 40. 6_m._ 1_c._ 3_i._ | 3_i._ 1_c._ 6_m._ As they become worn, these teeth continue to grow, and as, on the one hand, this phenomenon takes place throughout the whole life of the animal, and, on the other hand, the process of wear brings out and makes visible at the surface of friction parts formerly deeper and deeper, and of which the configuration varies at different levels, there result special features which permit the determination of the age of the animal by an examination of its jaws. The incisors are called, commencing with those situated nearest the middle line, _central incisors_ or _nippers_, _intermediate_ and _corner incisors_. The canines, also designated as the _fangs_, exist only in the male. It is exceptional to find them in the mare, and when they exist in this latter they are less developed than those of the horse. The molars have cuboid crowns; the surface of friction is almost square in the case of the upper molars, and is inclined so as to look inwards; in the case of the inferior ones, it is a little narrowed, and is inclined so as to look outwards. In the upper jaw the external surface of the crown is hollowed by two longitudinal furrows; in the lower jaw the same surface has only one furrow, which at times is but slightly marked. In the hare the teeth are twenty-eight in number: 6_m._ 0_c._ 2_i._ | 2_i._ 0_c._ 6_m._ --------------------+-------------------- = 28. 5_m._ 0_c._ 1_i._ | 1_i._ 0_c._ 5_m._ The four incisors of the upper jaw are divided into two groups; one of these is formed by the two principal teeth, the other by two very small incisors which are placed behind the preceding. Having studied the jaws and examined the arrangement of the teeth, we should say a few words on the movements which the lower jaw is able to execute. In man, these movements are varied in character: the jaw is lowered and raised; it can also be projected forwards and drawn backwards, or carried to the right or left side by lateral movements. Owing to the different modes of nutrition of animals, with which the shape of the teeth is clearly correlated, being more specialized than in the human species, the lower jaw is moved in a fashion less varied and in the direction most suitable for the mastication of the foods which form the aliment of the species considered. Moreover, this is plainly shown in the skeleton by the shape of the condyle of the lower jaw (see p. 122, different forms of this condyle). In the carnivora, whose teeth, as we have seen, are all cutting ones, the jaw rises and falls; the food then is, if we consider the two jaws, cut as by the blades of a pair of scissors. In the ruminants, the incisors exist only in the lower jaw, but the molars are thick and well developed; the food is ground by these latter as by millstones, and the movements which favour this action are, above all, the lateral. As for the rodents, in which the incisors are formed for filing down and cutting through hard resisting bodies, their lower jaw moves in the antero-posterior direction, in such a way that the inferior incisors alternately advance and recede beneath those of the upper jaw. The free cutting border of these teeth effectively fulfils the function to which they are destined; their constant wear preserves and revivifies the chisel edge which characterizes them, without leading to their destruction, for the incisors in rodents are of continuous growth. THE SKULL OF BIRDS =The Skull of Birds= (Fig. 65).--If, because it is less important from the artistic point of view, we do not consider it necessary to describe in detail the skull of birds, we yet think it useful to indicate, in their general lines, the peculiarities it presents. In this group the skull is generally pear-shaped; to the cranium, of which the bones are arranged in such a way as to give it a form more or less spherical, succeeds a face more or less elongated, according as the bill is more or less developed. In general, the bones of the skull coalesce very early, with the result that it is only in very young individuals that we can determine their presence. We find the skull to consist of an occipital bone, two parietals, a frontal, etc.; we will indicate but one detail in connection with these bones: it is the presence of a single condyle for the articulation of the occipital bone with the atlas. We also note the quadrate bone, which is situated on the lateral part of the cranium, is movable on this latter, and acts as an intermediary between it, the bones of the face, and the lower jaw. The quadrate bone is regarded as a detached portion of the temporal; on the signification of this we do not now propose to dwell. [Illustration: FIG. 65.--SKULL OF THE COCK: LEFT LATERAL SURFACE. 1, Occipital bone; 2, parietal bone; 3, frontal bone; 4, ethmoid bone; 5, cavity of the tympanum; 6, quadrate bone; 7, superior maxillary bone; 8, malar bone; 9, nasal bone; 10, 10, intermaxillary bone; 11, nasal orifice; 12, os unguis or lachrymal bone; 13, inferior maxillary bone.] On the anterior portion of the face we find the nasal bones, which, articulating with the frontal on one side, circumscribe, on the other, the posterior border of the nares. The nasal bone of the one side is separated from that of the opposite by the intermaxillary or premaxillary bone, which forms the skeleton of the superior mandible. The superior maxillaries, which are rudimentary, are situated on the lateral parts, and prolonged backward by an osseous style which articulates with the quadrate bone; this styloid bone, the homologue of the malar, is designated by certain authors as the _jugal_ or _quadrato-jugal_ bone. It is with the quadrate bone also that the inferior maxillary articulates. CHAPTER II MYOLOGY The first point to decide in commencing this study is the order in which we shall consider the different muscles which we have to examine. It must not be forgotten that in the present work we compare the organization of animals with that of man, which we already know, and that it is on the construction of this latter that, in these studies, the thought must at each instant be carried back in order to establish this comparison. Now, the general tendency which we notice in our teaching of anatomy, when one regards the region of the trunk in the human figure (a living model or a figure in the round), is first to consider the anterior aspect. It is the latter that, for this reason, we study at the very beginning; we next deal with the posterior surface of the trunk, because it is opposite; lastly, the lateral surfaces, because they unite with the preceding surfaces, the one to the other. In studying an animal, it is usually by one of its lateral aspects that one first observes it; it is, in fact, by these aspects that it presents its greatest dimensions, and that the morphological characters as a whole can be more readily appreciated. Hence, possibly, the order of description adopted in most texts, or in the figures which accompany them. The first representation of the human figure as a whole, in a treatise on anatomy, represents the anterior aspect; the first view of the horse as a whole, in a treatise on veterinary anatomy, for example, is, on the other hand, a lateral view. We break with this latter custom, and, without taking into account the tendency above indicated, we will commence our analysis with the study of the aspect of the trunk, which corresponds to the anterior aspect of the same region in man. The first muscles usually presented for study to artists being the pectorals, it is their homologues that we will first describe here. We will afterwards describe the abdominal region, then the muscles which occupy the dorsal aspect of the trunk. With regard to the lateral surfaces, they will be found, by this fact alone, almost completely studied, since the muscles of the two preceding (back and abdomen), spreading out, so to speak, over them, contribute to their formation. Nothing further will remain but to incorporate with them the muscles of the shoulder; but these will be studied in connection with the anterior limbs, from which they cannot be separated. The neck, in man, may be considered in an isolated fashion, because, on account of its narrowness in proportion to the width of the shoulders, it is clearly differentiated from the trunk; for this reason we combine the study of it with that of the head. In animals, because of the absence or slight development of the clavicles, the neck is generally too much confounded with the region of the shoulders to make it legitimate to separate it from that region in too marked a fashion. It will, accordingly, be considered next. We will then undertake the study of the muscles of the limbs, and end with the myology of the head. THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK We shall divide them into muscles of the thorax, of the abdomen, and of the back. Muscles of the Thorax =The Pectoralis Major= (Fig. 66, 1, 2; Fig. 67, 3, 4; Fig. 68, 7; Fig. 69, 10; Fig. 70, 11).--Further designated by the name of _superficial pectoral_, this muscle is described in treatises on veterinary anatomy as formed of two portions: an anterior one, called the _sterno-humeral_ muscle; the other, situated below and behind the preceding, bearing the name of _sterno-aponeurotic_. It occupies the region of the breast, and, as a whole, it takes origin from the median portion of the sternum, from which it is directed towards the arm and forearm. The anterior portion (sterno-humeral muscle)--thick, forming an elevation under the skin, and really constituting the pectoral region--is directed downwards and outwards to be inserted into the anterior margin of the humerus--that is to say, to the ridge which limits in front the spiral groove of this bone. The other part (sterno-aponeurotic muscle) is situated more posteriorly, and corresponds to the region known in veterinary anatomy as the _inter-fore-limb space_, which is limited laterally on each side by the superior portion of the forearm, of which the point of junction with the trunk bears the name _ars_. Arising from the sternum, as we have above indicated, this portion is directed outwards, to be joined with the terminal aponeurosis of the sterno-humeral, and with that which covers the internal surface of the forearm. All things considered, the sterno-humeral muscle may be regarded as the representative of the upper fibres of the great pectoral of man, of which the attachments, owing to the more or less complete absence of the clavicle in the domestic mammals, the fibres must be concentrated on the sternum; the sterno-aponeurotic portion then representing the inferior fasciculæ of the same muscle. [Illustration: FIG. 66.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: ANTERIOR ASPECT OF THE TRUNK. 1, Pectoralis major (sterno-humeral); 2, pectoralis major (sterno-aponeurotic); 3, mastoido-humeralis; 4, point of the shoulder; 5, sterno-mastoid or sterno-maxillary: 6, inferior portion of the platysma myoides of the neck, divided; 7, triceps cubiti; 8, brachialis anticus; 9, radialis (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 10, scapular region.] The great pectoral muscle of one side is separated from that of the opposite side along the median line, and especially above and in front, by a groove which is more or less deep, according as the muscles are more or less developed. At the bottom of this groove, suggestive of that which exists in the corresponding region in man, is found, as in this latter, the median portion of the sternum. The preceding description particularly applies to the arrangement which the great pectoral presents in the horse; in other animals it is marked by some distinctive characters. In the pig, it is inserted into the sternum as far only as the level of the third costal cartilage; in the ox and sheep, it extends as far as the sixth; in the dog, it is attached to the two first sternal pieces only--that is to say, as far as the third costal cartilage. Moreover, in the latter, as in the cat, the two portions which we have indicated are less readily distinguished. The great pectoral, by its contraction, draws the fore-limb towards the middle line--that is to say, adducts it. =The Pectoralis Minor= (Fig. 67, 6; Fig. 68, 8; Fig. 69, 11; Fig. 70, 12, 26).--This muscle, also called the _deep pectoral_, is, in animals, larger than the superficial pectoral, therefore certain authors prefer to give to this muscle and the preceding one the names of deep and superficial pectoral respectively. This nomenclature is evidently legitimate, and conforms more to reality, since it does not bring in the notion of dimensions which here is found in contradiction to nomenclature; but, in order to establish more clearly the parallelism with the corresponding muscles in man, we think it better, nevertheless, to give them the names by which it has been customary to designate them in connection with the latter. We will recall at the outset that the lesser pectoral muscle in man is completely covered by the great. In animals this is not the case; the lesser pectoral being very highly developed, projects beyond the great pectoral posteriorly, and occupies to a greater or less extent the inferior surface of the abdomen. It also consists of two parts: one anterior, which we designate by the name of _sterno-prescapular_; the other, posterior, bearing that of _sterno-humeral_.[20] [20] This division of the pectorals certainly complicates the nomenclature of these muscles; nevertheless, it introduces no insuperable difficulty from the mnemonic point of view. But where the study becomes less profitable, and comparison with the corresponding muscles in man more complicated, is in adopting the nomenclature of Bourgelat. Indeed, the great pectoral is designated by this author the 'common muscle of the arm and forearm,' while the lesser pectoral (or deep pectoral) is called the 'great pectoral' in its sterno-trochinian and 'lesser pectoral' in its sterno-prescapular portion. We do not consider it necessary to give the other theories relative to the homologies of these, notwithstanding the very real interest which they present from the purely anatomical point of view, as they have but few applications in the study of forms. The sterno-prescapular muscle, being covered by the sterno-humeral, has little interest for us. It arises from the sternum, and is directed towards the angle formed by the junction of the scapula and humerus; then it is reflected upwards and backwards, to terminate on the anterior margin of the shoulder by insertion into the aponeurosis, which covers the supraspinatus muscle. We can, especially in the horse after removal of the skin, recognise it, at the level of this region, in the interspace limited by the superficial muscles (Fig. 70, 26). In the dog and cat this portion of the muscle does not exist. The other division of the muscle, the sterno-trochinian, is more interesting. It arises from the abdominal aponeurosis and the posterior part of the sternum; hence it passes forward, turns under the superficial pectoral, and is inserted into the lesser tuberosity (trochin) of the humerus. In the pig, dog, and cat, it is inserted into the greater tuberosity (trochiter) of the bone of the arm. The superior border of this muscle is in relation with a superficial vein, which is distinctly visible in the horse--the subcutaneous thoracic vein, which in this animal is called the vein of the spur. The sterno-humeral muscle, in contracting, draws the shoulder and the whole anterior limb backwards. =Serratus Magnus= (Fig. 67, 2; Fig. 69, 8; Fig. 70, 9).--This muscle, which is situated on the lateral aspect of the thorax, is covered to a considerable extent by the shoulder, the posterior muscular mass of the arm, and by the great dorsal muscle. It arises by digitations from the external surface of the dorsal vertebræ; from the first eight in the horse, ox, and dog. [Illustration: FIG. 67.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: INFERIOR ASPECT OF THE TRUNK. 1, Anterior extremity of the sternum; 2, point of the shoulder and inferior portion of the mastoido-humeral muscle; 3, pectoralis major (sterno-humeral); 4, pectoralis major (sterno-aponeurotic); 5, point of the elbow; 6, pectoralis minor (sterno-trochinian); 7, serratus magnus; 8, external oblique; 9, sheath of the rectus abdominis; 10, linea alba; 11, the umbilicus; 12, external oblique divided in order to expose the rectus abdominis; 13, rectus abdominis.] The muscular bundles, converging as they proceed, towards the scapula, pass under this bone, to be inserted into the superior portion of the subscapular fossa, near the spinal border. The inferior portion of its posterior digitations is visible in the ox and in the horse; these digitations are less visible in the pig. They are not seen at all in the dog (Fig. 68) or cat, for in these animals the great dorsal muscle covers them completely. The great serratus muscle, by the position which it occupies and the arrangement that it presents, forms with the corresponding muscle of the opposite side a sort of girth, which supports the thorax, and at the same time helps to fix the scapula against the latter. When it contracts, in taking its fixed point at the ribs, it draws the superior portion of the scapula downwards and backwards in such a way that this bone has its inferior angle directed forwards and upwards. If it takes its fixed point at the shoulder, it then acts on the ribs, raises them, and so becomes a muscle of inspiration. Because of the connections of the serratus magnus with the levator anguli scapulæ, some authors consider it as united with the latter. But as the latter muscle is visible only in the region of the neck (see p. 157), and as it is separately described in man, we prefer to distinguish them from one another. We shall recall the connections to which we have just made allusion when describing the cervical region. Muscles of the Abdomen The abdominal wall is, as in man, formed by four large muscles: the external oblique, the internal oblique, and the transversalis, which form the lateral walls, and the rectus abdominis, situated on each side of the middle line of the abdomen. This latter, because of the general direction of the trunk in quadrupeds, has its superficial surface directed downwards. The arrangement of these muscles closely corresponds to that which we find in the human species. =The External Oblique Muscle= (Fig. 67, 8, 12; Fig. 68, 5; Fig. 69, 9; Fig. 70, 10).--This muscle arises, by digitations, from a number of ribs, which varies according to the species, the number of the ribs being itself variable for each of them, as we pointed out in connection with the osteology of the thorax. Indeed, the great oblique arises from the eight or nine posterior ribs in the dog and the ox, and from the thirteen or fourteen posterior in the horse. It is attached, besides, to the dorso-lumbar aponeurosis. These attachments are arranged in a line directed obliquely upwards and backwards, and the first digitations--that is to say, the most anterior ones--dovetail with the posterior digitations of origin of the great serratus muscle. The fleshy fibres are directed downwards and backwards, and terminate in an aponeurosis which covers the inferior aspect of the abdomen, and proceeds to form the linea alba by joining with that of the muscle of the opposite side, and also to be inserted into the crural arch. This aponeurosis of the external oblique is covered by an expansion of elastic fibrous tissue, which doubles it externally, and which is known as the _abdominal tunic_. This latter is further developed as the organs of the digestive apparatus are more voluminous, and their weight, consequently, more considerable. For this reason, in the large herbivora, as the ox and the horse, this tunic is extremely thick, whereas in the pig, cat, and dog it is, on the contrary, reduced to a simple membrane. Indeed, in these latter, the abdominal viscera being less developed, the inferior wall of the abdomen does not require so strong a fibrous apparatus for supporting them. The great oblique, when it contracts, compresses the abdominal viscera in all circumstances under which this compression is necessary; it also acts as a flexor of the vertebral column. =The Internal Oblique Muscle.=--This muscle, which is covered by the preceding, arises from the anterior superior iliac spine (external angle in ruminants and solipeds) and the neighbouring parts. From this origin its muscular fibres, the general direction of which is opposite to that of the fibres of the external oblique, diverging, proceed to terminate in an aponeurosis, which contributes to the formation of the _linea alba_, and to be attached superiorly to the internal surface of the last costal cartilages. It has the same action as the great oblique. What it presents of special interest is the detail of form which it determines in the region of the flank; this detail is _the cord of the flank_. It is characterized by an elongated prominence which, starting from the iliac spine, is directed obliquely downwards and forwards, to terminate near the cartilaginous border of the false ribs. Often very apparent in the ox, and still more so in the cow, the cord in question contrasts with the depression which surmounts it; this depression is situated below the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebræ, and is called the _hollow of the flank_. It is so much the more marked as the mass of the intestinal viscera is of greater weight. We sometimes meet with a case of the presence of this hollow in the horse. But when in the latter, the flank is well formed, the hollow is scarcely visible, and the cord but slightly prominent. It is only in emaciated subjects that these details are found clearly marked. =Transversalis Abdominis.=--This muscle being deeply situated does not present any interest for us. We will, however, point out, in order to complete the series of muscles which form the abdominal wall, that the direction of its fibres is transverse, and that they extend from the internal surface of the cartilages of the false ribs, and the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebræ to the _linea alba_. =The Rectus Abdominis= (Fig. 67, 13; Fig. 68, 6).--This muscle, enclosed, as it is in man, in a fibrous sheath (Fig. 67, 9) formed by the aponeuroses of the lateral muscles of the abdomen, is a long and wide fleshy band, which, as in the human species, reaches from the thorax to the pubis. What distinguishes it in quadrupeds is that there are costal attachments which extend further on the sternal surface of the thorax, and the number of its aponeurotic insertions, which, in general, is more considerable. These are, indeed, six or seven in number in the pig and in ruminants, and about ten in the horse. It is true that we may find but three in the cat and dog; still, we often find as many as six. These intersections are not marked on their exterior by transverse grooves, such as we find in the human species in individuals with delicate skin and whose adipose tissue is not very much developed. The rectus abdominis is covered, in its anterior portion, by the sterno-trochinian muscle (posterior segment of the small pectoral). In contracting, this muscle brings the chest nearer the pelvis, and as a result flexes the vertebral column. It also contributes to the compression of the abdominal viscera. =Pyramidalis Abdominis.=--This unimportant little muscle, which in man is situated at the lower part of the abdomen, extends from the pubis to the _linea alba_. It is not present in the domestic animals. We consider it interesting, however, to point out, although the fact is not a very useful one as regards external form, that this muscle is distinctly developed in marsupials. We know that in the opossum, the kangaroo, and the phalanger fox, the young are brought forth in an entirely incomplete state of development, and that, during a certain period, they are obliged to lodge in a pouch which is placed at the lower part of the abdomen of the mother. Now, this pouch contains the mammary glands; but the young, being too feeble to exercise the requisite suction, the pyramidal muscles come to their assistance. These muscles, in contracting, approximate to one another two bones which are placed above the pubis, the (so-called) marsupial bones (see Fig. 80); by their approximation the bones in question, which are placed behind and on the outer side of the mammary glands, compress the latter, and thus is brought about the result which the little ones, on account of their feebleness, would, without that intervention, be incapable of obtaining for themselves. Muscles of the Back =Trapezius= (Fig. 68, 1, 2; Fig. 69, 1, 2; Fig. 70, 1, 2).--This muscle, more or less well developed, according to the species, is divided into two portions, of which the names indicate the respective situations--a cervical and a dorsal. These two parts, considered in the order in which we find them, take their origin from the superior cervical ligament and from the spinous processes of the first dorsal vertebræ. From these different points the fibres are directed towards the shoulder; the anterior are, consequently, oblique downwards and backwards, and the posterior are directed downwards and forwards. They are inserted into the scapula in the following manner: the fibres of the dorsal portion are attached to the tuberosity of the spine; those of the cervical region are also fixed into the same spine, but into a considerably larger surface. The cervical portion occupies, in the region of the neck, an area relatively smaller than the corresponding portion of the trapezius in man. This diminished degree of development results from the absence, complete, or nearly so, of the clavicle in the animals which we are now considering. We remember, that the trapezius of man is partly inserted into the clavicle, and the disappearance of this latter cannot fail to bring modifications in the general disposition of the corresponding portion of the muscle. There results a disconnection of this latter, and it becomes united to other muscular fibres to form a muscle with which we shall soon have to deal--the mastoido-humeral (see p. 150). As specific differences we should add that the trapezius occupies a more or less extensive portion of the median and superior regions of the neck; terminating at a considerable distance from the head in the dog and horse, it, on the contrary, approaches it in the pig and in ruminants. The cervical portion, when it contracts, draws the scapula upwards and forwards, the dorsal portion draws it upwards and backwards. When the trapezius acts as a whole the scapula is raised. [Illustration: FIG. 68.--MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES. 1, Trapezius, cervical portion; 2, trapezius, dorsal portion; 3, superior outline of the scapula; 4, latissimus dorsi; 5, external oblique muscle; 6, rectus abdominis; 7, pectoralis major of the right side; 8, pectoralis minor (sterno-trochinian); 9, 9, mastoido humeral muscle; 10, tendinous intersection, at the level of which is found a rudimentary clavicle; 11, sterno-mastoid muscle; 12, infrahyoid muscles; 13, omo-tracheal or acromio-tracheal muscle; 14, splenius; 15, levator anguli scapulæ; 16, deltoid muscle, spinal portion; 17, deltoid, acromial portion; 18, superior extremity of the humerus; 19, supraspinatus; 20, infraspinatus; 21, biceps cubiti; 22, brachialis anticus; 23, triceps cubiti, long head; 24, triceps cubiti, external head; 25, olecranon process; 26, radialis (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 27, iliac crest; 28, gluteus maximus; 29, gluteus medius; 30, biceps cruris; 31, semitendinosus; 32, semi-membranosus; 33, gastrocnemius; 34, tensor of the fascia lata; 35, sartorius; 36, fascia lata drawn up by the triceps; 37, the patella or knee-cap; 38, ischio-coccygeal muscle; 39, superior sacro-coccygeal; 40, lateral sacro-coccygeal; 41, inferior sacro-coccygeal.] =The Latissimus Dorsi= (Fig. 68, 4; Fig. 69, 5; Fig. 70, 5).--This muscle arises by an aponeurosis, the so-called dorso-lumbar aponeurosis, from the spinous processes of the last dorsal vertebræ (the seven last in the dog, fourteen or fifteen last in the horse), from the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebræ, and from the last ribs. Its fleshy fibres are directed downwards and forwards, being more oblique in direction posteriorly, and pass on the inner side of the posterior muscular mass of the arm, to be inserted into the internal lip of the bicipital groove of the humerus, or, a little lower down, on the median portion of the internal surface of the same bone. This latter mode of insertion is met with in the horse and the ox. The anterior fibres cover the posterior angle of the scapula (as in man, where the corresponding angle, but in this case inferior, is covered by the same muscle), and, a little higher up, are in their turn concealed by a portion of the dorsal fibres of the trapezius. It covers, to a greater or less extent, the great serratus muscle. These relations are similar to those found in the human species. We find that the fleshy fibres of the great dorsal are prolonged more or less backwards if we examine this muscle in the dog, the ox, the pig, and the horse. Indeed, the fibres reach to the thirteenth rib in the dog and the cat (that is to say, the last rib), the eleventh in the ox, tenth in the pig, and twelfth only in the horse. We say 'only' in connection with this last because it is necessary to remember that the ribs are eighteen in number on each side of the thorax of this animal, and that, accordingly, the fleshy fibres of the great dorsal muscle are, relatively, of small extent. When this muscle contracts it flexes the humerus upon the scapula, and helps to draw the whole of the anterior limb backwards and upwards. There is a muscular fasciculus which, because of its relations with the muscle we have just been studying, is known as the _supplementary muscle of the latissimus dorsi_. But as, on the other hand, this fasciculus is in relation with the triceps, we shall in preference consider it in relation with this latter (see p. 173). [Illustration: FIG. 69.--MYOLOGY OF THE OX: SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES. 1, Trapezius, cervical portion; 2, trapezius, dorsal portion; 3, outline of the scapula; 4, spine of the scapula; 5, latissimus dorsi; 6, small posterior serratus; 7, prominence caused by the costiform processes of the lumbar vertebræ; 8, serratus magnus; 9, external oblique; 10, pectoralis major (sterno-humeral); 11, mastoido-humeralis; 12, atlas; 13, atlas; 14, parotid gland; 15, sterno-mastoid muscle; 16, infrahyoid muscles; 17, omo-trachelian or acromio-trachelian muscle; 18, deltoid; 19, brachialis anticus; 20, triceps, long head; 21, triceps, external head; 22, olecranon; 23, radialis (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 24, anterior iliac spine; 25, gluteus maximus; 26, gluteus medius; 27, biceps cruris; 28, semitendinosus; 29, gastrocnemius; 30, tensor of the fascia lata; 31, fascia lata covering the triceps of the thigh; 32, patella; 33, ischio-coccygeal muscle; 34, superior ischio-coccygeal; 35, lateral ischio-coccygeal; 36, inferior ischio-coccygeal.] The aponeurosis by which the great dorsal arises from the vertebral column covers, as in man, the muscles which occupy the grooves situated on each side of the spinous processes--the spinal muscles or common muscular mass, if we regard them as a whole (Fig. 70, 7); the sacro-lumbar and the long dorsal muscles covering the transverse spinal, if we consider them as distinct. It would be superfluous to enter here into a detailed examination of these muscles. If they are but little developed the spinous processes become prominent under the skin; if they are more so they may by their thickness project beyond the level of these processes, and these latter thus come to lie in a groove more or less marked, which, on account of the division which is determined by its presence, has caused the regions which it occupies to be designated by the names _double back_ and _double loins_. The muscles are extensors of the vertebral column. Under the aponeurosis of the great dorsal muscle there is found in man another muscle, the serratus posticus inferior, which, on account of being deeply placed and its slight thickness, offers nothing of interest in connection with the study of external form. It arises from the spinous processes of the three last dorsal vertebræ and those of the three first lumbar; it then passes upwards and outwards, and divides into four digitations, to be inserted into the inferior borders of the four last ribs. We repeat that it is covered by the great dorsal muscle. In the pig, ox, and horse, which have this latter muscle less developed in its posterior portion, the same small serratus muscle, known as the _posterior serratus_, is visible in the superficial layer of muscles (Fig. 69, 6; Fig. 70, 6). The number of its digitations is more or less considerable according to the species examined. =The Rhomboid Muscle= (Fig. 70, 21).--In order to make intelligible the position of the rhomboid in the superficial layer in quadrupeds, it appears to us necessary to recall the anatomical characters of the muscle as found in man. The rhomboid arises from the inferior portion of the posterior cervical ligament, from the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebræ and the four or five upper dorsal; thence passing obliquely downwards and outwards, it is inserted into the spinal border of the scapula, into the portion of this border which is situated below the spine; it sometimes extends to the middle of the interval which separates this latter from the superior internal angle of the same bone. The portion of the muscle which arises from the cervical ligament and the seventh cervical vertebra is often separated from the lower portion by a cellular interspace. For this cause some anatomists have described the rhomboid as consisting of two parts--the superior or small rhomboid and the inferior or large rhomboid, on account of the position occupied by each, and of their difference in volume. This muscle can only be seen in the region of the back, in the space limited externally by the spinal border of the scapula, below by the latissimus dorsi, and internally by the trapezius, which covers it in the rest of its extent. It is not in this space that it is seen in certain quadrupeds. As we pointed out in the section on osteology, the spinal border of the scapula is short, and it seems to be due to this limitation in length that the trapezius and the latissimus dorsi muscle are, at this level, in contact the one with the other in such a way that they fill up the interval in which the rhomboid is seen in man. In the horse we can partly see it in the superficial muscular layer, but in the region of the neck only, at the superior border of the shoulder. Indeed, as we have already pointed out, the trapezius does not reach the occipital protuberance; for this reason a part of the anterior portion of the rhomboid may be seen--that is, the portion which corresponds to the superior part of the human muscle. But whether it be covered by the trapezius, or, as we find in the cat and dog, by the _mastoido-humeral muscle_ (see p. 150), which is very broad in this region, we do not the less recognise its presence; and in the horse and ox, in particular, it forms an elongated prominence beginning at the level of the scapula, and tapering as it ascends, towards the posterior part of the head. [Illustration: FIG. 70.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES. 1, Trapezius, cervical portion; 2, trapezius, dorsal portion; 3, superior outline of the scapula; 4, spine of the scapula; 5, latissimus dorsi muscle; 6, small posterior serratus; 7, spinal muscles, or common muscular mass; 8, ribs; 9, serratus magnus; 10, external oblique; 11, pectoralis major (sterno-humeral); 12, pectoralis minor (sterno-trochinian); 13, atlas; 14, parotid gland; 15, mastoido-humeralis; 16, point of the arm; 17, sterno-mastoid, or sterno-maxillary; 18, jugular groove; 19, infrahyoid muscles; 20, omo-trachelian muscle; 21, rhomboid; 22, splenius; 23, levator anguli scapulæ; 24, deltoid; 25, supraspinatus; 26, terminal part of the sterno-prescapular, a portion of the small pectoral muscle; 27, brachialis anticus; 28, triceps cubiti, middle or long head; 29, triceps cubiti, external head; 30, olecranon; 31, radial extensor (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 32, anterior iliac spine; 33, anterior portion of the gluteus maximus--the aponeurosis of the muscle has been divided in order to expose the gluteus medius; 34, posterior portion of the gluteus maximus; 35, gluteus medius; 36, biceps cruris; 37, semitendinosus; 38, point of the buttock; 39, gastrocnemius; 40, tensor of the fascia lata; 41, triceps cruris; 42, ischio-coccygeal muscle; 43, superior sacro-coccygeal; 44, lateral sacro-coccygeal; 45, inferior sacro-coccygeal.] Its origins are similar to those which we have already described in the human rhomboid. It arises from the cervical ligament and the spinous processes of the foremost dorsal vertebræ; its fibres converge and pass to the scapula, to be inserted into its superior or spinal border, or into the internal surface of the cartilage of prolongation. It assists in keeping the scapula applied to the thoracic cage, and when it contracts, draws the scapula upwards and forwards. Taking its fixed point at the scapula, it acts on the neck by its anterior fibres, and extends it. We shall soon have occasion to mention this muscle again, in connection with the study of the muscles of the neck. =The Cutaneous Muscle of the Trunk= (Fig. 71).--Immediately beneath the skin which covers the neck, shoulders, and trunk is found a vast cutaneous muscle, analogous to that which, in the human species, exists only in the cervical region. This thin muscle, whose function is to move the skin which strongly adheres to it, and in this way to remove from it material causes of irritation (insects, for example), is of considerable thickness in the region of the trunk; where it constitutes what certain authors have designated by the name of _panniculus carnosus_. In this region it extends from the posterior border of the shoulder to the thigh, and, in the vertical direction, from the apices of the spinous process of the dorso-lumbar vertebræ to the median line of the abdomen. Arising above from the supraspinous ligament of the dorso-lumbar and sacral regions (except in the carnivora; see below) by an aponeurosis which, posteriorly, covers the muscles of the hind-limbs, its fibres are directed to the elbow, on which they are arranged in two layers: a superficial, which becomes continuous with the panniculus muscle of the shoulder; and a deep, which passes on the inner side of the shoulder to be inserted into the internal surface of the humerus; this latter exists only in the dog and cat. The most inferior fibres, behind, at the level of the knee-cap form a triangular process which in the horse receives the name of the _stifle fold_, from the name veterinarians give to the region of the articulation of the knee. This fold of skin, which commences on the antero-internal surface of this region, is directed upwards, and then forwards, to end by gradually disappearing over the corresponding part of the abdomen. [Illustration: FIG. 71.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: PANNICULUS MUSCLE OF THE TRUNK.] In the same animal the muscular fibres of the panniculus of the trunk arise along a line which connects the stifle-joint to the withers, a line which is, consequently, oblique upwards and forwards. Now, as the fleshy layer is thicker than the aponeurosis, the result is that the mode of constitution of this muscle can be recognised under the skin. Indeed, we can see in some animals, occasionally very distinctly, a slight elevation starting from the region of the abdomen in the neighbourhood of the knee, and thence directed obliquely upwards and forwards. This elevation is produced by the fleshy portion of the panniculus. In the carnivora, the panniculus of the trunk is not attached to the supraspinous ligament; it is blended with the same muscle of the opposite side, passing over the spinous region of the vertebral column. From this arrangement results a great mobility of the skin which covers the back. Further, it explains why it is possible to lift up this skin along with the panniculus which it covers, and to which it adheres, throughout the whole extent of the dorso-lumbar column. As we pointed out above, there is also a panniculus muscle of the shoulder and one of the neck. We will deal with them when treating of the regions to which those muscles belong. The Coccygeal Region As a sequel to the study of the muscles of the region of the trunk very naturally comes the description of those which, belonging to the region of the coccyx, are destined for the movements of the caudal appendix, of which this latter constitutes the skeleton. The muscles may not seem to be of much importance with regard to external form, but, as they form part of the superficial muscular layer, and as the mass of each is seen in the form of the tail in some animals (the lion, for example), they merit our attention for a moment. A few lines will suffice to give an idea of them. They are: the _ischio-coccygeal_, _superior sacro-coccygeal_, _lateral sacro-coccygeal_, and _inferior sacro-coccygeal_. =The Ischio-coccygeal= (Fig. 18, 38; Fig. 69, 33; Fig. 70, 42).--This muscle, triangular in shape, better developed in the carnivora than in the horse, arises from the spine of the ischium, or from the supracotyloid crest, which replaces this latter in the solipeds and the ruminants. Thence its fleshy mass is directed upwards, expanding as it proceeds to be inserted into the transverse processes of the first two coccygeal vertebræ after insinuating itself between two of the following muscles, the lateral and inferior sacro-coccygeal. In the dog and cat, the muscle is in great part covered by the great gluteal. In the ox, by a peculiar arrangement of the corresponding region of the muscles of the thigh--an arrangement which we will examine in connection with the study of the latter--it is more exposed than in the horse, and gives origin to an outline which corresponds to its general form in the region situated immediately below the root of the tail. It is a depressor of the whole caudal appendix. =The Superior Sacro-coccygeal= (Fig. 68, 39; Fig. 69, 34; Fig. 70, 43).--The fasciculi which form this muscle arise from the crest of the sacrum, and proceed thence to end successively on the coccygeal vertebræ. It is in contact in the middle line with the corresponding muscle of the opposite side. It raises the tail and inclines it laterally; if the muscle of one side contracts at the same time as that of the other the tail is elevated directly. =The Lateral Sacro-coccygeal= (Fig. 68, 40; Fig. 69, 35; Fig. 70, 44).--Situated on the lateral part of the caudal region, this muscle arises, in the dog, from the internal border of the iliac bone and the external border of the sacrum; in the horse, it arises from the crest of the sacrum. It is inserted into the coccygeal vertebræ. It produces lateral movement of the tail. =The Inferior Sacro-coccygeal= (Fig. 68, 41; Fig. 69, 36; Fig. 70, 43).--This muscle, which is fairly thick, arises from the inferior surface of the sacrum and the corresponding surface of the sacro-sciatic ligament; it is inserted into the coccygeal vertebræ. It depresses the caudal appendix. Muscles of the Neck =Mastoido-humeralis= (Fig. 66, 3; Fig. 68, 9, 9, 10; Fig. 69, 12; Fig. 70, 15).--One of the most important muscles of the region of the neck in man is the sterno-cleido mastoid. We recollect that, in its inferior part, it is divided into two bundles, one of which arises from the manubrium of the sternum, and the other from the inner third of the clavicle, whence the denominations of the _sternal_ portion and _clavicular_ portion. The muscle formed by the union of these two portions is then directed obliquely outwards, backwards, and upwards, to be inserted into the mastoid process of the temporal bone and the two external thirds of the superior curved line of the occipital bone. Now, the animals which we are here considering have but a rudimentary clavicle or are entirely without it. From the absence of this item of the skeleton there necessarily result modifications in the arrangement of the muscles of this region, which we must at the very outset explain, before undertaking the special study of the muscle which is the subject of the present paragraph. Let us suppose, for the more definite arrangement of our ideas, that the clavicle is altogether absent, although we do find it in a rudimentary state in some animals and completely developed in others (marmot, bat), and we will proceed to indicate what this absence determines. The great pectoral muscle in man arises in part from the clavicle; this origin not being possible in animals which have no clavicle, its attachments, as we have already seen, are concentrated on the sternum. The trapezius in man similarly arises in part from the clavicle; for the reasons above indicated its clavicular fasciculi cannot exist in distinct form in the animals which have no clavicle. The sterno-cleido mastoid, whose inferior attachments we mentioned above, cannot have a clavicular portion. It is the same in the case of the deltoid, which, we know, arises in part from the anterior bone of the shoulder. Of the four muscles which have partial clavicular origins in man, two are known to us in connection with animals--the great pectoral and the trapezius. What has become of the other two, the sterno-cleido mastoid and the deltoid? It is this which we now proceed to investigate. After a fashion simple enough, but which it is necessary to describe, the clavicular fasciculi of the trapezius and the corresponding fasciculi of the sterno-cleido mastoid are united the one to the other; the portion of the deltoid which in man arises from the clavicle, by reason of the absence of this latter, is also combined with the fleshy mass formed by the preceding muscles. From this fusion results the muscle known as the mastoido-humeral. This muscle, which consists of a long fleshy band situated on the lateral aspect of the neck, takes its origin, as a general rule, from the posterior surface of the skull and the upper part of the neck, from which it passes obliquely downwards and backwards, covering the scapulo-humeral angle--that is, the region known as the point of the shoulder or arm--and is inserted into the anterior border of the humerus, the border which, limiting anteriorly the musculo-spiral groove, forms a continuation of the deltoid impression. On account of the regions with which it is related, Bourgelat named this muscle _the muscle common to the head, neck, and arm_. It is at the level of the scapulo-humeral angle that the vestiges of the clavicle are found. This bone is represented in some animals--the pig, ox, and horse--by a single tendinous intersection, more or less apparent, which extends transversely from the scapula to the anterior extremity of the sternum. In the dog and the cat, we find, besides, on the deep surface of the muscle and at the level of this tendinous intersection, the rudiment of the clavicle of which we made mention in the section on Osteology (see p. 25). It is beneath the intersection, the existence of which we have just pointed out, that is found that portion of the mastoido-humeral muscle which corresponds to the clavicular fasciculi of the deltoid; that portion which is situated above the intersection corresponds to the clavicular fibres of the sterno-cleido-mastoid and of the trapezius. The mastoido-humeral presents certain varieties in different animals. In the dog and the cat, this muscle, which is blended above with the sterno-mastoid (see p. 153), to be inserted with it into the mastoid process and the mastoid crest, covers the neck for a considerable extent from the superior curved line of the occipital bone to which it is attached, to the trapezius with which it unites posteriorly, but from which it separates below. Between these two extreme points of its superior portion it is attached to the cervical ligament. In the pig and in ruminants, in which the trapezius approaches more closely to the head, the mastoido-humeral occupies, in consequence, a less extent of the cervical region. In the horse, the mastoido-humeral neither covers the neck nor joins the trapezius; indeed, we have already shown that it is separated by a considerable distance from the head. In the limited interval between these two muscles a part of the rhomboid and parts of other muscles are seen with which we shall soon be occupied. This muscle, as regards the horse, is described by some anatomists as consisting of two parts: one anterior, or superficial; the other posterior, or deep. In reality, the first only corresponds to the mastoido-humeral, which we are considering; the posterior may be more exactly regarded as representing a special muscle of quadrupeds, but which is here a little deformed, the _omo-trachelian_ (see p. 155). When the mastoido-humeral contracts, taking its fixed point above, it acts as an extensor of the humerus, and carries the entire fore-limb forwards. If it takes its fixed point below--that is to say, at the humerus--it inclines the head and neck to its own side. If it contracts at the same time as the mastoido-humeral of the opposite side, then the head and the neck are carried into the position of extension. =The Sterno-mastoid= (Fig. 66, 5; Fig. 68, 11; Fig. 69, 15; Fig. 70, 17).--Having described the clavicular portion of the sterno-cleido-mastoid in connection with the mastoido-humeral, because it forms a part of the latter, we have, in order to complete the homologies of this muscle, to study now that which corresponds to its sternal portion. This is the _sterno-mastoid_ muscle. In all the quadrupeds with which we are here concerned this muscle arises from the anterior extremity of the sternum; narrow and elongated in form, it passes towards the head in a direction parallel to the anterior border of the mastoido-humeral, from which it is separated by an interspace which, along its whole length, lodges superficially the jugular vein; hence the name of _jugular groove_, which is given to this part of the neck (Fig. 10, 18). It is inserted, in the case of the dog and cat, into the mastoid process, where it is united with the mastoido-humeral; in the ox it is divided into two portions--one which goes to the base of the occipital bone, the other passing in front of the masseter is by the medium of the aponeurosis of this latter attached to the zygomatic crest. This latter part is considered by some writers as forming a portion of the panniculus muscle of the neck. In the horse it is attached to the angle of the lower jaw by a tendon, which an aponeurosis that passes under the parotid gland binds to the mastoido-humeral muscle and the mastoid process. By reason of this insertion into the jaw, in the case of the solipeds, this muscle is further named the _sterno-maxillary_. When it contracts, it flexes the head, and inclines it laterally. This movement is changed to direct flexion when the two sterno-mastoid muscles contract simultaneously. In man, the sterno-cleido-mastoid and the trapezius leave a triangular space between them, which, being limited inferiorly by the middle third of the clavicle, is known as the supraclavicular region; this region, being depressed, especially in its inferior part, has also been given the name of supraclavicular fossa--popularly called the '_salt-cellar_.' The muscles which form the floor of this region, passing from above downwards, are: a very small portion of the complexus, splenius, levator anguli scapulæ, posterior scalenus, and anterior scalenus; then, crossing these latter, and most superficial, is the omo-hyoid muscle. An analogous region, but of only slight depth, exists in quadrupeds; its borders are formed by the mastoido-humeral and trapezius muscles. It is not limited below by the clavicle--we know, indeed, that this, or the intersection which represents it, belongs to the mastoido-humeral muscle--but by the inferior portion of the spine of the scapula. It is of greater or less extent according to the species considered. In the dog, cat, pig, and ox, it is narrow, for the muscles which bound it approach one another pretty closely. It has, as in man, the form of a triangle, with the apex above. In the horse it is much broader, and, contrary to the arrangement which it presents in the human species, the widest part is directed upwards. The muscles which we find there are, consequently, more or less numerous. In the dog and cat they are: a portion of a muscle which we do not normally meet with in man--the _omo-trachelian_--then in a decreasing extent: supraspinatus, levator anguli scapulæ and splenius. In the pig: the omo-trachelian, supraspinatus, and the terminal portion of the sterno-prescapular--the anterior part of the lesser or deep pectoral muscle. In the ox: the omo-trachelian only. But in the horse we find the omo-trachelian, the supraspinatus, and the terminal extremity of the sterno-prescapular; then in a larger extent of area the levator anguli scapulæ and the splenius; and, finally, the anterior portion of the rhomboid. Among the muscles which we have just enumerated are some that we have already studied; these are the sterno-prescapular and the rhomboid. We will examine the supraspinatus muscle in connection with the region of the shoulder. As to the scaleni muscles and the complexus, they are deeply situated, whereas the omo-hyoid is visible in the anterior region of the neck only. There remain for us, accordingly, to examine, at the present juncture, but the omo-trachelian, levator anguli scapulæ, and splenius muscles. =The Omo-trachelian Muscle= (Fig. 68, 13; Fig. 69, 17; Fig. 70, 20).--Also called the _acromio-trachelian_, _levator ventri scapulæ_,[21] the _angulo-ventral muscle_, and the _transverso-scapular_,[22] etc., this muscle is described by some hippotomists as belonging to the mastoido-humeral, of which it then forms its posterior or deep portion (see p. 153). [21] Ventri, because inserted into the inferior part of the spine of the scapula, towards the acromion--that is, on the ventral side--by contrast with the trapezius, which is attached higher up (dorsal side) on the same process. [22] Among the many names given to this muscle, Arloing and Lesbre recommend the adoption of the name 'transverse scapular' given by Straus-Durckheim, or 'transverse of the shoulder' (Arloing and Lesbre, 'Suggestions for the Reform of Veterinarian Muscular Nomenclature,' Lyons, 1898). The omo-trachelian muscle is found in all mammalia, man alone excepted. It is, however, sometimes found in the human being; but it then constitutes an anomaly. In the dog, pig, and ox, it arises from the inferior part of the spine of the scapula, in the region of the acromion, and terminates on the lateral portion of the atlas. In the cat it is attached besides to the base of the occipital bone. It is visible in the space limited by the trapezius and the mastoido-humeral, the direction of which it crosses obliquely. In the horse it appears to be blended in clearly defined fashion with the mastoido-humeral. Attached below, like this latter, to the anterior border of the humerus, it covers the scapulo-humeral angle; and is attached by its upper portion to the transverse processes of the first four cervical vertebræ. We remember that the transverse processes are often, from their relation with the trachea, known as the tracheal processes. Hence the word 'trachelian,' which forms part of the name of the muscle with which we are now dealing. By its contraction it helps to draw the anterior limb forwards. When this muscle, as an abnormality, exists in man, it arises from the clavicle or the acromion process, traverses the supraclavicular fossa, and is inserted into the transverse processes of the atlas or axis, or of both these vertebræ, or of the cervical vertebræ below these latter. It is then known by the names of the _elevator of the clavicle_ or _elevator of the scapula_, and, finally, as the _cleido-omo-transversalis_ (Testut).[23] [23] L. Testut, 'Les anomalies musculaires chez l'homme expliquées par l'anatomie comparée,' Paris, 1884, p. 97. A. F. Le Double, 'Traité des variations du système musculaire de l'homme et de leur signification au point de vue de l'anthropologie zoologique,' Paris, 1897, t. i., p. 235. =The Levator Anguli Scapulæ= (Fig. 68, 15; Fig. 70, 23).--As we have pointed out (p. 136), the levator anguli scapulæ, because of its connections with the great serratus, is sometimes described with it. But inasmuch as in human anatomy these two muscles are considered separately, and that, in the superficial layer of muscles, they are seen in different regions--the great serratus in the thoracic, and the levator anguli scapulæ in the cervical--we prefer to study them separately. We remember that in man this muscle arises from the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebræ and is inserted into the superior portion of the spinal border of the scapula, into the portion of this border which is situated above the spine; it also contributes to the formation of the floor of the supraclavicular region. When it contracts, it draws the superior portion of the scapula forwards and upwards, and causes a see-saw movement, for at the same time the inferior angle of the scapula is directed backwards. Taking its fixed point at the shoulder, it directly extends the neck if the muscle of one side acts at the same time as that of the opposite; but if only one muscle contracts it inclines the neck to the corresponding side. It is to be noticed that during movements a little more active than the ordinary the levator anguli scapulæ, as moreover the other muscles of the neck do, becomes very distinct. We have, indeed, often remarked that, apart from these movements, each time the support of one of the fore-limbs is brought into requisition a brusque contraction of the muscles of this region accompanies it. This contraction gives the impression that, as on the one hand, each support determines a momentary arrest of progression, a jolt, and on the other hand, the head continues to be projected in the forward direction, the latter should be retained. But it cannot be so except by an effort in the opposite direction--that is to say, by the brusque contraction which we have just pointed out. Analogous contractions also take place in a man while running at the beginning of each contact of the lower limbs with the ground. We may add, apropos of this latter, that displacements of the head, sometimes in very pronounced fashion, take place during simple walking, and that every time one of the lower limbs is carried forwards the head is projected in the same direction. These displacements, which we also find take place in the horse in pacing, especially in the region of the neck and head, seem then to have the effect of aiding the progression of the body forwards. They occur especially in animals when drawing a heavy load, and in individuals whose walking movements are executed with difficulty. It is necessary to repeat that, in these cases, the individual appears to assist the movement of his body by the impetus which the projection of his head forward determines, in order to add--and it is for this that we have referred to the subject--that during the intervals between each projection the head is carried backwards by a muscular contraction similar to that above discussed. =The Splenius= (Fig. 68, 14; Fig. 70, 22).--In man, this muscle is attached in the median line to the inferior half or two-thirds of the posterior cervical ligament, to the spinous processes of the seventh cervical, and four or five upper dorsal vertebræ; it passes obliquely upwards and outwards, becomes visible in the supraclavicular region, passes under the sterno-cleido-mastoid, and proceeds to duplicate the cranial insertions of this latter; and, further, the most external fasciculi of this muscle are inserted into the transverse processes of the atlas and the axis. These separate superior attachments, and the division of the muscle which results, have caused the splenius to be regarded as formed of two portions: splenius of the head, and splenius of the neck. In the horse, this muscle, which is of voluminous dimensions, arises from the superior cervical ligament, and the spinous processes of the first four or five dorsal vertebræ; thence it proceeds to be inserted into the mastoid crest, and the transverse processes of the atlas and three or four vertebræ following. The region occupied superficially by the splenius is remarkable for the prominence which this muscle, with the deeply-seated complexus, which is equally bulky, determines at this level; it is situated above that region of the neck, in which are seen in part the fasciculi of the levator anguli scapulæ. It terminates above and in front in the ridge, which is sometimes very pronounced, which the transverse processes of the atlas make on each side of this part of the neck. In the dog and the cat, the superior and anterior region of the neck is thick and of rounded form, on account of the development which the splenius presents in those animals; but it is covered by the mastoido-humeral. This latter relation is also found in the ox, but the splenius in this case is but slightly developed. When the splenius contracts it extends the head and neck, while inclining them to its own side. If the splenius of one side contracts at the same time as that of the opposite, the extension takes place in a direct manner--that is to say, without any modifying lateral movement. Infrahyoid Muscles Having studied the lateral surfaces of the neck, we must now examine the anterior part of this region. Here, between the two sterno-mastoid muscles, we find a space broader above than below, in which are situated the larynx and the trachea, to the general arrangement of which is due the cylindrical form which this region presents. This space corresponds to that which in the neck of man is limited laterally by the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles, below by the fourchette of the sternum, and above by the hyoid bone. In animals, as in man, it is called the infrahyoid region. The hyoid bone in quadrupeds is situated between the two rami or branches of the lower jaw. Owing to this disposition, the region above this bone, instead of having its surface projecting a little beyond the inferior border of the maxillary bone, is depressed. This is especially so in the horse. It is there that we find in this animal the region known as the _trough_ (_auge_); the larynx corresponds to that part known as the _gullet_. The muscles which occupy the infrahyoid region are: the sterno-thyroid, the sterno-hyoid, and the omo-hyoid. There is also a thyro-hyoid, but because of its deep situation and its slight importance it offers no interest from our point of view. =Sterno-thyroid and the Sterno-hyoid Muscles.=--These two muscles, long, narrow, and flat, arise from the anterior extremity of the sternum; then, covering the anterior surface of the trachea, they proceed to terminate, the one on the thyroid cartilage, and the other on the hyoid bone. The sterno-hyoid is superficial; it covers the sterno-thyroid, which, however, projects a little on its outer side. =Omo-hyoid.=--This muscle does not exist in the dog or cat. It arises, in the horse, from the cervical border of the scapula, where it blends with the aponeurosis that envelops the subscapularis muscle, but in the pig and the ox it arises from the deep surface of the mastoido-humeral muscle. It is directed obliquely upwards and inwards, becoming superficial at the internal border of the sterno-mastoid, and is inserted into the hyoid bone. The region in which are united the portion of the neck which we have just studied and the neighbouring part of the thorax--that is, the breast--has certainly, in our opinion, a form less expressive than the corresponding region in man. In the latter, indeed, the fourchette of the sternum, with the hollow which it determines, the heads of the clavicles, and the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles, by the elevations which they produce, and the trachea, by the situation which it occupies in the inferior part, constitute a whole in which are admirably indicated, not only the forms of the organs which constitute this region, but also the relations which these organs have one with another; and, to a certain extent, their respective functions. In making an exception in the case of the ox, in which a fold of skin, the _dewlap_, which passes from the neck to the breast, constitutes an element of form which possesses some expressive value; in the horse and in the dog, which possess no sternal fourchette and no heads of clavicles, the bones and the muscles are found nearly on the same plane. This produces a uniformity which is evidently inferior, from an æsthetic point of view, to the modelling of the corresponding region of the human body. Such, at least, is our impression. Suprahyoid Muscles As their name indicates, these muscles are found above the hyoid bone; amongst those which should arrest our attention for a moment are the mylo-hyoid and the digastric. =Mylo-hyoid.=--This muscle, forming a sort of fleshy sling which contributes in great measure to form the floor of the mouth, is situated between the lateral halves of the inferior maxillary bone. Arising on each side from the internal oblique line of the mandible, its fibres are directed towards the median line, to be inserted posteriorly into the hyoid bone, and, between this bone and the anterior part of the mandible, into a median raphe which unites these latter. =Digastric.=--This muscle arises from the styloid process of the occipital bone and from the jugular process; it thence passes downwards and forwards, and terminates variously, in different species. In the ox and the horse it terminates in its anterior portion on the internal surface of the inferior maxillary bone, close to the chin. But in the horse a bundle of fibres is detached from the upper portion of the muscle, to be inserted into the recurved portion of the jaw. It is to this fasciculus that Bourgelat has given the name of '_stylo-maxillary muscle_.' In the pig, dog, and cat, the digastric differs more from the corresponding muscle in man; it is not, as in the latter, formed of two parts. The anterior portion only exists. This consists of a thick muscular mass, which is inserted into the middle of the internal surface of the lower jaw. In the dog and cat it is clearly recognisable in the superficial layer of muscles by the long and thick prominence which it produces below the masseter, against the inferior border of the mandible (see pp. 235 and 237, the two figures showing the myology of the head of the dog). By its contraction, it draws the lower jaw downwards and backwards. =Panniculus of the Neck.=--This very thin muscle, which cannot be recognised on the exterior, calls for little notice. We shall merely point out that it duplicates the skin of the cervical region; but as the latter is only slightly adherent to it, the panniculus of this region seems rather destined to maintain in position the muscles which it covers than to displace the cutaneous covering. We recall the fact that in man, on the contrary, the muscle is very evident at the instant of its contraction, and, for this reason, it presents a very great interest with regard to external modelling, and it plays an important part in the expression of the physiognomy. MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR LIMBS Muscles of the Shoulder =Deltoid= (Fig. 68, 16, 17; Fig. 69, 18; Fig. 70, 24).--This is the first muscle we study in connection with the shoulder in human anatomy. Indeed, its wholly superficial position, and especially the manner in which it is separated from the surrounding muscles, its volume, and its characteristic modelling, give it such an importance that, from the didactic point of view, there is every indication for commencing with this muscle in studying the region to which it belongs. If, in regard to quadrupeds, we also commence with it, it is merely in deference to the spirit of method, and for the sake of symmetry; for it is far from presenting, in the latter, characters so distinctive and so clearly defined. It is necessary to remark, at the outset, that in quadrupeds, on account of the absence or slight development of the clavicle, the clavicular portion of this muscle is, as we have shown, united to bundles of the same kind belonging to the sterno-cleido-mastoid and trapezius to form the mastoido-humeral (see p. 151). There exists, therefore, in an independent form, the scapular portion only. It is this latter which, by itself alone, forms the deltoid of quadrupeds, a muscle known, in veterinary anatomy, as _the long abductor of the arm_. In the dog and the cat it consists of two parts, one of which arises from the spine of the scapula; the other from the acromion process. Thence it passes to the crest of the humerus, which limits the musculo-spiral groove anteriorly, to be attached at a point which is found, as in other quadrupeds, to be the homologue of the human deltoid impression, or deltoid [V], of the human humerus. In the ox, in which the acromion process, which is very rudimentary, does not attain the level of the glenoid cavity, the acromion portion is but slightly marked off from that which takes its origin from the spine of the scapula. Still, in the horse, which is completely deprived of an acromion process, the deltoid muscle is correspondingly divided into two parts, separated from one another by superficial interstices, but of which the arrangement differs from that of the portions above indicated; one part, the posterior, arises above from the superior part of the posterior border, and the postero-superior angle of the scapula (exactly as if, in man, certain fasciculi of the deltoid took their origin from the axillary border and inferior angle of the scapula); the other, anterior, arises from the tuberosity of the spine of the same bone. The two parts, united inferiorly, proceed to be inserted into the deltoid impression or infratrochiterian crest of the humerus. It is necessary to add that the deltoid is inserted into the humerus, above the insertion of the mastoido-humeral. This muscle flexes and abducts the humerus, and also rotates it outwards. With regard to the other muscles of the human shoulder, subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and teres major, they are also present in quadrupeds, but in a form more elongated, as the scapula has its dimensions more extended from below upwards--that is, from the glenoid cavity towards the superior or spinal border. =Subscapularis.=--This muscle occupies the subscapular fossa, from which it takes its origin, leaving free the superior part where the surface is found, to which are attached the serratus magnus and the levator anguli scapulæ. It passes towards the arm, to be inserted into the small tuberosity of the humerus. It is an adductor of the arm. The subscapularis does not offer any interest from the point of view of external form, for it is completely covered by the scapula. We speak of it, however, because we mention it in human anatomy, and that it affords us here a new opportunity of bringing into prominence the differences which exist in connection with the mobility of the shoulder. We remember that in man, when the arm is abducted, and then raised a little above the horizontal, the scapula see-saws, is separated, to a certain extent, from the thoracic cage inferiorly and externally, and that, on the superficial layer of muscles, we are then able to see in the bottom of the armpit, at the level of the deep portion of the posterior wall of the latter, a small part of the subscapularis muscle. In the animals with which we are here occupied it is not the same; for they are incapable of performing with their fore-limbs a movement analogous to that to which we have just referred, the humerus in their case being retained in contact with the trunk by the muscular masses which surround it. =Supraspinatus= (Fig. 68, 19; Fig. 70, 25; Fig. 72, 7).--This muscle, as its name indicates, occupies the supraspinous fossa--that is to say, that which, by reason of the direction of the scapula in quadrupeds, is situated in front of rather than above the spine. It arises from this fossa; and, further, from the external surface of the cartilage which prolongs the scapula upwards in solipeds and ruminants. It projects more or less beyond the supraspinous fossa in front. After passing downwards towards the humerus, it is inserted into the summit of the great tuberosity or trochiter--that is to say, to a part of this osseous prominence which represents the anterior facet of the great tuberosity of the human humerus, into which, as we know, the corresponding muscle is inserted. In solipeds and ruminants it is inserted, by a second fasciculus, into the small tuberosity. In the pig and the horse its anterior border is in relation with the terminal portion of the sterno-prescapular anterior portion of the small or deep pectoral. The supraspinatus, which in man is completely covered by the trapezius, is partly visible in the superficial layer of the cat, dog, pig, and horse, in the lower part of the space limited by the mastoido-humeral and the trapezius. It is crossed by the scapulo-trachelian. It is, in the ox, completely covered by these muscles, but its form, notwithstanding this, is easily discerned by the prominence which it produces. When it contracts, the supraspinatus muscle carries the humerus into the position of extension. =Infraspinatus= (Fig. 68, 20; Fig. 72, 8).--This muscle, which occupies the infraspinous fossa, which, in quadrupeds, is situated behind the spine of the scapula, arises from the whole extent of this fossa, and in solipeds and ruminants encroaches on the cartilage of prolongation. Its fibres are directed downwards and forwards, to be inserted into the great tuberosity of the humerus--the trochiter--below the insertion of the supraspinatus. It is completely covered (ox and horse), or in part only (cat and dog), by the portion of the deltoid which arises from the spine of the scapula; nevertheless, its presence is revealed by the prominence which it produces. It is an abductor and external rotator of the humerus. In connection with this muscle, which, as we have just pointed out, is less seen in the superficial muscular layer than the supraspinatus, we will draw attention to the fact that this arrangement is exactly the reverse of that which is found in the human shoulder. In this latter it is the supraspinatus which is not visible; while, on the contrary, the infraspinatus is uncovered in a considerable part of its extent. We further notice that it is accompanied by the teres minor, and that the teres major, situated inferiorly, forms with these two muscles a fleshy mass which, below, ends on the superior border of the great dorsal muscle. In quadrupeds, in which the infraspinatus is so slightly visible, the teres major and minor are not found at all in the superficial muscular layer. Accordingly, we will say but few words about them. [Illustration: FIG. 72.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE--SHOULDER AND ARM: LEFT SIDE, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Cartilage of prolongation of the scapula; 2, tuberosity of the spine of the scapula; 3, superior extremity of the humerus; 4, inferior extremity of the humerus; 5, radius; 6, ulna; 7, supraspinatus muscle; 8, infraspinatus; 9, teres minor; 10, biceps; 11, tendon of the biceps passing over the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the humerus; 12, brachialis anticus; 13, triceps, long head; 14, external head of the triceps divided; 15, external head of the triceps reflected, in order to expose the anconeus; 16, region normally occupied by the external head of the triceps; 17, anconeus.] =Teres Minor= (Fig. 72, 9).--This muscle, also called in veterinary anatomy _the short abductor of the arm_, arises from the posterior border of the scapula (the external border in man), and is inserted below the great tuberosity of the humerus, between the attachments of the infraspinatus and deltoid. It is covered by the deltoid and the infraspinatus. =Teres Major.=--This muscle is known to veterinarians as _the abductor of the arm_; it arises from the postero-superior angle of the scapula (the inferior angle of the human scapula), from which it passes to be inserted into the internal surface of the humerus. It is covered by the latissimus dorsi and the posterior muscular mass of the arm. In brief, for the better understanding of the relations of the teres major and minor muscles in quadrupeds, we may fancy the corresponding muscles in man modified in the following manner: The infraspinatus, thicker, covering the teres minor; latissimus dorsi, more extended in its superior part, covering a large proportion of the teres major. As to the relations of the teres minor with the deltoid, they exist in man, seeing, in this case, the same muscle is, in its external portion, covered by this latter. With regard to the relations of the teres major with the posterior muscular mass of the arm, they also exist in man, since the external surface of this muscle is covered by the triceps. These modifications are sufficient to render the small and large teres muscles completely invisible in the superficial layer. The muscles of the shoulder which we have just been studying fulfil, with regard to the articulation which they surround, the function of active ligaments. This rôle is made necessary by the laxity of the scapulo-humeral capsule--a laxity which renders it incapable by itself of maintaining the bones in contact at this joint. The same condition exists in man. =Panniculus Muscle of the Shoulder.=--This thin muscle covers, as its name implies, the region of the shoulder, and is the continuation forward of the panniculus muscle of the trunk. It arises, by its superior part, from the region of the withers and from the superior cervical ligament; thence its fibres descend directly towards the elbow, to terminate at the level of the region of the forearm. The muscle is not found in the pig or in the carnivora. Muscles of the Arm We should remember, at the outset, that in man the muscles of the arm are divided into two groups: one anterior, which contains the biceps, brachialis anticus, and the coraco-brachialis; the other, posterior, which is constituted by a single muscle, the triceps. In animals, we find them in the same number and arranged in analogous fashion--that is to say, in two groups--with respect to the bone of the arm. But then we find that they have undergone a transformation with regard to their length, and it is the change of general aspect which results from this modification that we proceed to examine. We know that in quadrupeds, and especially in the domestic animals, the humerus is relatively short in proportion to the forearm. We have already seen, in dealing with the bones, that whilst in the human species the humerus is longer than the forearm, in the dog and cat these two segments of the fore-limb are of equal length, and that the humerus of the horse is, on the contrary, much shorter. Now, let us suppose the human humerus to be shorter than it is in reality; the anterior muscles undergoing, very naturally, the same reduction, will be uncovered only slightly by those above--the deltoid and the great pectoral--or will remain completely hidden by them. Thus would be found realized the disposition which we meet with in quadrupeds of the muscles of this region. With regard to the posterior muscular mass of the arm, it does not undergo the same change. The muscle which constitutes it--the triceps cubiti--occupies, on the contrary, a greater area. Let us suppose, further--for it is the best method of comprehending the homologies which now occupy our attention--the humerus of man to be shortened as before, and directed downwards and backwards (as in quadrupeds), this bone would form an acute angle with the axillary border of the scapula. Let us suppose also that the long portion of the triceps, instead of arising solely from the superior part of this axillary border, is attached to the whole length of the latter, and that the triceps fills the whole interior of the angle formed by the arm and the shoulder. We then shall have an idea of what the triceps is in quadrupeds. It is necessary to add that the general resemblance would be still more complete if the arm were firmly supported by the side of the thorax, because in quadrupeds it occupies an analogous position, determined by the arrangement of the muscles which, proceeding from the trunk and neck, are attached to it. Anterior Region =Biceps Cubiti= (Fig. 68, 21; Fig. 72, 10, 11).--This muscle, also called _the long flexor of the forearm_, does not merit the name except by its analogy with the corresponding muscle in man. Indeed, in the domestic animals it is not divided into two parts; it is represented by a single fasciculus, long and fusiform, situated on the front of the humerus, and directed obliquely downwards and backwards, as the latter, on its part, is also inclined. It arises above from a tubercle at the base of the coracoid process, which surmounts the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Its tendon, which is highly developed in the solipeds, occupies the bicipital groove. We remember that in these latter the groove in question is divided into two channels by a median prominence. The tendon in which the muscle ends is inserted into a tuberosity, situated on the internal surface of the superior extremity of the radius--the bicipital tuberosity. In the pig, the cat, and the dog, there is detached from the tendon to which we have just referred a fasciculus of the same nature, which, after having wound round the radius, is inserted into the internal surface of the ulna, towards the base of the olecranon process. From the inferior part of the muscle arises a fibrous band, comparable to the aponeurotic expansion of the human biceps; but, instead of passing downwards and inwards, as does the latter, it terminates on the muscular mass which constitutes the antero-external part of the forearm. The biceps is not seen in the superficial layer, except in the dog and cat (in which the humerus is, in fact, proportionately long); and even in them only to the slightest extent. It is covered partly in these latter, and completely in other animals, by the great pectoral and the inferior portion of the mastoido-humeral--that is to say, that part of the latter which represents the whole of the clavicular fibres of the human deltoid. The biceps is a flexor of the forearm on the arm. It also contributes to the movement of extension of the humerus. =Brachialis Anticus= (Fig. 68, 22; Fig. 69, 19; Fig. 70, 27; Fig. 72, 12).--In veterinary anatomy further designated as _the short flexor of the forearm_, this muscle, which is thick, occupies the musculo-spiral groove, and arises from it, reaching upwards to just below the head of the humerus. But it does not, as in man, extend to the internal surface of the bone. Situated on the outside of the biceps, it is directed towards the forearm, and terminates by a flattened tendon, which, dividing into two slips, passes below the bicipital tuberosity, on the internal surface of the radius, into which one of these slips is inserted, while the other proceeds to terminate on the ulna. The inferior half of this muscle is visible on the superficial layer, in the space limited posteriorly by the triceps brachialis, and below by the muscles of the forearm, which correspond to the external muscles of the human forearm, and in front by the great pectoral and the mastoido-humeral. It is in the upper part of the interspace which separates these latter from the brachialis anticus that the deltoid insinuates itself to proceed to its insertion into the humerus. These relations precisely recall those which we meet with when we examine the external surface of the human arm, with this difference, however--that in the latter the anterior brachialis anticus is extensively related, in front, to the biceps. However, in animals it is not absolutely the same, since, as we have shown above, the biceps is covered, more or less completely, by the mastoido-humeral and the great pectoral. The brachialis anticus flexes the forearm on the arm. =Coraco-brachialis.=--In man this muscle, which occupies the superior half, or third, of the internal surface of the humerus, is visible only when the arm is abducted, and then especially when it approaches the vertical position; indeed, it is only in this attitude that the region which it occupies is accessible to view. But an analogous attitude not being possible in domestic animals, in which the arm is fixed along the corresponding parts of the trunk, the result is that the coraco-brachialis is always covered, and that, consequently, it presents nothing of interest from our point of view. We speak of it, then, merely in order to complete the series of the muscles of the anterior surface of the arm, among which we rank it, in spite of the fact that in veterinary anatomy it is described as a muscle of the shoulder. It arises above from the coracoid process, and thence passes downwards towards the internal surface of the humerus into which it is inserted, more or less high up, according to the species. The coraco-brachialis is an adductor of the arm. Posterior Region =Triceps Cubiti= (Fig. 68, 23, 24; Fig. 69, 20, 21; Fig. 70, 28, 29; Fig. 72, 13, 14, 15, 16).--This muscle, which is voluminous in the quadrupeds with which we are here concerned, fits more or less completely the angular space between the scapula and the humerus. Its bulk forms a thick prominence, which surmounts the elbow and the forearm. We should say, with regard to this mass, that if the deltoid does not constitute in quadrupeds a prominence sufficient to remind one of that which this muscle produces in man, the triceps, in producing an analogous elevation, seems to replace in the general form of the body the relief which the deltoid is incapable of producing. The triceps is divided into three portions, which, as in man, have the names middle, or long head; external and internal heads. But that which renders the nomenclature a little complicated is that veterinary anatomists have given other names to these three parts: that of _great extensor of the forearm_ (caput magnum) to the long head; _the short extensor of the forearm_ (caput parvum) to the external head; and of _medium extensor of the forearm_ (caput medium) to the internal.[24] [24] Other names given by certain authors to the parts of this muscle which we have just enumerated still further complicate this nomenclature. The long head is further designated by them under the names of the _long_ or _great anconeus_; the _external head_ under those of _external anconeus_, or _lateral_ or _short anconeus_; whilst the internal head becomes the _internal anconeus_, or _median_. It is more especially the long portion and the external head which, being visible on the external surface of the arm, contribute to the external form. The long portion, which is triangular in shape and of considerable development, arises in the cat and the dog from the inferior half or two-thirds of the posterior border of the scapula (axillary border); from the whole extent of that border as far as the superior posterior angle in the pig, the ox, and the horse; it then passes downwards towards the articulation of the elbow, to terminate in a tendon which is inserted into the olecranon process. The portion of this muscle which is next the scapula is covered by the deltoid. The external head, situated below the long portion, is directed obliquely downwards and backwards. It arises from the curved crest which, from the deltoid impression of the humerus, is directed upward to meet the articular head of the same bone. This crest limiting the musculo-spiral groove superiorly, and the brachialis anticus arising from the whole extent of this groove, the result is that at this level the external head is in relation with the brachialis anticus. From this origin it is directed towards the elbow, to be inserted into the olecranon, either directly or by the medium of the tendon of the long portion. The part of this muscle which arises from the humerus is covered by the deltoid. As for the internal head (Fig. 76, 4), which, in the superficial layer, is only visible in its inferior part, on the internal aspect of the arm in those animals in which the elbow is free of the lateral wall of the thorax (the dog and the cat, for example), it arises from the internal surface of the humerus, and thence proceeds to be inserted into the olecranon. The triceps extends the forearm on the arm. A fourth muscle exists, which veterinary anatomists include in the study of the three portions of the triceps which we have just been discussing, in giving it the name of _small extensor of the forearm_. But, as this muscle is no other than the anconeus, and as, in human anatomy, we describe the latter, according to custom, in connection with the forearm, it is when on the subject of the latter that we will concern ourselves with it. This grouping of muscles cannot fail to give greater clearness to the description of the muscles of these regions. =The Supplemental or Accessory Muscle of the Latissimus Dorsi= (Fig. 76, 2; Fig. 77, 1).--Because of the relations, to which we have already referred (see p. 142), of this muscle with the triceps cubiti, its description very naturally follows that of the latter. Indeed, this supplementary muscle of the great dorsal is further designated in zoological anatomy under the name of _long extensor of the forearm_; and this name indicates that its study may be united to that of the triceps. Situated on the internal surface of the arm, it arises from the external aspect of the tendon of the latissimus dorsi; it is very highly developed in the horse, in which it also arises from the posterior border (axillary) of the scapula; then, covering in part the internal head of the triceps and also the long portion, on the superior border of which it is folded, it proceeds to be inserted into the olecranon process and the anti-brachial aponeurosis. It extends the forearm on the arm. Further, it makes tense the aponeurosis into which it is inserted; this explains the name of _tensor of the fascia of the forearm_, which is sometimes given to it. It seems to us interesting to add that, abnormally, we sometimes find in man an analogue of this muscle. It is given off from the latissimus dorsi, near the insertion of the latter into the humerus; it accompanies the long head of the triceps and becomes fused with it. Sometimes it is inserted into the olecranon process, at other times into the antibrachial aponeurosis or the epitrochlea. It is on account of its insertion into the last-mentioned, in some cases, that it is also designated by the name of _dorso-epitrochlear_ muscle.[25] [25] L. Testut, 'Anomalies musculaires chez l'homme expliquées par l'anatomie comparée,' Paris, 1884, p. 118. A. F. Le Double, 'Traité des variations du système musculaire de l'homme et de leur signification au point de vue de l'anthropologie zoologique,' Paris, 1897, t. i., p. 203. Édouard Cuyer, 'Anomalies musculaires' (_Bulletins de la Société Anthropologique_, Paris, 1893). Muscles of the Forearm Before commencing the special examination of each of the muscles of this region, it is absolutely indispensable to consider their general arrangement, and to determine very clearly how we should study them. We are too well convinced of the importance of this preliminary examination to dismiss it without entering rather fully into it. Indeed, the region on the myological study of which we are now entering is, unquestionably, one of the most complicated with which we have to deal. We know besides, in regard to the study of the forearm in man, how much a definite method is necessary in order that the arrangement of the muscles of this region be fixed in the memory, and that we are unable to obtain this result otherwise than by grouping the twenty muscles which constitute it in clearly defined regions. We also know that these muscles are first studied with the forearm in the position of supination, and that it is only when they are well known after having considered them in this position that we are able to analyze and comprehend their forms when it is in pronation. Now, as we have pointed out in the section on osteology (see p. 34), the forearm in quadrupeds is always in the position of pronation. Should we, then, in order to maintain the symmetry with human anatomy, first study the forearm in the position of supination? Evidently not. Besides the fact that this would in some cases be impossible since--as in the horse, for example--the radius and ulna are fused together, we should not gain any advantage; this position being never completely realizable even in those quadrupeds which have the radius relatively movable--as, for example, in the cat. Accordingly, it is pronation which here, in connection with animals, becomes the standard attitude from the point of view of description. This is why, supposing that the reader knows well the muscles of the human forearm in the position of supination, we should recall what is the general arrangement occupied by these muscles when it is in pronation. The fore-limb, being viewed on its anterior surface, presents above the anterior aspect of the region of the elbow; but below, it is the posterior surface of the wrist which is seen. Consequently, in the superior part, we see the external and anterior muscles limiting the hollow in front of the elbow; interiorly are found the posterior muscles. The long supinator, passing obliquely downwards and inwards, divides, in fact, the forearm into two parts: one supero-internal, the other infero-external. In the first we see, but to an extent less and less considerable, the pronator teres, the flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris longus, and the flexor ulnaris; as to the flexors of the digits, on account of the rotation of the radius, they are only visible on the opposite surface--that is to say, on the surface of the wrist, which is now posterior. In the second part we see the two radial extensors, the common extensor of the fingers, the proper extensor of the little finger, and the ulnar extensor which, inferiorly, remains behind, by reason of the position of the ulna being unchanged, whilst the anconeus is wholly posterior, since the direction of the elbow is not modified. We also find, in this region, the long abductor of the thumb, the short extensor of the thumb, the long extensor of the thumb, and the special extensor of the index-finger, in the region where these deep muscles become superficial. So that, to summarize, the external and posterior muscles occupy the anterior and external regions of the forearm, whilst the anterior muscles occupy rather the internal and posterior. It is in regarding them after this manner--that is to say, arranged in these two regions--that we proceed to study these muscles in quadrupeds. Anterior and External Region =Supinator Longus.=--We know that this muscle, which is especially a flexor of the forearm on the arm, plays, notwithstanding the name which has been given it, a part of but little importance in the movement of supination. It acts slightly, however, as a supinator, for, being very oblique downwards and inwards at the time of pronation, it is able, while tending to resume its vertical direction, to carry the radius outwards; it places, in fact, the forearm in a position midway between pronation and supination. We have just recalled these details, in order that it may be more easy to understand why it does not exist in animals in which the radius and ulna are fused together (horse, ox); and why, on the other hand, we find traces of it in the cat and the dog, in which the radius--to a slight extent, it is true--is able to rotate on the ulna. This displacement being a little more considerable in the felide, the long supinator is a little further developed than it is in the canine species; but, notwithstanding, it is only rudimentary. The long supinator arises, above, from the external border of the humerus; thence, in the form of a very narrow fleshy band, it passes obliquely downwards and inwards, to be inserted into the inferior part of the internal surface of the radius. It assists in turning the radius outwards and placing it in front of the ulna, the movement of supination being capable of being but little further extended. =First and Second External Radial Muscles=: _Extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior_ (Fig. 73, 8; Fig. 74, 8, 9; Fig. 75, 8, 9).--Fused together, these muscles form by their union what veterinary anatomists call _the anterior extensor of the metacarpus_. But we should add that these two muscles are united so much the more intimately as we examine them in passing successively from the cat to the dog, pig, ox, and horse. Thus, in the cat they are often distinct; in the dog, they unite only at the level of the middle third of the radius, and interiorly they have two tendons; in the pig, the ox, and the horse they are completely united, and there exists but a single tendon. The _anterior extensor of the metacarpus_, which is situated behind the long supinator when the latter exists, occupies the external aspect of the forearm; its well-defined form absolutely recalls the prominence on the superior part of the external margin of the human forearm. It arises superiorly from the portion of the external border of the humerus which is situated above the epicondyle and behind the musculo-spiral groove. Its fleshy mass appears in the angular space bounded by the brachialis anticus and the triceps. The superior portion is covered by the external head of the triceps; yet, in the dog, the superior portion of its humeral attachment is the only part so covered. This muscle is directed forward and downwards; it is also inclined a little inwards in such manner as to proceed to occupy the anterior aspect of the forearm. Its fleshy belly is narrowed below, and, towards the inferior part of the forearm, is continued by a tendinous portion which is situated on the anterior surface of the carpus, after having traversed the median groove of the inferior extremity of the radius. In the cat and the dog, in which the union of the two radial extensors is incomplete, the two tendons are inserted into the front of the base of the second and third metacarpal bones; consequently, as in man, into the metacarpals of the index and middle fingers. In the ox, the tendon, which is single, is inserted into the internal and anterior half of the superior extremity of the principal metacarpal. In the pig, this tendon is attached to the base of the large internal metacarpal. In the horse, the corresponding tendon is attached to a tubercle which is situated on the anterior surface of the base of the principal metacarpal, a little internal to the median plane of the latter. [Illustration: FIG. 73.--MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Mastoido-humeralis; 2, biceps; 3, brachialis anticus; 4, triceps, long portion; 5, triceps, external head; 6, olecranon process; 7, epicondyle; 8, radialis muscles (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 9, extensor communis digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 10, extensor minimi digiti (lateral extensor of the phalanges, or common extensor of the three external digits); 11, posterior ulnar (external flexor of the metacarpus); 12, pisiform bone; 13, anconeus; 14, extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis (oblique extensor of the metacarpus); 15, radius; 16, anterior ulnar (oblique flexor of the metacarpus); 17, external border of the hypothenar eminence (abductor of the little finger).] In order to properly understand and remember the respective positions occupied by these inferior insertions, it must be remembered that the human forearm being in the position of pronation, the tendons of the radials are attached to the bases of the metacarpals nearest to the thumb--that is to say, those occupying an internal position as regards the fourth and fifth metacarpals. As its name indicates, this muscle extends the metacarpus. Consequently it is, in the horse, an extensor of the canon-bone. It is also an adductor of the hand in those animals (cat, dog) in which the radio-carpal articulation, analogous in form to the corresponding articulation in man, permits lateral movements of the hand on the forearm. The union of the fleshy bodies of the two radials is sometimes found in the human species. =Supinator Brevis.=--As in the case of the long supinator, the short supinator is found only in animals in which the radius can be rotated to a greater or less extent around the ulna; therefore this muscle is not found in the pig, the ox, or the horse; but it forms part of the forearm of the cat and the dog. Deeply situated at the region of the elbow, the short supinator has little interest for us. All that we will say of it is that it goes from the external part of the inferior extremity of the humerus to the superior part of the radius; and that it is, in carnivora, the essential agent in the production of the movement of supination. =Extensor Communis Digitorum= (Fig. 73, 9, 10, 11; Fig. 74, 10, 11, 12).--Also named in veterinary anatomy the _anterior extensor of the phalanges_, this muscle is situated external to and behind the anterior extensor of the metacarpus already described. In the human being, the common extensor of the fingers springs, in its superior part, from the bottom of a depression, situated on the outer side of and behind the elbow, and limited in front by the muscular prominence which the long supinator and the first radial extensor form at that level. At the bottom of this hollow or fossette is found the epicondyle, which gives origin, amongst other muscles, to the common extensor of the fingers. It is necessary to add that it is most prominently visible during supination, and that it tends to be effaced during pronation. [Illustration: FIG. 74.--MYOLOGY OF THE OX: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Mastoido-humeralis; 2, pectoralis major; 3, deltoid; 4, brachialis anticus; 5, triceps; 6, triceps, external head; 7, olecranon; 8, radial extensors (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 9, insertion of the tendon of the anterior extensor of the metacarpus to the tubercle of the superior extremity of the principal metacarpal; 10, 11, extensor communis digitorum (10, proper extensor of the inner digits; 11, common extensor of the two digits); 12, tendon of the common extensor of the two digits; 13, band of reinforcement from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 14, external tuberosity of the superior extremity of the radius; 15, extensor minimi digiti (proper extensor of the external digit); 16, tendon of the proper extensor of the external digit; 17, posterior ulnar (external flexor of the metacarpus); 18, pisiform; 19, extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis (oblique extensor of the metacarpus); 20, ulnar portion of the deep flexor of the toes; 21, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 22, tendon of the deep flexor of the toes (deep flexor of the phalanges); 23, suspensory ligament of the fetlock.] An analogous arrangement is met with in animals. But the muscular prominence is formed by the united radial extensors, and the fossette, because of the permanent pronation of the forearm, is scarcely recognisable. Likewise, with regard to the dog, we may say that it does not exist, on account of the prominence which the epicondyle forms in that animal (Fig. 73, 7). In connection with this prominence of the epicondyle, it is interesting to add that this detail recalls the relief which the same process produces on the external aspect of the human elbow when the forearm is flexed on the arm. We know that, in this case, the epicondyle is exposed, because the muscles which mask it in supination (long supinator and long radial extensor) are displaced and set it free during flexion. But, in the dog, as in other quadrupeds besides, the forearm is, in the normal state, flexed on the arm; the latter being oblique downwards and backwards, and the former being vertical. Further, the epicondyle is well developed. The muscle with which we are now occupied, long and vertical in direction, arises from the inferior part of the external border of the humerus (there it is covered by the anterior extensor of the metacarpus, from which it is freed a little lower down) and from the external and superior tuberosity of the radius. In the carnivora, it arises from the epicondyle. Its fleshy body is fusiform in shape, becomes tendinous in the lower half of the forearm, and then divides into a number of slips, varying in number according to the species; this division is correlated to that of the hand--that is to say, with the number of the digits. Before reaching this latter, the common extensor of the digits passes through the most external groove on the anterior surface of the inferior extremity of the radius. [Illustration: FIG. 75.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Mastoido-humeral; 2, pectoralis major; 3, deltoid; 4, brachialis anticus; 5, triceps, long head; 6, triceps, external head; 7, olecranon; 8, radial extensors (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 9, insertion of the tendon of the anterior extensor of the metacarpus into the tubercle of the superior extremity of the principal metacarpal; 10, extensor communis digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 11, tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges; 12, reinforcing band arising from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 13, external tuberosity of the superior extremity of the radius; 14, extensor minimi digiti (lateral extensor of the phalanges); 15, tendon of the lateral extensor of the phalanges; 16, fibrous band which this latter receives from the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges; 17, fibrous band which the same tendon receives from the carpal region; 18, posterior ulnar (external flexor of the metacarpus); 19, pisiform; 20, extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and extensor primi internodii pollicis (oblique flexor of the metacarpus); 21, ulnar portion of the deep flexor of the digits; 22, flexor digitorum profundus; 23, 23, tendon of the flexor digitorum sublimis (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 24, 24, tendon of the flexor digitorum profundus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 25, sesamoid prominence; 26, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 27, external rudimentary metacarpal.] In the cat and the dog, the four tendons which result from the division of the principal tendon go to the four last digits, and each of them is inserted, as in the human species, to the second and third phalanges. In the pig, the anterior extensor of the phalanges is rather complicated in its arrangement. Its fleshy body is divided into four bundles terminated by tendons, which in turn divide and join certain digits; whence the special names given to each of these fasciculi, commencing with the most internal, of: _proper extensor of the great inner toe_; _common extensor of the two inner toes_; _common extensor of the two outer toes_; and _proper extensor of the great outer toe_. In the ox, the same muscle is divided into two bundles: the internal proceeds to the internal toe, the external is common to the two toes. In the horse, the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges is divided into two parts of unequal bulk. The smaller of these tendinous slips, which is the more external, unites at the level of the superior part of the metacarpus with the tendon of the muscle which we are about to study in the following paragraph (Fig. 75, 16). The larger, after having reached the anterior surface of the digit, is attached to the anterior aspect of the first and second phalanges, and then forms a terminal expansion which is inserted into the pyramidal eminence of the third. At the level of the first phalanx this tendon receives on each of its lateral aspects a strengthening band, which proceeds from the terminal extremity of _the suspensory ligament of the fetlock_,[26] and crosses obliquely downwards and forwards over the surface of the first phalanx to join the extensor tendon (Fig. 75, 12). [26] See p. 200 for a description of this ligament. A similar arrangement is found in the ox. This band is noticeable under the skin which covers the lateral aspects of the ham. As the name indicates, this muscle extends the phalanges, one upon the other. It also contributes to the extension of the hand, as a whole, on the forearm. =Extensor Minimi Digiti= (Fig. 73, 10; Fig. 74, 15, 16; Fig. 75, 14, 15).--This muscle, _the lateral extensor of the phalanges_ of veterinary anatomy, situated on the external surface of the forearm, behind the common extensor of the digits, arises, as a rule, from the epicondyle (dog, cat), or from the external surface of the superior extremity of the radius (horse). The tendon succeeding to the fleshy body appears towards the lower third of the forearm, and at the level of the wrist lies in a groove analogous to that which in man is hollowed out for the passage of the corresponding tendon at the level of the inferior radio-ulnar articulation. This groove corresponds to the same articulation in animals in which the ulna is well developed, such as the dog and the cat; but it belongs to the radius when the inferior extremity of the ulna does not exist--for example, in the horse. Indeed, in this animal the groove in question is found on the external surface of the carpal extremity of the radius. In the dog, the tendon is divided into three parts, which, crossing obliquely the tendons of the common extensor of the digits, pass to the three external digits, to be inserted by blending with the corresponding tendons of the latter into the third phalanges of those digits. Thus is explained the name of _common extensor of the three external digits_ which is sometimes given to this muscle. In the cat, there is a fourth tendon, which passes to the index-finger, so that the name _common extensor of the four external digits_ is in this case legitimate, and the lateral extensor of the phalanges is also a common extensor, as is the anterior extensor of the phalanges, or common extensor of the digits. In the pig, the tendon, which is single, is inserted into the external digit, for which reason it has received the name of the _proper extensor of the small external digit_. This muscle is, then, really the homologue of that which exists in the human species. In the ox, it is called the _proper extensor of the external digit_; it is as thick as the common extensor. Finally, in the horse, the muscle is little developed. Its fleshy body, thin and flattened from before backwards, becomes distinctly visible only below the middle of the forearm. Above, it is enclosed in a limited space, bounded in front by the common extensor of the digits, and behind by the posterior ulnar; there these two muscles approach each other so closely that from the point of view of external form they seem to be nearly in contact. The tendon, after receiving the small fasciculus from the common extensor (Fig. 75, 16), as well as a fibrous band emanating from the external surface of the carpus (Fig. 75, 17), is situated at the external side of the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges, and is inserted into the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the first phalanx. This muscle extends the digit or digits into which it is inserted. It also assists in the movement of extension of the hand as a whole. =Posterior Ulnar= (_Extensor carpi ulnaris_) (Fig. 73, 11; Fig. 74, 17; Fig. 75, 18).--Designated by veterinary anatomists as the _external flexor of the metacarpus_,[27] or _external cubital_, this muscle is situated in the posterior region of the external surface of the forearm, behind the lateral extensor of the phalanges. [27] Certain authors give it the name of _ulnar extensor of the wrist_. It is true that in the human being this is its action; but in quadrupeds, owing to its insertion into the pisiform, it draws the hand into the position of flexion. It arises from the epicondyle; its fleshy body, thick but flattened, is directed vertically towards the carpus, and its tendon is inserted into the external part of the superior extremity of the metacarpus, after having given off a fibrous band, which takes its attachment on the pisiform. It is inserted, in the cat and the dog, into the superior extremity of the fifth metacarpal; in the pig to the external metacarpal; in the ox to the external side of the canon-bone; in the horse to the superior extremity of the external rudimentary metacarpal. This muscle flexes the hand on the forearm, and in animals in which the radio-carpal articulation permits, by its formation, it inclines the hand slightly outwards--that is, abducts it. =Anconeus= (Fig. 72, 17; Fig. 73, 13).--We have already stated (p. 174) that the anconeus is included with the triceps brachialis in zoological anatomy, and that veterinary anatomists give it the name of _small extensor of the forearm_.[28] [28] It is also called by some authors, the _small anconeus_. In the dog it recalls, as to position, the human anconeus, but with this difference--that, in the latter, the anconeus, triangular in outline, has one of its angles turned outwards (the epicondyloid attachment) and one of its sides turned towards the olecranon. Here it is entirely the opposite. The anconeus, similarly triangular, is broader externally. At this level it takes its origin from the external border of the humerus, the epicondyle, and the external lateral ligament of the articulation of the elbow; thence its fibres converge towards the external surface of the olecranon, to be there inserted. It is in relation, anteriorly and inferiorly, with the posterior ulnar muscle. It is covered superiorly by the external head of the triceps. In the cat the disposition of the anconeus is analogous. But in the other quadrupeds with which we are here concerned it is completely covered by the external head of the triceps. It really participates in the formation of the triceps; and seeing that it takes origin from the posterior surface of the humerus at the margin of the olecranon fossa (Fig. 72), and proceeds thence towards the olecranon to be inserted, we can understand why veterinary anatomists have connected its study with that of the posterior muscular mass of the arm. This muscle is an extensor of the forearm on the arm. We proceed now to inquire what the deep muscles of the posterior region of the human forearm become in quadrupeds: the long abductor of the thumb, the short extensor of the thumb, the long extensor of the thumb, the proper extensor of the index. We know that in every instance these muscles, which are deeply seated at their origin, become superficial afterwards. In quadrupeds, on account of the position in which the forearm is placed--viz., pronation--the corresponding muscles occupy the anterior aspect of this region. =Long Abductor of the Thumb= (_Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis_) =and Short Extensor of the Thumb= (_Extensor primi internodii pollicis_) (Fig. 73, 14; Fig. 74, 19; Fig. 75, 20).--United one to the other in man, blended in quadrupeds, they form in the latter the muscles to which veterinary anatomists give the name of _oblique extensor of the metacarpus_. This muscle arises from the median portion of the skeleton of the forearm. There it is covered by the common extensor of the digits and that of the small digit (anterior extensor and lateral extensor of the phalanges). Then, at the internal border of the first of these muscles, it becomes superficial, passes downwards and inwards, crosses superficially the anterior extensor of the metacarpus, reaches the inferior extremity of the radius, and becomes lodged in the most internal of the grooves situated on the anterior surface of this extremity, passes on the internal side of the carpus, and is inserted into the superior extremity of the most internal metacarpal--that is, to the first metacarpal, or metacarpal of the thumb--in the dog and cat; to the internal rudimentary metacarpal in the horse. It is an extensor of the metacarpal into which it is inserted; but as, if we recall the extreme examples given above, in the dog the first metacarpal is not very mobile, and in the horse the internal rudimentary metacarpal is absolutely fixed to the bone which it accompanies, it is more exact to add that this muscle is principally an extensor of the metacarpus as a whole. And yet, in the cat and the dog, it is also able to adduct the first metacarpal bone. It must be understood that this movement would be abduction, if the hand could be placed in the position of complete supination, as in the human species. =Long Extensor of the Thumb= (_Extensor secundi internodii pollicis_) =and Proper Extensor of the Index= (_Extensor indicis_).--These two muscles are blended together by their fleshy bodies, so that the single name of _proper extensor of the thumb and index_ is preferable. This muscle is but of slight importance from our point of view, for it is extremely atrophied, and so much the more as the number of the digits is lessened. It arises, as the preceding, from the skeleton of the forearm, and there it is deeply placed. Below, towards the carpus, its tendinous part becomes superficial, to end in the following manner: In the carnivora, the tendon divides into two very slender parts, which are inserted into the thumb and the index. In the pig, the tendon is blended with that of the common extensor of the internal digits. Finally, in the ox and the horse, it is sometimes regarded as being blended with the common or anterior extensor of the phalanges. But to us it appears more rational to say that it does not exist, which, moreover, is explained by the digital simplification of the hand. Internal and Posterior Region =Pronator Teres= (Fig. 76, 8).--This muscle, as may easily be understood, undergoes, as do the supinators, a degree of degeneration in proportion to the loss of mobility of the radius on the ulna. In animals in which the bones of the forearm are not fused it exists; in those, on the other hand, in which this segment has become simply a supporting column, it is not developed--at least, in a normal manner. It is, consequently, found best marked in the dog and the cat. Forming, as in man, the internal limit of the hollow of the elbow, the pronator teres has a disposition analogous to that which characterizes the corresponding muscle in the human species. It arises from the epitrochlea (internal condyle), proceeds downwards and outwards, and is inserted into the middle portion of the body of the radius. It is into the hollow in front of the elbow, which this muscle contributes to limit, that the biceps and the brachialis anticus dip. In the pig and the ox it is atrophied. In the horse it does not exist. We may, however, sometimes find it, but in an abnormal form. We were able to demonstrate its presence in the form of a fleshy tongue situated on the internal side of the elbow (Fig. 78) in a horse which we dissected many years ago in the laboratory of the School of Fine Arts. Moreover--and the fact seemed to us an interesting one--the forearm to which the muscle belonged had an ulna of relatively considerable development (Figs. 79 and 80).[29] [29] Édouard Cuyer, 'Abnormal Length of the Ulna and Presence of a Pronator Teres Muscle in a Horse' (_Bulletin de la Société d'Anthropologie_, Paris, 1887). This muscle is a pronator. =Flexor Carpi Radialis= (Fig. 76, 10; Fig. 77, 7).--Called by veterinary anatomists _the internal flexor of the metacarpus_, this muscle, which is found on the internal aspect of the forearm, is situated behind the pronator teres when this muscle exists, whilst in the animals which are deprived of the latter the flexor carpi radialis has in front of it the internal border of the radius, which separates it from the anterior extensor of the metacarpus. It is necessary to add that the flexor carpi radialis is similarly separated from the anterior extensor of the metacarpus by the internal border of the radius in animals in which the pronator teres exists, but then only in that part of the forearm which is situated below this latter. The flexor carpi radialis arises from the epitrochlea. Its fleshy body, fusiform in shape, descends vertically, and terminates in a tendon on the posterior surface of the bases of the second and third metacarpals in the dog and the cat, on the metacarpal of the large internal digit in the pig, on the internal side of the metacarpus in the ox, and on the superior extremity of the internal rudimentary metacarpal in the horse. We see clearly, in this latter, a superficial vein which, in the shape of a strong cord, passes along the anterior border of the flexor carpi radialis; it is the subcutaneous median or internal vein, which, forming the continuation of the internal metacarpal vein, joins the venous system of the arm, after having crossed obliquely the corresponding part of the radius. =Palmaris Longus.=--This muscle, which exists distinctly in some animals, but whose absence is far from being rare in the human species, is not developed as a distinct muscle in any of the domestic quadrupeds. [Illustration: FIG. 76.--MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, INTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Biceps; 2, long extensor of the forearm (supplementary or accessory muscle of the great dorsal); 3, triceps, long head; 4, triceps, internal head; 5, olecranon; 6, epitrochlea (internal condyle); 7, radial extensors (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 8, pronator teres; 9, radius; 10, flexor carpi radialis (internal flexor of the metacarpus); 11, anterior ulnar (oblique flexor of the metacarpus); 12, superficial flexor of the digits; 13, deep flexor of the digits; 14, flexor longus pollicis (radial fasciculus of the deep flexor of the digits); 15, pisiform bone.] And yet some authors announce its presence in the dog, and describe it as becoming detached, in the form of a cylindrical bundle, from the anterior surface of the fleshy mass of the deep flexor of the digits (see p. 196) to proceed then by a tendon which divides into two parts, to terminate in the palm of the hand, where it blends with the tendons of the superficial flexor, which are destined for the third and fourth digits. These authors give to this muscle the name of _palmaris longus_, and attribute to it the action of flexing the hand. =Anterior Ulnar= (_Flexor carpi ulnaris_) (Fig. 73, 16; Fig. 76, 11; Fig. 77, 8).--Called by veterinary anatomists the _oblique flexor of the metacarpus_, or _internal ulnar_, this muscle occupies the internal part of the posterior aspect of the forearm in the ox and the horse, while in the dog it occupies rather the external part. This difference arises from the fact that in this latter, as in man, the anterior ulnar is separated from the flexor carpi radialis by an interval in which we see, on the internal aspect of the forearm, just at the level of the elbow, the flexors of the digits. This interval is so much the wider as there is no palmaris muscle to subdivide its extent (Fig. 81). In the horse, the interval in question does not exist. In this animal, indeed, the anterior ulnar is in contact with the radial flexor, so that this muscle can occupy only a region belonging rather to the internal surface of the forearm (Fig. 82). In the dog the anterior ulnar is in contact with the posterior ulnar. This relation recalls that which is found in man, where the two muscles are merely separated by the crest of the ulna (Fig. 81). But in the horse, in which the anterior ulnar has, so to speak, slid towards the internal aspect, this muscle is separated above from the posterior ulnar, and it is in the interval separating these two muscles that we are able to perceive, but this time at the back of the forearm, the muscular mass of the flexors of the digits (Fig. 82). [Illustration: FIG. 77.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: ANTERIOR LIMB, LEFT SIDE, INTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Long extensor of the forearm (supplementary or accessory muscle of the latissimus dorsi); 2, radialis muscles (anterior extensor of the metacarpus); 3, tendons of extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis extensor primi internodii pollicis united (oblique extensor of the metacarpus); 4, tendon of extensor communis digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 5, strengthening band from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 6, internal surface of the radius; 7, flexor carpi radialis (internal flexor of the metacarpus); 8, anterior ulnar (oblique flexor of the metacarpus); 9, pisiform bone; 10, 10, tendon of the superficial flexor of the digits (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 11, 11, tendon of the deep flexor of the digits (deep flexor of the phalanges); 12, sesamoid prominence; 13, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 14, internal rudimentary metacarpal.] The anterior ulnar arises above from the epitrochlea and the olecranon; thence it is directed towards the carpus, to be inserted into the pisiform bone. It proceeds therefore from the inner side of the elbow to the outer side of the upper part of the hand; it consequently crosses the posterior surface of the forearm obliquely. This is why, as we have pointed out above, it receives the name of the oblique flexor of the metacarpus. It is not unprofitable to recall in this connection that there is an internal flexor of the metacarpus, which is the flexor carpi radialis; and an external flexor of the metacarpus, which is the posterior ulnar (in human anatomy, extensor carpi ulnaris). It is between these two muscles that we find the oblique flexor--the anterior ulnar which we have just been studying. This muscle flexes the hand on the forearm. =Superficial Flexor of the Digits= (_Flexor digitorum sublimis_) (Fig. 76, 12; Fig. 77, 10, 10).--This muscle arises from the epitrochlea; thence it passes towards the hand, becomes tendinous, passes in a groove on the posterior aspect of the carpus, and terminates on the palmar surface of the phalanges in furnishing a number of tendons proportioned to the digital division of the hand. Whatever the number, to which we will again refer, each tendon is attached to the second phalanx, after bifurcating at the level of the first, so as to form a sort of ring, destined to give passage to the corresponding tendon of the deep flexor. This ring and this passage have gained for the muscle the name of _perforated flexor_. In the dog and the cat the principal tendon is divided into four parts, which go to the four last digits. In the ox it is divided into two parts only; as, moreover, in the pig, whose superficial flexor is destined for the two large digits only, the lateral digits receiving no part of it. Finally, in the horse the tendon is single. We have previously pointed out that in the carnivora this muscle is visible on the internal and posterior aspects of the forearm, in the interval which is limited in front by the flexor carpi radialis and behind and outside by the anterior ulnar. Certain details are still to be added to the description of this muscle. We will enter on an analysis of them after we have given some indications relative to the following muscle: =Deep Flexor of the Digits= (_Flexor digitorum profundus_) (Fig. 75, 21, 22; Fig. 76, 12; Fig. 77, 11, 11).--This muscle is covered by the superficial flexor. It arises from the epitrochlea, from the radius, and from the ulna, either from the olecranon process--as in the ox, pig, and horse--or from almost the whole extent of the shaft of the same bone, as in the cat and dog. [Illustration: FIG. 78.--LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE: INTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Internal flexor of the metacarpus or great palmar; 2, inferior part of the biceps; 3, inferior part of the brachialis anticus; 4, internal lateral ligament of the elbow; 5, pronato teres muscle.] The radial fasciculus represents in the domestic quadrupeds the long proper flexor muscle of the thumb in man. For this reason we shall describe the muscle afresh in the following paragraph: The fleshy bundles of which we have just spoken terminate in a tendon which afterwards divides into slips, the number of which is in proportion to the digital division of the hand. These slips then pass through the slit or _buttonhole_ in the tendon of the superficial flexor, and proceed to terminate on the third phalanx; hence the name of _perforating_, which is also given to the deep flexor of the digits. In the dog and the cat the tendon is divided into five portions, each of which proceeds to one of the digits. The internal tendon, which is destined for the thumb, terminates on the second phalanx of this digit. In the pig the tendon divides into four tendons destined for the four digits. In the ox there are but two tendons. In the horse the tendon is single. As their names indicate, these muscles, both superficial and deep, flex the digits. In addition to this, they flex the hand on the forearm. We mentioned above that certain details relative to the superficial flexor must be analyzed in a special way. We now add that this should also be done with regard to the deep flexor. The point in question is the arrangement which the tendons of these muscles present at the level of the palmar region of the hand. It is easy, in the case of the dog or the cat, to picture to one's self this arrangement, especially if we recollect that which exists in the human species. The tendons of the flexors are placed on a kind of muscular bed formed by the union of the muscles of the region, but, moreover, from the point of view of external form, these tendons are not of very great importance. But in the ox and the horse it is quite otherwise. From the simplification of the skeleton of the hand, and the reduction of the number of movements which the bones that form it are able to execute, there naturally results a diminution of its muscular apparatus. Apart from the existence of muscular vestiges of but little importance, we can say that, in reality, the hand does not possess any muscles. On its palmar aspect are found only the tendons of the flexors of the digits, and as these tendons are large, and the hand long, they give origin to external forms which it is necessary to examine. [Illustration: FIG. 79.--LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Ulna of abnormal length.] [Illustration: FIG. 80.--LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Normal ulna.] In the horse, which we take as a type, the tendons of the flexors, after being retained in position at the carpus by a fibrous band, the _carpal sheath_, which recalls the anterior annular ligament of the human carpus, and having passed this region, descend vertically, remaining separated from the posterior surface of the metacarpus, so that the skin sinks slightly on the lateral parts in front of the thick cord which these tendons form. This cord is known by the name of _tendon_. The flexors then reach the fetlock, and occupy the groove formed by the peculiar arrangement of the two large sesamoid bones. They are retained in position at this level by a fibrous structure, which forms the metacarpo-phalangeal sheath. They then reach the phalanges, being directed obliquely downwards and forwards, as, moreover, the latter are also inclined. Then the tendon of the superficial flexor divides into two slips, which are inserted into the second phalanx, between which slips passes the tendon of the deep flexor, which in its turn goes to be inserted, in the form of an expansion, into the semilunar crest, by which the inferior surface of the third phalanx is divided into two parts.[30] [30] See, as regards this crest, in the paragraph relative to the hoof of the solipeds, the figures which represent the third phalanx, viewed on its inferior surface (Figs. 101 and 102, p. 258). The part which these tendons play is of great importance in the large quadrupeds. These tendons, in fact, in addition to the action determined by the contraction of the fleshy fibres to which they succeed, maintain the angle formed by the canon-bone and the phalangeal portion of the hand, and prevent its effacement under the weight of the body during the time of standing. Their strong development, and the position they occupy, make this understood, without it being necessary to insist on it further. We mentioned above that the 'tendon' descends vertically from the carpus towards the fetlocks. This is as it should be. But, in some horses, it is oblique downwards and backwards, so that the canon, instead of being of equal depth from before backwards in its whole length, is a little narrower in its upper part. This results from the fact that the tendons of the flexors, too firmly bound by the carpal sheath, gradually separate as they pass from the metacarpus, going to join the fetlock; hence the obliquity pointed out above. This abnormality producing a deleterious result, in the sense that the tendinous apparatus acts with less strength as an organ of support, it constitutes a defect of conformation which is expressed by saying that the tendon has 'failed.' =Long Proper Flexor of the Thumb= (_Flexor longus pollicis_) (Fig. 76, 14).--As we have already pointed out, this muscle is represented in quadrupeds by the radial bundle of the deep flexor of the digits, so that the two muscles are in reality blended the one to the other. This union is sometimes found, but only as an abnormality, in the human species. We have met some examples of this in the course of our dissections. =Pronator Quadratus.=--This muscle conforms to the general law which we have already pointed out in connection with those which have for their action the rotation of the radius around the ulna. We remember, indeed, that when the bones of the forearm are fused with one another, the muscles which are destined to produce a mobility which has then become impossible disappear at the same blow. [Illustration: FIG. 81.--DIAGRAM OF THE POSTERIOR PART OF A TRANSVERSE SECTION PASSING THROUGH THE MIDDLE OF THE LEFT FORE-LIMB OF THE DOG: SURFACE OF THE INFERIOR SEGMENT OF THE SECTION. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, posterior ulnar; 4, anterior ulnar; 5, great palmar (_flexor carpi radialis_); 6, flexors of the digits.] [Illustration: FIG. 82.--DIAGRAM OF A HORIZONTAL SECTION OF THE MIDDLE OF THE FOREARM OF THE LEFT LEG OF THE HORSE: SURFACE OF THE INFERIOR SEGMENT OF THE SECTION. 1, Radius; 2, ulna; 3, posterior ulnar; 4, anterior ulnar; 5, great palmar (_flexor carpi radialis_); 6, flexors of the digits.] For this cause we do not find the square pronator in either the ox or the horse, but can demonstrate its presence in the dog and the cat. It is very deeply situated. This is why, and also on account of the plan which we have traced for ourselves, we will simply say that it is situated on the postero-internal aspect of the skeleton of the forearm, and that it extends from the ulna to the radius. It seems to us, however, sufficiently interesting to add that, instead of occupying, as in the human species, the inferior fourth of the two bones, it extends, particularly in the dog, over their whole length, with the exception of their superior and inferior extremities. Muscles of the Hand We will first recall that, in man, the palm of the hand is divided into three regions: a median palmar region, which is occupied by the tendons of the flexors of the digits, the lumbricales, and, deeply, by the interosseous muscles; an external region, or thenar eminence, formed by the muscles destined for the movements of the thumb; an internal region, or hypothenar eminence, which contains the muscles proper to the small digit and the palmar cutaneous muscle. These muscles are found, more or less developed, in the dog and the cat. In the ox and the horse we meet with no vestige of the muscles of the thenar or hypothenar eminences. Nevertheless, in these animals we find the muscles which belong to the central region of the palm. We refer to the lumbricales and the interosseous. Although this fact has no relation to the object of our study, it appears to us interesting to announce that there are traces of the lumbricales found in the solipeds. These muscles are represented by two fleshy bundles, situated one on each side of the tendon of the deep flexor, above the ring of the tendon of the superficial flexor. These small muscles are continued as slender tendons, which become lost in the fibrous tissue of the _spur_, which is the horny process situated at the posterior part of the fetlock, and which is covered by the hairs, more or less abundant, which constitute the _wisp_. As for the interosseous muscles, they are represented by the _suspensory ligament of the fetlock_, and by two other small muscles, tendinous throughout, which are situated between the principal metacarpal and the rudimentary ones. The suspensory ligament of the fetlock is considered an interosseous muscle, on account of the red fleshy striations which it contains, and from certain relations which it forms with the tendon of the common extensor of the digits or anterior extensor of the phalanges. This ligament (Fig. 75, 26; Fig. 77, 13), which plays an important part in the standing position as a support of the foot, is a fibrous band situated between the tendons of the flexors of the digits and the principal metacarpal. It arises above, from the second row of the carpals, descends towards the fetlock, where it divides into two branches, which are inserted into the large sesamoid bones. At the same level, this ligament gives off two fibrous bands which, passing downwards and forwards, join the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges, blending with it, after having each crossed one of the lateral aspects of the pastern. We have already referred to these bands (p. 183). It is with these latter that are blended the long and slender tendons which form in a great measure the two other interosseous muscles previously described. A ligament of the same kind is found in the ox (Fig. 74, 23). MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR LIMBS Muscles of the Pelvis The muscles which specially interest us in this region, because of their superficial position, are the gluteus maximus and the gluteus medius. As for the gluteus minimus, it is deeply situated, and more or less sharply marked off from the second of the preceding muscles. Inasmuch as the gluteus medius is more simple in arrangement than the maximus, and will aid us in arranging our ideas in connection with the latter, it is with the study of it that we will commence. =Gluteus Medius= (Fig. 68, 29; Fig. 69, 26; Fig. 70, 35).--This muscle, as in man, occupies the external iliac fossa. But this latter being directed differently in the digitigrades and the ungulates, as we have pointed out in the section on osteology (see pp. 91 and 99), the muscle in question has consequently not the same direction in the two groups of animals, being turned outwards in the first, and upwards in the second. It is the thickest of the glutei, and gives to the region which it occupies a rounded form. From the iliac fossa from which it arises the fleshy fibres are directed towards the femur, to be inserted into the great trochanter. It is covered by an aponeurosis, and in part by the great gluteal. It completely covers the small gluteal, which veterinary anatomists designate by the name of the _deep gluteal_. In the carnivora it does not pass in front of the iliac crest, but, in the ox, and more particularly in the horse, it is prolonged anteriorly, and thus covers, to a certain extent, the muscles of the common mass. When it contracts, taking its fixed point at the pelvis, the gluteus medius extends the thigh, which it is also able to abduct. If, on the other hand, its fixed point is on the femur, it acts on the trunk, which it raises, producing oscillating movements of the pelvis. It contributes in this way to the action of rearing. We also see it distinctly appear by the prominence which it produces in the dog, which, according to the time-honoured phrase, _fait le beau_. =Gluteus Maximus= (Fig. 68, 28; Fig. 69, 25; Fig. 70, 33, 34).--The great gluteal muscle, further designated in veterinary anatomy the _superficial gluteal_, is proportionately less developed in quadrupeds than in man. Indeed, in the latter, where it is of very great thickness, its volume is due to the important function which it fulfils in maintaining the biped attitude. In quadrupeds it contributes to form the superficial part of the crupper and the external surface of the thigh. It is divided into two parts: one anterior, the other posterior. With regard to this latter, it will be necessary to indicate how it has been sometimes regarded, and to what portion of the muscular system in man it corresponds. But we believe that it is better to see beforehand, without any preconceived idea, how these two parts are arranged. In the dog, the anterior portion of the gluteus maximus arises from the sacrum, while some fibres situated further forward arise from the surface of the gluteus medius, near the iliac spine, and from the tensor of the fascia lata with which these fibres are blended. The posterior portion, united to the preceding--that is to say, to those of its fibres which arise from the sacrum--takes its origin from the first coccygeal vertebra. These two portions are directed towards the femur, to be inserted into the great trochanter, and to the external branch of the superior bifurcation of the linea aspera. In the cat, the posterior bundle is less definitely blended with the anterior. By a long and slender tendon which, behind, turns around the great trochanter, and passes along the surface of the fascia lata, it proceeds to join the knee-cap. In the pig, the posterior portion is much more developed. In the horse, the anterior portion arises from the internal iliac spine (posterior in man), from the external iliac spine (anterior in man), and, between these two osseous points, from the aponeurosis, which covers the gluteus medius. Between these two origins the muscle is deeply grooved, so that the tendency is to divide into two portions, each of which is directed towards one of the iliac angles. In this groove the gluteus medius is to be seen. The fleshy bundles converge, and are directed towards the external aspect of the femur, to be inserted into the osseous prominence known as the third trochanter, after passing beneath the fleshy fibres of the posterior portion. The latter, which is more considerable than the preceding portion, arises above from the sacral crest, from the aponeurosis which envelops the coccygeal muscles, from the sacro-sciatic ligament, and from the tuberosity of the ischium. From this origin it passes downwards, expands, then, describing a curve with the convexity behind, it becomes narrowed, and proceeds to be inserted by a deep fasciculus into the third trochanter, to the fascia lata, and, lastly, to the knee-cap by the inferior part of its tendon. Above, its posterior border is covered by the semi-tendinosus; interiorly, the same border is in relation with the biceps femoris. In the ox, the two parts of the great gluteal muscle are blended together. The long and broad fleshy band which they form arises in a manner corresponding to that which we have just indicated in connection with the horse, except that it has no attachment to the femur. The fascia lata adheres strongly to its anterior border for a considerable length. The form of the superior border of the great gluteal muscle of this animal differs from that of the analogous portion in the horse. This difference results from the peculiar aspect which the corresponding region of the pelvis presents, and from the fact that, in the ox, as the semi-tendinosus does not cover the portion of the great gluteal which arises from the tuberosity of the ischium, the attachments of this muscle to the sacro-sciatic ligament are uncovered. Its descending portion, as a whole, has a rectilinear form, and does not form a curve such as we indicated in the case of the horse. The anterior portion of the great gluteal flexes the thigh. As regards the posterior portion, it extends the thigh, and abducts it. The action of this latter portion is particularly interesting as regards the horse, because of the great development of the muscular mass which this region presents in this animal. If the muscle takes its fixed point above, it acts, in the extension of the thigh during walking, by projecting the trunk forward during the whole time that the hind-limb to which it belongs is in contact with the ground. If, on the contrary, it takes its fixed point below, it makes the pelvis describe a see-saw movement, upwards and backwards, on the coxo-femoral articulation, and so contributes to the action of rearing. Now that we have a knowledge of the disposition of the great gluteal muscle, the moment has come to inquire what is the signification of its posterior portion. The action of the anterior part being clearly comparable to the human great gluteal, there can be no doubt as regards the homology of this portion, so we will not insist on it further. Of the posterior portion it is wholly different, for it is the homologue of a fleshy bundle annexed to the great gluteal of man, but which is not developed except as an abnormality. Indeed, we sometimes find, placed along the inferior border of the great gluteal, a fleshy fasciculus, separated from this muscle by a slight interspace. This fasciculus, long and narrow, takes origin from the summit of the sacrum, or the coccyx, and goes to partake of the femoral insertions of the muscle which it accompanies. We further note a muscle of the same kind, and presenting the same aspect, which comes from the tuberosity of the ischium. Notwithstanding the difference which exists, it is this abnormal fasciculus of man which in the quadrupeds here studied is considered as constituting the posterior portion of the great gluteal. Bourgelat, considering this posterior portion as belonging to the biceps cruris, to which, it is true, it adheres, forms of them a muscle which he designates under the name of the _long vastus_. The anterior fasciculus of this long vastus is none other than the posterior portion of the great gluteal which we have just been studying. Muscles of the Thigh These muscles are divided into three regions: posterior, anterior, and internal. In a corresponding manner to that which we described in connection with the arm, the thigh is applied to the side of the trunk, and is free, more or less, only at the level of the inferior part. Further, by reason of this shortening of the femur, the great gluteal muscle, which is elongated in the ox and the horse, for example, occupies in part the region corresponding to that which in man is occupied by the muscles of the thigh, which here are reduced in length. In other words, they are not superposed, as in the human species, but juxtaposed. This is what we will verify further on. The thigh, as a whole, is flattened from without inwards, its transverse diameter being less in extent than its antero-posterior. Its external surface is slightly rounded; that is, of course, in quadrupeds with sufficiently well-developed muscles. Its internal surface is known as the _flat of the thigh_. Muscles of the Posterior Region It is not unprofitable to recall to mind what muscles form the superficial layer of this region in the human being. They are the biceps cruris, semi-tendinosus, and semi-membranosus. We now proceed to discover their analogues in quadrupeds. =Biceps Cruris= (Fig. 68, 30; Fig. 69, 27; Fig. 70, 36).--It is this which, according to Bourgelat, forms the central and posterior portions of the long vastus muscle which we have mentioned above. We know that the biceps of man is so named from the two portions which form its upper part. In domestic quadrupeds, and also in the majority of the mammals, this muscle is reduced to a single portion, that which comes from the pelvis. It is therefore the portion which arises from the femur which does not exist. This condition is sometimes found as an abnormality in the human species. The biceps arises from the tuberosity of the ischium; hence it is directed, widening as it goes, towards the leg, where it terminates by an aponeurosis which blends with the fascia lata and the aponeurosis of the leg, and then proceeds to be attached to the anterior border or crest of the tibia. By its inferior portion it limits externally the posterior region of the knee--the popliteal space. A fibrous intersection traverses the biceps in its whole length, with the result that the muscle looks as if formed of two portions, one of which is situated in front of the other. In the dog and the cat it also arises from the sacro-sciatic ligament. At this level its contour is distinguishable from that which corresponds to the gluteal muscles, so that we there find two prominences one above the other. The superior is formed by the gluteal muscles; the inferior corresponds to the tuberosity of the ischium. The two prominences are separated by a depression, from which the biceps emerges. We draw attention to this form, the character of which is so expressive of energy in the carnivora. In these animals the biceps is inserted, by its anterior fibres, into the articulation of the knee, while in the rest of its extent it covers in great measure by its aponeurosis the external aspect of the leg. In the pig, the biceps is but slightly marked off from the posterior part of the great gluteal. In the ox, the division between these two muscles is a little more distinct. In the horse, the sciatic origin of the biceps is covered by the semi-tendinosus, so that it only becomes free lower down, to appear in the space limited behind by the semi-tendinosus, and in front by the posterior part of the gluteus maximus. When the biceps contracts, taking its fixed point from above, it flexes the leg and helps to extend the thigh. If, on the other hand, it takes its fixed point from below, it lowers the ischium, makes the pelvis undergo a see-saw movement, and acts thus in the movement of rearing. It is sometimes called, on account of one of its actions, and the position which it occupies, the 'external flexor, or peroneal muscle of the leg.' =Semi-tendinosus= (Fig. 68, 31; Fig. 70, 37; Fig. 87, 1; Fig. 88, 1; Fig. 89, 28).--This muscle forms the contour of the thigh posteriorly, so that when the latter is viewed from the side, it is the semi-tendinosus above all that forms the outline. But, as we shall soon see, it is in this case more distinct above than below, because of the deviation which it undergoes in order to occupy by its inferior part the internal side of the leg. In the dog, the cat, and the ox, the semi-tendinosus arises from the tuberosity of the ischium only, as in the human species. In the pig, it also takes origin higher up from the sacro-sciatic ligament and the coccygeal aponeurosis. In the horse, it extends still further, for it is also attached to the crest of the sacrum. The indication of these origins is of importance from the point of view of external form, and to convince ourselves of this it is sufficient to compare, in the ox and the horse, the region of the pelvis situated below the root of the tail. In the ox, whose semi-tendinosus arises from the tuberosity of the ischium only, this region is depressed, and the cavity which is formed at this level is limited behind by the tuberosity, which we know is very thick and prominent above. This causes the superior part of the crupper to be less oblique than in the horse. This characteristic is more especially marked in the cow, the bull having this region of a more rounded form. In the horse, on account of the semi-tendinosus ascending to the coccyx, and even to the sacrum, the depression in question does not exist, and the presence of the tuberosity of the ischium is only slightly revealed. Descending from the origin indicated above, and inclining more and more inwards, the semi-tendinosus proceeds to blend with the aponeurosis of the leg, to be inserted into the anterior border of the tibia, after crossing over the internal surface of the latter. It forms the internal boundary of the popliteal space. When this muscle contracts, taking its fixed point at the pelvis, it flexes the leg. If, on the other hand, it takes its fixed point at the tibia, it makes the pelvis describe a see-saw movement, and acts accordingly in the movement of rearing. It is sometimes named the 'internal or tibial flexor of the leg,' in opposition to the crural biceps, which, as stated above, is then the external flexor of the same region. =Semi-membranosus= (Fig. 68, 32; Fig. 87, 2; Fig. 88, 2).--This muscle, situated on the inner side of the semi-tendinosus, can be seen only when the thigh is regarded on its posterior aspect. It is only by reason of the homology of situation with the corresponding muscle in man that we give the name under which we are studying it; indeed, its structure is different, for it does not present the long, broad, aponeurotic tendon which, in its superior part, characterizes this muscle in the human species. It arises above from the inferior surface of the ischium, and from the tuberosity of the same bone. In the pig, and especially in the horse, it passes further upwards, to arise from the aponeurosis of the coccygeal muscles. So that if we compare it with that of the ox, which does not extend beyond the ischium, we find that it is associated with the semi-tendinosus in determining the difference of aspect to which we have already called attention in connection with the region of the pelvis situated below the root of the tail. The semi-membranosus is then directed downwards and forwards, to take its place on the internal surface of the thigh, where it is partly covered by the gracilis muscle. It is inserted in the following manner: In the dog and the cat it is divided into two parts, anterior and posterior. The first, the more developed, is attached to the internal surface of the inferior extremity of the femur; the second to the internal tuberosity of the tibia. The same arrangement occurs in the ox. In the horse it is inserted into the internal surface of the internal condyle of the femur. The semi-membranosus is an extensor of the thigh when it takes its fixed point at the pelvis; it is also an adductor of the lower limb. If it takes its fixed point below it assists in the action of rearing. It is now necessary for us, especially as regards the horse, to add some indications relative to the exterior forms of the region constituted by the semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus. These two muscles form, by their union, a surface contour, slightly projecting and of elongated form, which occupies the posterior border of the thigh, the contour corresponding to the region known as the _buttock_, in spite of the fact that none of the gluteal muscles take any part in the structure of this region. But the appearances, to a certain extent, justify the preservation of this name. Indeed, because of the groove which separates the gluteal region of one side from that of the opposite side, and from the position of the anal orifice in the superior part of this groove, we may admit the name which, in hippology, has been given to this part of the thigh. In addition to the reasons just given, and which are justified especially by the position occupied by the muscular mass formed by the union of the two muscles, there is another which, this time, has a relation to a certain detail of form. In the superior part of the convexity, which the gluteal region describes in the greater part of its extent, there is found a more salient point, greatly accentuated in lean animals, due to the presence of the tuberosity of the ischium; it is the _point_ or _angle of the buttock_. At this level, and near the median line, the semi-membranosus, not aponeurotic, but fleshy, and even thicker there than anywhere else, sometimes produces a sharply localized prominence. And as this prominence is situated on the outer side of the anal orifice, the resemblance to a small 'buttock' is still more marked. In lean horses a deep groove separates the mass formed by the semi-membranosus and semi-tendinosus from that of the other muscles of the thigh situated more in front; this groove is known by a name which in this case is remarkably expressive--that of the 'line of poverty.' If we examine the gluteal region as a whole by looking at the thigh from the side, we plainly see the graceful curve produced by the general convexity above indicated. We return to this point, in order to add that, in its lower part, this curve alters its character; that is to say, it is replaced by a slight concavity. This, which is designated under the name of _the fold of the buttock_, is situated close to the level of articulation of the leg with the thigh-bone. Muscles of the Anterior Region First we recall that in man the anterior muscles of the thigh are: the triceps cruris, the tensor of the fascia lata, and the sartorius. =Triceps Cruris= (Fig. 8, 36; Fig. 69, 31; Fig. 70, 41; Fig. 84, 2; Fig. 87, 3; Fig. 88, 3).--This muscle, which occupies the greater part of the space between the pelvis and the anterior aspect of the femur, consists of three parts: an external, or vastus externus; an internal, or vastus internus; and a median or long portion, or rectus femoris. This division accordingly recalls that which characterizes the human triceps cruris. Furthermore, as in the case of the latter, the vastus externus and the vastus internus take their origin from the shaft of the femur, while the long portion arises from the pelvis. The _vastus externus_ arises from the external lip of the linea aspera of the femur (or from the external border of the posterior surface of this bone in the ox and the horse, in which the linea aspera, considerably widened, especially in the latter, forms a surface), and from the external surface of the shaft of the femur. From this origin its fibres pass downwards and forwards, to be inserted into the tendon of the long portion of the muscle and into the patella. In the dog and the cat the vastus externus is the most voluminous of the three portions which constitute the triceps muscle. It is covered by the fascia lata; but notwithstanding this, its presence is revealed by a prominence which occupies the external surface of the thigh, and surmounts, in the region of the knee, the more slightly developed one which is produced by the knee-cap. The _vastus internus_, situated on the inner surface of the thigh, takes its origin from the corresponding surface of the femur, and proceeds towards the patella. The rectus femoris arises from the iliac bone, above the cotyloid cavity; its fleshy body, which is fusiform, and situated in front of and between the two vasti muscles, is directed towards the patella, into which it is inserted by a tendon, which receives the other two portions. It is covered in front by the tensor of the fascia lata, and contributes with the vastus externus to form the upper prominence of the knee. The ligamentous fibres, which, as in man, unite the knee-cap to the tibia, transmit to this latter the action determined by the contraction of the triceps. This muscle is an extensor of the leg. Furthermore, the rectus femoris, or long portion, acts as a flexor of the thigh. =Tensor Fascia Lata= (Fig. 68, 34, 36; Fig. 69, 30, 31; Fig. 70, 40).--This muscle, generally larger in quadrupeds than in man, is flat and triangular, and occupies the superior and anterior part of the thigh. It arises from the anterior iliac spine (inferior in carnivora, external in the ox and the horse); it is prolonged downwards by an aponeurosis (fascia lata) which occupies the external aspect of the thigh, proceeds to be inserted into the patella and blend with the aponeurosis of the biceps muscle. It covers the rectus and vastus externus portions of the triceps cruris; it is also in relation with the gluteal muscles. The tensor of the fascia lata flexes the thigh, and serves to raise the lower limb as a whole. =Sartorius= (Fig. 68, 35; Fig. 87, 4, 5; Fig. 88, 5).--This muscle, long and flattened, is called by veterinarians _the long adductor of the leg_. Before beginning the study of its position in quadrupeds, it is necessary to remember that in man, where the thigh has a form almost conical, the sartorius commences on the anterior face of this latter, and is directed downwards and inwards to reach the internal surface of the knee. But now let us suppose the thigh flattened from without inwards; there will evidently result from this a change in situation with regard to the muscle in question. In fact, when this supposition is admitted, it is easy to imagine that in a great part of the extent in which the sartorius is normally anterior it will become internal. This is why, these conditions being realized in quadrupeds, we shall find that, in some of them, the sartorius is situated on the aspect of the thigh which is turned to the side of the trunk. In the dog and the cat it arises from the anterior iliac spine, and from the half of the border of the bone situated immediately below it; but the fibres from this second origin being hidden by the tensor of the fascia lata, on the inner side of which they are situated, viewing the external surface of the thigh, the muscle seems to arise from the iliac spine only. The sartorius in these animals is divided into two parts, which, in general, are placed in contact. One of these fasciculi is anterior; the other is situated further back. The first is visible on the anterior border of the thigh, in front of the tensor of the fascia lata, but below it inclines inwards; in its superior part also, a small extent of the internal surface is occupied by it. The second, which, as we have said, is situated further back, belongs wholly to the inner surface of the thigh; it is this portion which arises from the inferior border of the ilium (this is the homologue of the anterior border of the human iliac bone). The two fasciculi then pass towards the knee, being in relation with the rectus and the vastus internus of the triceps. The anterior fasciculus is inserted into the patella. The posterior unites with the tendons of the gracilis (see below) and semi-tendinosus, and then proceeds to be inserted into the superior part of the internal surface of the tibia. On account of their different insertions these two parts receive the names of _the patellar sartorius_ and _tibial sartorius_ respectively. In the ox and the horse the sartorius is still more definitely situated on the internal surface of the thigh. Consisting of a single fasciculus, representing the tibial sartorius of the cat and the dog, it arises in the abdominal cavity from the fascia covering the iliac muscle, then passes under the crural arch, and terminates, by an aponeurosis which blends with that of the gracilis, on the inner fibres of the patellar ligament. In short, the sartorius is of interest to us in the carnivora only, and especially on account of its anterior or patellar fasciculus. It is an adductor of the leg and a flexor of the thigh. Muscles of the Internal Region The ilio-psoas pectineus and the adductors which we study in man, in connection with the internal aspect of the thigh, offer little of interest from the point of view of external form in quadrupeds; it is for this reason that we will disregard them. The gracilis alone merits description. =Gracilis= (Fig. 87, 9; Fig. 88, 6).--Designated in veterinary anatomy under the name of _the short adductor of the leg_, this muscle, expanded in width, occupies the greater part of the internal surface of the thigh, _or flat of the thigh_, as this region is also called. Let us imagine, in man, the internal surface of the thigh broader, and the internal rectus more expanded, and we shall have an idea of the same muscle as it exists in quadrupeds. The gracilis arises from the ischio-pubic symphysis and from the neighbouring regions; thence it is directed towards the leg to be inserted into the superior part of the internal surface of the tibia, after being united to the tendons of the sartorius and semi-tendinosus. We find, accordingly, at this level, an arrangement which recalls the general appearance of what in man receives the name of _the goose's foot_ (_pes anserinus_). It is between this muscle and the sartorius, at the superior part of the internal surface of the thigh, in the region which recalls the triangle of Scarpa, that we are able, especially in the cat and the dog, to see the adductor muscles of the thigh. We also partly see there, in these animals, the vastus internus and the rectus of the triceps (see Fig. 87). The gracilis is an adductor of the thigh. Muscles of the Leg We will divide the leg into three regions: anterior, external, and posterior. With regard to the internal region, there are no muscles which belong exclusively to it; for it is in great measure formed by the internal surface of the tibia, which, as in man, is subcutaneous. Muscles of the Anterior Region We first note that in the human species the tibialis anticus, extensor proprius pollicis, extensor longus digitorum and the peroneous tertius or anticus, form the subcutaneous layer of this region. We now proceed to study these muscles in quadrupeds. [Illustration: FIG. 83.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: THE ANTERIOR TIBIAL MUSCLE (FLEXOR OF THE METATARSUS), LEFT LEG, ANTERIOR VIEW. 1, Femoral trochlea; 2, tibia; 3, tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus; 4, cuboid branch of same; 5, 5, its metatarsal branch; 6, fleshy portion; 7, cuneiform branch of its tendon; 8, metatarsal branch of the same tendon; 9, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges turned outwards); 10, peroneus brevis (lateral extensor of the phalanges).] =Tibialis Anticus= (Fig. 83; Fig. 84, 6; Fig. 85, 4; Fig. 87, 10; Fig. 88, 10, 11).--It is further named by veterinarians the _flexor of the metatarsus_. In the dog and the cat this muscle, which is rather large, arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia and from the crest of this bone. In its superior part it is flat, but lower down it is thick and produces a prominence in front of the tibia. Finally, it becomes tendinous, and passes towards the tarsus; thence it is directed towards the inner side of the metatarsus, and is inserted into the great-toe, this latter being sometimes well developed, but also often merely represented by a small bony nodule on which the muscle is then fixed. In the other animals with which we here occupy ourselves, the tibialis anticus presents a complexity which would be incomprehensible unless this muscle be first studied in the horse. In this latter the tibialis anticus consists of two distinct portions, placed one in front of the other: a fleshy portion, and a tendinous portion running parallel to it. The muscle is covered, except on its internal part and inferiorly, by a muscle with which we will occupy ourselves later on--that is, the common extensor of the toes. The tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus (Fig. 83), especially covered by the extensor of the toes, arises from the inferior extremity of the femur, from the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle; thence it descends towards a groove which is hollowed out on the external tuberosity of the tibia, and is directed towards the tarsus, where it divides into two branches, which are inserted into the cuboid bone and the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal. These two parts form a ring through which the terminal tendon of the fleshy portion of the same muscle passes. This fleshy portion, situated behind the preceding, arises from the superior extremity of the tibia, on the borders of the groove in which the tendinous portion lies; thence it passes downwards for a short distance on the inner side of the common extensor of the toes, which covers it in the rest of its extent. It ends in a tendon which, after passing through the tendinous ring above noticed, divides into two branches. One of these branches is inserted into the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal, the other into the second cuneiform bone. [Illustration: FIG. 84.--MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT HIND-LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Biceps cruris and fascia lata, divided in order to expose the upper part of the muscles of the leg; 2, inferior portion of the triceps cruris; 3, patella; 4, semi-tendinosus; 5, inferior extremity of the femur; 6, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 7, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 8, tibia; 9, peroneus longus; 10, peroneus brevis; 11, fifth metatarsal; 12, fasciculus detached from the peroneus brevis and passing towards the fifth toe; 13, external head of gastrocnemius; 14, tendo-Achillis; 15, calcaneum; 16, flexor digitorum sublimis; 17, 17, tendon of the flexor digitorum sublimis; 18, flexor longus pollicis (portion of the deep flexor of the toes); 19, dorsal muscle of the foot (short extensor of the toes).] In the ox the same two portions of the tibialis anticus exist, but with this capital difference--that the anterior portion is fleshy, superficial, and blended for a great part of its length with the common extensor of the toes. The portion which corresponds to that which is fleshy in the horse arises from the tibia; below, it ends on the inner surface of the superior extremity of the metatarsus and the cuneiform bones. That which represents the tendinous part, which is also fleshy, as we have just pointed out, arises above with the common extensor of the toes, from the femur, in the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle; whilst below, after having given passage to the tendon of the preceding portion, as in the horse, it is inserted into the metatarsus and the cuneiform bones. In the pig, the tibialis anticus presents an arrangement nearly similar to that which we have just described. It seems to us of interest to add that it has been sought to ascertain to what muscle of the human leg the tendinous part of the tibialis of the horse corresponds--a part which has become fleshy in the pig and the ox. According to some authors, it represents the peroneus tertius; but that muscle is situated on the outer side of the common extensor of the toes; and here the portion with which it has been compared is placed on the inside. It has also been likened to a portion of the common extensor of the toes, but it does not pass to the latter. Lastly, it has been considered as being the homologue of the proper extensor of the great-toe; but why, then, in the ox, which has no great-toe, is it so highly developed? Nevertheless, its position and its relations sufficiently warrant this method of comprehending it. The tibialis anticus is a flexor of the foot. It is also able, in animals in which the tarsal articulations allow of the movement, to rotate the foot inwards. [Illustration: FIG. 85.--MYOLOGY OF THE OX: LEFT LEG, EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Gluteus maximus and biceps cruris; 2, semi-tendinosus; 3, patella; 4, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 5, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 6, fasciculus of the extensor longus digitorum, which is considered as the representative of the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus in the horse; 7, peroneus longus; 8, peroneus brevis (proper extensor of the external toe); 9, external head of gastrocnemius; 10, soleus; 11, tendo-Achillis; 12, calcaneum; 13, tendon of the extensor longus digitorum (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 14, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 15, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes; 16, tendon of the deep flexor of the toes; 17, suspensory ligament of the fetlock.] With regard to the tendinous part, called by veterinarians the _cord of the flexor of the metatarsus_, it serves, in the horse, to produce the flexion of the metatarsus when the knee is already flexed; it thus acts in a passive fashion, which is explained by its resistance and the position which it occupies in relation to these two articulations. =Extensor Proprius Pollicis.=--This muscle exists only in the dog and the cat, and there in a rudimentary condition. It is covered by the common extensor of the toes and the tibialis anticus, and passes, accompanied by the tendon of this latter muscle, to terminate on the second metatarsal, or the phalanx, which articulates with it. When the first toe exists in the dog, it is inserted into this by a very slender tendon. =Extensor Longus Digitorum= (Fig. 83, 9; Fig. 84, 7; Fig. 85, 5, 6; Fig. 86, 4; Fig. 87, 12; Fig. 88, 7).--It is also called by veterinarians _the anterior extensor of the phalanges_. In the dog and the cat this muscle is to be seen in the space limited behind by the peroneus longus and in front by the tibialis anticus. Above it is covered by this latter. In the lower half of the leg, it is also in relation, on the inner side, with the tibialis anticus; but behind it is separated from the peroneus longus by the external surface of the shaft and inferior extremity of the tibia. This arrangement, besides, recalls that which is found in man, the peroneus longus of the latter diverging in the same way, at this level, from the common extensor, and leaving exposed the corresponding portion of the skeleton of the leg. This muscle, fusiform in shape, arises at its upper part from the external surface of the inferior extremity of the femur, then its tendon passes into a groove hollowed on the external tuberosity of the tibia. The fleshy body which succeeds is directed towards the tarsus, but before reaching it is replaced by a tendon. This tendon, at the level of the metatarsal bones, divides into four slips, which pass towards the toes, and are inserted into the second and third phalanges of the latter. In the horse it covers, to a great extent, the tibialis anticus, so that it is the latter which forms the large fusiform prominence especially noticeable in the middle region, to which the contour of the anterior surface of the leg is due. [Illustration: FIG. 86.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: LEFT HIND-LIMB, EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, biceps cruris; 3, patella; 4, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 5, reinforcing band arising from the ligament of the fetlock; 6, peroneus brevis (lateral extensor of the phalanges); 7, external head of gastrocnemius; 8, soleus; 9, tendo-Achillis; 10, calcaneum; 11, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 12, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 13, 13, tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges; 14, 14, tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges; 15, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 16, principal metatarsal: 17, external rudimentary metatarsal.] It arises above from the inferior extremity of the femur, from the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle; therefore, it has a common origin with the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus, or flexor of the metatarsus. The tendon, which at the level of the inferior part of the leg succeeds to the fleshy body, passes in front of the tarsus, the principal metatarsal, and receives the tendon of the peroneus brevis which we will describe later on. It then reaches the anterior surface of the fetlock. There it presents an arrangement analogous to that which we have pointed out in connection with the anterior extensor of the phalanges--a muscle which, in the fore-limbs, corresponds to the common extensor of the digits; that is to say, it is inserted, in form of an expansion, into the pyramidal prominence of the third phalanx, after having formed attachments to the first and second, and having received on each side a strengthening band from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock. In the ox the long extensor of the toes is united above, and for a great part of its length, with the portion of the tibialis anticus, which represents, albeit in the fleshy state, the tendinous cord of the latter in the horse. In common with this portion, it arises from the inferior extremity of the femur. Thence it passes towards the tarsus and divides into two fasciculi, internal and external, which are continued by tendons. These pass towards the phalanges, and, in case of the common extensor of the digits belonging to the fore-limbs, the internal is destined for the internal toe, and the external is common to the two toes. [Illustration: FIG. 87.--MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: LEFT HIND-LIMB, INTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, semi-membranosus; 3, triceps cruris (vastus internus); 4, sartorius (patellar); 5, sartorius (tibial); 6, patella; 7, first or middle adductor; 8, small and great adductor united; 9, gracilis; 10, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 11, tibia; 12, tendon of extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges): 13, gastrocnemius, inner head; 14, tendo-Achillis; 15, calcaneum; 16, popliteus; 17, superficial flexor of the toes; 18, flexor longus pollicis (portion of the deep flexor of the toes); 19, flexor longus digitorum (portion of the deep flexor of the toes); 20, tendon of the tibialis posticus.] [Illustration: FIG. 88.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: LEFT HIND-LEG, INTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, semi-membranosus; 3, triceps cruris (vastus internus); 4, patella; 5, sartorius; 6, gracilis; 7, extensor longus digitorum common extensor of the toes (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 8, tendon of the preceding muscle; 9, reinforcing band given off by the suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 10, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus), its tendinous portion; 11, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus), its fleshy portion; 12, cuneiform branch of the tendon of this fleshy portion; 13, internal head of gastrocnemius; 14, popliteus; 15, tendon of the flexor brevis digitorum (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 16, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 17, flexor longus digitorum (oblique flexor of the phalanges); 18, 18, tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges; 19, 19, tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges; 20, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 21, principal metatarsal; 22, internal rudimentary metatarsal.] In the pig the general arrangement of the muscle is similar, but the tendons end in a manner which is a little more complicated. Apart from the fasciculi which correspond to the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus (fleshy here, as in the ox), the long extensor of the toes at the level of the tarsus divides into three tendons: the internal goes to the great internal toe; the middle bifurcates in the upper part of the digital portion of the foot, and each of its branches goes towards one of the great-toes; the external divides to pass towards each of the two small toes, and towards the great ones; but this latter disposition is not constant. By its contraction the muscle which we have just studied extends the phalanges and flexes the foot. =Peroneus Tertius.=--This muscle is not found in domestic quadrupeds. We should remember, nevertheless, that certain authors consider as representing it the tendinous portion of the anterior tibial of the horse, or the corresponding portion now fleshy, of the same muscle in the pig and the ox. It is by reason of this fact that it is called the third peroneal, notwithstanding that in the numerical order of the peroneals it is rather the first. But that which still further complicates this question of nomenclature is that some authors give this name of third to a peroneal which, in the carnivora, is situated more definitely in the group of external muscles (see below, =Short Lateral Peroneal=). Muscles of the External Region In man, two muscles constitute this region; they are the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis. =Peroneus Longus= (Fig. 84, 9; Fig. 85, 7).--This muscle does not exist in the domestic animals; only in the flesh-eaters, the pig and the ox excepted. It is in relation superiorly with the tibialis anticus, and inferiorly with the common extensor of the toes; in the ox, it is in contact with this latter muscle throughout its whole length. The peroneus longus arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia; towards the middle of the leg it is replaced by a tendon. This proceeds towards the tarsus, but previously it passes between the tibia and fibula. In the ox it is situated in front of the coronoid tarsal bone; we recollect that this bone is regarded as representing the inferior extremity of the fibula (see p. 97). Then it passes into a groove belonging to the cuboid bone or to the cuboido-scaphoid bone in the ox, traverses obliquely the posterior aspect of the tarsus, and is inserted into the rudimentary bone which represents the first toe; or, if this does not exist, into the innermost of the metatarsal bones. This muscle is an extensor of the foot. It also rotates it outwards in the animals in which the articulation permits this latter movement. =Peroneus Brevis= (Fig. 83, 8; Fig. 83, 10; Fig. 84, 10; Fig. 86, 6).--In the dog and the cat, this muscle is covered in part by the peroneus longus, and arises from the inferior half of the tibia and the fibula; at the level of the tarsus it becomes tendinous, passes into a groove hollowed out on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the fibula, and terminates on the external aspect of the superior extremity of the fifth metatarsal. A little before this insertion it crosses the tendon of the long peroneal in passing to the outer side of the latter. To the short peroneal muscle is found annexed a very thin fasciculus which lies upon it. This fasciculus arises from beneath the head of the fibula, and is soon replaced by a thin tendon, which, accompanying that of the short peroneal, proceeds towards the foot, after having traversed the groove in the inferior extremity of the fibula; passes along by the fifth metatarsal (Fig. 84, 12); blends at the level of the first phalanx of the fifth toe with the corresponding tendon of the long extensor of the toes, and partakes of the insertions of this tendon. This fasciculus is designated by some authors under the name of the peroneal of the fifth toe, or the proper extensor of the same toe. But what makes still further complications is that other authors regard it as an anterior, or third, peroneal. Now, these names are those which other anatomists have applied to the fasciculus of the anterior tibial, which, in the pig and the ox, is fused in part with the long extensor of the toes. Hence there results a confusion which is truly regrettable. In brief, we can, without inconvenience, consider it as a fasciculus of the short peroneal muscle. We sometimes find in man, but abnormally, an arrangement which partly recalls that which we have just indicated. It consists in a duplication of the tendon of the short peroneal, one of the branches of which goes to the fifth metatarsal, and the other to the fifth toe; it is sometimes a single fasciculus which goes to the phalanges of this latter. We have met with examples of these anomalies.[31] In the pig, the short peroneal is situated on the same plane as the long. It consists of two clearly distinct fasciculi, which arise from the fibula. The tendon of the anterior fasciculus proceeds to the great external toe--that is to say, the fourth, of which it is the proper extensor. The posterior fasciculus terminates on the small external toe, the fifth, of which it is in like manner the extensor. [31] Édouard Cuyer, 'Anomalies, Osseous and Muscular' (_Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie_, Paris, 1891). In the ox, the fleshy fibres of the short peroneal arise from a fibrous band which replaces the fibula, and from the external tuberosity of the tibia. Situated behind the long peroneal and on the same plane, it terminates in a tendon which appears at the level of the inferior part of the leg; it passes in front of the canon, and is inserted into the external toe, of which it is the proper extensor. In the horse, it is the sole representative of the peroneal muscles, and veterinary anatomists have given it the name of _the lateral extensor of the phalanges_. Its fleshy body arises above from the external lateral ligament of the knee-joint, and from the whole length of the fibula. In the middle third of the leg it is narrowed; lower down it is replaced by a tendon. This is lodged in a groove hollowed on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the tibia; then after passing along the external surface of the tarsus, it is directed forward, and proceeds to blend towards the middle of the canon-bone with the tendon of the long extensor of the toes, or anterior extensor of the phalanges, of which it shares the insertions. It extends the phalanges into which it is inserted. It also flexes the foot. Muscles of the Posterior Region It will not be unprofitable to recall to mind that, in man, the muscles of this region are arranged in two layers: a superficial layer consisting of the gastrocnemius and soleus, to which is added a muscle of little importance, the plantaris, and a deep layer formed by four muscles--the popliteus, flexor longus digitorum, tibialis posticus, and flexor longus pollicis. The gastrocnemius and soleus, independent in their upper portion, unite below in a common tendon; they thus form also a triceps muscle, which we designate under the name of the triceps of the leg, or triceps suralis, because it forms the elevation of the calf of the leg (from _sura_, calf). =Gastrocnemius= (Fig. 83, 9, 11; Fig. 84, 13, 14; Fig. 86, 7, 9; Fig. 88, 13).--The external and internal heads of the gastrocnemius, distinct from one another only in their upper portion, arise from the shaft of the femur, above the condyles, on the borders of the popliteal surface, to a relatively considerable extent in the great quadrupeds. At this level they are situated in the popliteal region--that is to say, in the space limited externally by the biceps, and internally by the semi-tendinosus. But as they descend to a rather low level on the leg in quadrupeds, and especially in carnivora, they do not, properly speaking, determine a projection of the calf of the leg. However, they pass from this region but to be soon continued by a tendon--the tendo-Achillis, which is inserted into the calcaneum. Now, the region of the tarsus is called by veterinarians _the ham_, the posterior surface of which is angular, because of the oblique direction of the leg with regard to the vertical direction of the metatarsus and the presence of the calcaneum; the prominence which this surface presents has received the name of _the point of the ham_, and the tendon which ends there that of _the cord of the ham_. But the tendo-Achillis does not alone form this cord. Indeed, as we will soon see, the tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes takes part in its formation. We may add, with regard to the tendo-Achillis, that it is more clearly perceived as an external feature, because the skin sinks in front of it, as it does in man, over the lateral parts of the region which it occupies. The gastrocnemius, when it contracts, extends the foot on the leg. It serves to maintain the tibio-tarsal angle in the standing position, and during walking, to determine the steadying of the hind-limbs, which then, after the fashion of a spring, project the body forward. By an analogous movement they take part in the posterior projection of the hind-limbs in the act of kicking; but they are not the only ones to act in this case, the muscles of the buttock and thigh also being brought into play. =Soleus= (Fig. 83, 10; Fig. 86, 8).--This muscle, much less developed in quadrupeds than in man, does not exist in the dog. With regard to the soleus in the pig, Professor Lesbre says: 'Meckel denied its existence; we, however, believe that it is united to the external head of the gastrocnemius, its origin being transferred to the femur.'[32] [32] F. X. Lesbre, 'Essai de Myologie comparée de l'homme et des mammifères domestiques en vue d'établir une nomenclature unique et rationelle,' Lyon, 1897, p. 169. But in animals in which it exists, this muscle, of but little importance, occupies the outer side of the leg. It arises above from the external tuberosity of the tibia, and terminates below in a tendon which is united with that of the gastrocnemius. The soleus has the same action as these latter. =Plantaris.=--In quadrupeds this muscle is blended with the superficial flexor of the toes, which we will study afterwards. =Popliteus= (Fig. 87, 16; Fig. 88, 14).--In man, this muscle, which occupies the posterior surface of the tibia, above the oblique line, is completely covered by the gastrocnemius. In quadrupeds, where it is more voluminous, it projects internally beyond the gastrocnemius, so that it is seen in the internal and superior part of the region of the superficial layer of muscles, immediately behind the internal surface of the tibia, which, as we know, is subcutaneous. The popliteus arises from the external surface of the external condyle of the femur. Thence its fibres which diverge pass to be inserted into the superior part of the posterior surface and of the internal border of the tibia. It is in this latter region that it projects beyond the gastrocnemius, but we may add that there it is more or less covered by the semi-tendinosus. It flexes the leg, and rotates it forwards. =Superficial Flexor of the Toes= (Fig. 83, 13, 15; Fig. 84, 17; Fig. 86, 11, 13, 13; Fig. 87, 17; Fig. 88, 15, 18, 18).--In man, the homologue of this muscle is found in the sole of the foot. It is called _the short flexor of the toes_. It arises from the calcaneum, and passes to the four outer toes. In quadrupeds, it rises as high as the back of the knee, and is found blended with the plantaris. Further designated by the name of _the superficial flexor of the phalanges_, covered in part by the gastrocnemius, with which it is in relation for a great part of the course which it traverses, this muscle arises from the posterior surface of the femur, on the external branch of the inferior bifurcation of the linea aspera. In the horse, this origin takes place in a depression situated above the external condyle, in the supracondyloid fossa. Then it accompanies the gastrocnemius, and becomes tendinous where the tendo-Achillis commences. It then winds round the latter in placing itself on its inner side, then on its posterior surface, and reaches the calcaneum. It accordingly contributes, as we have already pointed out, to form the cord of the ham. After having become expanded, and having covered as with a sort of fibrous cap the bone of the heel, it descends behind the metatarsus, and presents there an arrangement analogous to that which we pointed out in connection with the superficial flexor of the digits--that is, it contributes to form the _tendon_. This prominence, in the form of a cord, we see behind the canon-bone in solipeds and ruminants. It finally terminates in the same way as the muscle with which we have compared it (see p. 197). In the horse, its fleshy body is but slightly developed, so that its tendon alone is specially visible in the superficial muscular layer, but in the dog and the cat it is large. Hence it results that its fleshy body appears on each side of the inferior half of the gastrocnemius, and produces an elevation which recalls that which the soleus produces on each side of the same muscles in the human species. The muscles which follow form, with the popliteus, which we have already studied, the deep layer of the posterior region of the leg. =Flexor Longus Digitorum= (Fig. 87, 19; Fig. 88, 17).--This muscle, in man, is the only common flexor of the toes belonging to the muscles of the leg. In comparison with the preceding muscle, it is a deep flexor. Veterinarians have given it the name of _the oblique flexor of the phalanges_. Visible on the internal aspect of the superficial layer of the muscles of the leg, this muscle arises above from the posterior surface of the external tuberosity of the tibia, becomes tendinous, passes towards the metatarsus, and blends with the tendons of the posterior tibial and the long proper flexor of the great-toe. In the dog and the cat it is blended with this latter only. =Tibialis Posticus= (Fig. 85, 14; Fig. 86, 12; Fig. 87, 20; Fig. 88, 16).--This muscle arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia, and from the head of the fibula. Thence it passes to the tarsus, and terminates in different fashion in carnivora and other quadrupeds. In the dog and the cat, it is inserted into the ligamentous apparatus of the tarsus, or into the base of the second metatarsal. In the other quadrupeds with which we are here occupied it is blended with the long proper flexor of the great-toe. It is accordingly in the carnivora that the mode of termination of the tibialis posticus most nearly resembles that of this same muscle in the human species. From this independence there results a special action. It is an adductor and internal rotator of the foot. =Flexor Longus Pollicis= (Fig. 84, 18; Fig. 85, 14; Fig. 86, 12; Fig. 87, 18; Fig. 88, 16).--This muscle, as that in man, is the most external of the deep layer of the leg. It is on the external aspect of the latter we perceive it, between the peroneals and the gastrocnemius or tendo-Achillis. It arises from the fibula and tibia, and is thence directed towards the tarsus. It unites with the long common flexor of the toes to form with it _the deep flexor of the phalanges_, of which it is the principal fasciculus. We may add that in the dog and the cat the posterior tibial remains independent of this latter, but that in the pig, ox, and horse the posterior tibial is united to the preceding to form with them the deep flexor muscle. Thus constituted, the deep flexor goes towards the phalanges, where it terminates as the deep flexor of the digits of the fore-limbs (see p. 197). In animals possessed of a canon it contributes to form the _tendon_ (Fig. 85, 16; Fig. 86, 14, 14; Fig. 88, 19, 19). Muscles of the Foot We must remember that on the dorsal surface of the foot in man we find but a single muscle--the dorsalis pedis. The remaining subcutaneous structures of this region consist of the tendons of the anterior muscles of the leg which occupy this dorsal aspect. =Dorsalis Pedis= (Fig. 84, 19).--Also called the extensor brevis digitorum, the dorsalis pedis muscle is found in all domestic quadrupeds; but its development is so much the less as the number of digits is more reduced. In the dog and the cat it arises from the calcaneum, and is inserted into the three internal toes (the first toe excepted) by uniting with the corresponding tendons of the common extensor. In the pig its disposition is analogous. As for the dorsalis pedis of the ox and the horse, it is extremely rudimentary, and occupies the superior part of the canon. It is a small, fleshy body, situated on the anterior surface of the metatarsus, which arises from the calcaneum, whence it passes to unite at its inferior extremity with the tendon of the extensor of the phalanges. As regards the muscles of the sole of the foot, we think it unnecessary to occupy ourselves at any length with them because of their slight importance with regard to external form. We will only recall that in the median portion of this plantar surface we find in man the short flexor of the toes, which in quadrupeds arises higher up, from the posterior surface of the femur; that it belongs to the muscles of the leg; and that it forms the superficial flexor of the toes, which we have already studied. We may further add that the suspensory ligament of the fetlock in ruminants and solipeds represents, as in the fore-limbs, the interosseous muscles. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD We will divide these muscles into two categories: masticatory and cutaneous. Masticatory Muscles The muscles of this group which specially interest us are the masseter and the temporal. As regards the pterygoids, since they are situated within the borders of the inferior maxillary bone, and consequently do not reach the surface, we shall not require to occupy ourselves with them here. =Masseter= (Fig. 89, 2; Fig. 90, 1; Figs. 91, 92).--For those who have studied the masseter of man, it is not difficult to recognise that of quadrupeds. Nevertheless, the particular aspect which it presents in different species gives to its study a certain interest. Arising from the zygomatic arch, and passing downwards and backwards, it is inserted into the external surface of the ramus of the mandible and into its angle. Its posterior border is in relation with the parotid gland (Fig. 90, 14; Figs. 91, 92), this gland being situated between the corresponding border of the lower jaw bone and the transverse process of the atlas. Such are the general characters; the following are the particular ones: In the carnivora it is thick and convex. In the horse it is flat, but more expanded; it forms the _flat of the cheek_. In the ox it is flat, as in the latter; but, while being less thick, it is more prolonged in the vertical direction. The form of the osseous parts which give it origin is, besides, in relation with these differences, and explains the peculiar characters which the masseter presents. [Illustration: FIG. 89.--MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: MASTICATORY MUSCLES (A DEEPER DISSECTION THAN THAT SHOWN IN FIG. 90). 1, Zygomatic arch; 2, masseter; 3, temporal exposed by the suppression of the auricular and occipital muscles and the pinna of the ear; 4, auditory canal; 5, inferior maxillary bone; 6, digastric.] Indeed, in the dog and the cat the zygomatic arch, strongly convex, springs up in a marked manner from the plane of the lateral aspects of the skull. In the horse the same arch, less prominent externally, is prolonged by a rectilinear crest on the superior maxillary bone, where it is continued in forming the zygomatic or maxillary spine. In the ox the same crest ascends a good way towards the inferior margin of the orbit in a curved direction with the concavity inferior, to redescend afterwards on the external surface of the superior maxilla. The masseter is an elevator of the lower jaw. It acts, above all, as in the human species, in the process of mastication. =Temporal Muscle= (Fig. 89, 3).--The development of the temporal is in proportion to the energy of the movements of elevation which the lower jaw has to execute. It arises from the temporal fossa, and is inserted into the coronoid process of the inferior maxilla. Its development, enormous in the carnivora, is such that the muscle projects beyond its fossa. It is less voluminous in the horse, and still less so in the ox. In the latter, indeed, the temporal fossa, although deep, is of small extent (see Fig. 62, p. 119); the frontal bone being large, it is found to be thrown back on the lateral walls of the cranium, below the osseous processes which support the horns and overhang the fossa in question, as well as the muscle which it contains. It is covered by the auricular muscles, and by the base of the pinna of the ear. Like the masseter, the temporal is an elevator of the lower jaw. Cutaneous Muscles of the Head =Occipito-Frontalis.=--The epicranial aponeurosis is extremely thin. In the dog the occipital muscle occupies the superior part of the head; it overlies the temporal muscle. With regard to the frontal muscle, which is of great extent in the ox (Fig. 91, F), it is represented in the horse and the carnivora by a small fleshy fasciculus only, the _fronto-palpebral muscle_, similar to the superciliary muscle. This, occupying the superior and internal part of the border of the orbit, ends by blending its fibres with those of the orbicular muscle of the eyelids at the region of the eyebrow. =Orbicularis Palpebrarum= (Fig. 90, 2; Figs. 91, 92).--This annular muscle surrounds the palpebral orifice, and takes its origin on the internal part of the orbital region. In the horse it arises, by a small tendon, from a tubercle which occupies the external surface of the os unguis, or lachrymal bone. This muscle determines the narrowing and closure of the palpebral orifice. =Pyramidalis Nasi.=--The pyramidal muscle is not found in the domestic animals. It appears to be blended with the internal elevator of the upper lip and wing of the nose; this is easy of comprehension if we bear in mind the relative position of these two muscles in the human species. [Illustration: FIG. 90.--MYOLOGY OF THE DOG: MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; 3, zygomaticus major; 4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the small zygomatic); 5, levator labii superioris proprius; 6, levator labii superioris alæque nasi; 7, caninus; 9, buccinator; 11, zygomatico-auricularis; 12, external temporo-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis; 16, inferior maxillary bone; 17, digastric.] =Corrugator Supercilii.=--This muscle is represented by the fronto-palpebral muscle noticed above, which is by some regarded as a vestige of the frontal. =Zygomaticus Major= (Fig. 90, 3; Figs. 91, 92).--This is the _zygomatic-labial_ of veterinarians. This muscle is of an elongated form, and has a ribbon-like aspect. In the dog and the cat it arises from the base of the pinna of the ear, from the portion of this base which bears the name of scutiform cartilage. (With regard to this cartilage, see p. 242, =Zygomatico-auricularis=.) From this it is directed downwards and forwards, to terminate, after having crossed the masseter, on the deep surface of the skin of the corresponding labial commissure. This mode of termination is the same in the ox and the horse; but where the muscle differs is at the level of its upper extremity. There it ascends less than in the carnivora. In the ox it arises from the zygomatic arch in the neighbourhood of the temporo-maxillary articulation; in the pig and the horse its origin is still lower, on the surface of the masseter, close to the maxillary spine. When it contracts, it draws upwards the labial commissure. Now, in man, we remember, it is the great zygomatic that, by an action of the same kind, determines the essential characters of the expression of laughing. There is, accordingly, a connection to be established between those displacements which are similar and the analogy of facial expression which necessarily results from them.[33] [33] Édouard Cuyer, 'The Mimic,' Paris, 1802. =Zygomaticus Minor= (Fig. 90, 4; Figs. 91, 92).--The existence of this muscle has not been clearly demonstrated. Nevertheless, Straus-Durckheim noted its presence in the horse, and described it as 'a muscle arising by two heads, of which one, the superior, arises from the malar bone below the orbit, and passes downwards and forwards over the fibro-adipose layer which supports the moustache. The second, the inferior, arises from the alveolar border in front of the second molar tooth, and passes forward to be inserted into the same fibro-adipose layer.'[34] [34] H. Straus-Durckheim, 'Anatomie descriptive et comparative du chat,' Paris, 1845, t. ii., p. 210. In connection with other quadrupeds, it is described by certain authors as a very thin muscle, arising below the cavity of the orbit, where it is blended with the fibres of the internal elevator of the upper lip and the ala of the nose; thence it proceeds to terminate below by uniting with the subcutaneous muscle. But this muscle is regarded by other authors as the lachrymal muscle, which does not exist in this state in man, but of which the development is particularly remarkable, as to extent, in the ox, in which it descends as far as the buccinator. According to other authors, some of the fibres of this muscle constitute the small zygomatic. [Illustration: FIG. 91.--MYOLOGY OF THE OX: MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; F, frontalis; 3, zygomaticus major; 4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the name of small zygomatic); 5, levator labii superioris proprius; 6, levator labii superioris alæque nasi; 7, levator anguli oris or caninus; 8, orbicularis oris; 9, buccinator; 10, maxillo-labial; 11, zygomatico-auricularis; 12, external temporo-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis; 16, inferior maxillary bone.] =Levator Labii Superioris Proprius= (Fig. 90, 5; Figs. 91, 92).--Also named by veterinarians the _supramaxillo-labial_, or again, the _proper elevator of the upper lip_, this muscle arises from the external surface of the superior maxillary bone, passes under the superficial elevator, which we shall study in the succeeding paragraph, and goes to be inserted into the thickness of the lip, to which its name indicates that it belongs. The peculiarities of this muscle in different animals are the following: In the dog and the cat it arises behind the infra-orbital foramen. In the pig it arises from a depression below the orbital cavity, and its fleshy body is terminated in front by a strong tendon in the upper part of the snout, in which it divides into fasciculi. In the ox it arises from the maxillary spine. In the horse it arises below the orbital cavity; then, after having crossed the superficial elevator, it ends in a tendinous expansion, situated in the median line between the nasal fossæ. This expansion divides into fasciculi, which end in the thickness of the upper lip. By the contraction of this muscle, the lip is raised, on one side only, if a single muscle contracts, or in its whole extent, if the two muscles act simultaneously. =Internal Elevator (or Superficial) of the Upper Lip and the Wing of the Nose= (_levator labii superioris alæque nasi_) (Fig. 90, 6; Figs. 91, 92).--This is the muscle veterinarians designate _the supranaso-labial_. Arising from the frontal and nasal bones, it thence passes towards the upper lip, where it is inserted as well as into the wing of the nose. In the ox it is united above with the frontal muscle, and below is divided into two fasciculi, between which pass the elevator described above and the canine muscle. In the horse it is also divided into two fasciculi; but the arrangement is the opposite as regards, their relations with neighbouring muscles, in this animal and in the preceding. In the ox the external fasciculus is covered by the external elevator and the canine, which pass under the internal fasciculus; in the horse the deep elevator passes under the two fasciculi, and the canine passes under the external bundle, and afterwards covers the internal. In the pig, the internal elevator is wanting. As its name indicates, it raises the upper lip and the wing of the nose. =Transversus Nasi.=--In the horse this muscle, which is very thin, is situated on the dorsum of the nose, and proceeds to be inserted into the cartilaginous skeleton of the nostrils. In the pig, it occupies an analogous situation. It does not exist in the ox or in carnivora. The transversus nasi is a dilator of the nostrils. [Illustration: FIG. 92.--MYOLOGY OF THE HORSE: MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. 1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; 3, zygomaticus major; 4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the small zygomatic); 5, external elevator (or deep) of the upper lip and ala of the nose; 6, internal elevator (or superficial) of the upper lip and of the ala of the nose; 7, levator anguli oris or caninus; 8, orbicularis oris; 9, buccinator; 10, maxillo-labialis; 11, zygomatico-auricularis; 12, temporo-auricularis externus; 13, cervico-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis; 16, inferior maxillary bone.] =Caninus= (Fig. 90; Figs. 7, 91, 92).--This is the muscle called by veterinarians _the great supramaxillo-nasal_. In the dog and the cat it is situated below the inferior border of the external elevator of the upper lip, of which it follows the direction. It arises, as does this latter, from the external surface of the maxilla, and goes also to terminate in the upper lip by blending with the internal elevator of this lip and of the alæ of the nose. It raises the upper lip. In the ox, it arises from the maxillary spine, and then divides into three parts; the superior passes under the internal portion of the internal elevator of the upper lip and the alæ of the nose, and goes into the nostril; whilst the two others, situated lower down, terminate in the upper lip. In the pig, it is formed of two superimposed fasciculi, which arise from the spine of the maxilla and the impressions in front of it. These two fasciculi terminate in the snout, which they move laterally. In the horse, it is situated at a certain distance from the external elevator; in the preceding animals it is in contact with the latter. Arising behind from the external surface of the maxilla, in front of the maxillary spine, it is directed towards the anterior part of the face, passes under the external portion of the internal elevator (it is the opposite of this in the ox), and proceeds, on expanding, to terminate in the skin of the nostril. By its contraction it dilates the latter. =Orbicularis Oris= (Fig. 91, 8; Fig. 92).--This muscle, very fleshy in the solipeds and the ruminants, is arranged as a ring round the buccal orifice, in the thickness of the lips, where it is blended with the other muscles of this region. Having for its function the narrowing of the orifice it surrounds, it acts during suction and in the prehension of food. =Triangularis Oris.=--This muscle does not exist in domestic quadrupeds. =Quadratus Menti.=--In the pig and the carnivora, it arises from the anterior part of the body of the inferior maxillary bone, and passes at the other end to terminate in the corresponding portion of the lower lip, which it depresses by its contraction. In the ox and the horse this muscle does not exist; it is replaced for the depression of the lower lip, which it affects in other animals, by supplemental fibres of the buccinator. =The Prominence of the Chin.=--Below the lower lip in the horse is situated the so-called _prominence of the chin_, limited posteriorly by the _beard_, a depressed region which gives point to the curb of the bridle. The prominence, which also exists in the ox, is a fibro-muscular pad which blends with the orbicular muscle of the lips, and receives on its superior aspect the insertion of the two muscles (_levator menti_) by which it is suspended. These arise, above, on each side of the symphysis of the inferior maxillary bone. They raise the lower lip with force, and they are the agents which, as we can sometimes observe in the horse, make it click against the upper lip, suddenly projecting it upwards. This action sometimes becomes a habit, and its continuance constitutes a vice. A corresponding structure is found in the pig and in the carnivora, but in them it does not produce an external prominence such as we have described. =Buccinator= (Fig. 90, 9; Figs. 91, 92).--Further designated by the name of _alveolo-labial_, this muscle is situated on the lateral portions of the face, in the thickness of the cheeks. It consists of two layers, one superficial and the other deep. The deep portion arises from the portion of the alveolar border of the superior maxillary bone which corresponds to the molar teeth, and from the anterior border of the ramus of the mandible. Thence it is directed forwards, passes under the superficial layer, and blends with the fibres of the orbicular muscle of the lips. To this part of the buccinator some authors give the name of molar muscle. The superficial portion is formed by fibres which pass from the alveolar border of the superior maxillary bone to the corresponding border of the opposite bone. It is very highly developed in the herbivora. This muscle acts especially during mastication; it serves to press back again under the molar teeth the portions of food which fall outside the dental arch. In the pig, the ox, and the horse, a muscle which is considered as supplemental to the buccinator is placed along the inferior border of the latter. This muscle, which we describe separately under the names of _maxillo-labialis_ (Fig. 91, 10; Fig. 92) and _depressor of the lower lip_, is clearly distinct from the buccinator, especially in the horse. It arises, behind, with the deep layer of the muscle to which it is annexed, from the anterior border of the ramus of the lower jaw; in front it terminates in the thickness of the lower lip. In the ox, it is more intimately united with the buccinator. It depresses the lip to which it is attached, and displaces it laterally when it acts on one side only. In the human species, the pinna of the ear being generally immobile, the muscles which belong to it are, very naturally, considerably atrophied. Accordingly, the auricular muscles, anterior, superior, and posterior, are reduced to pale and thin fleshy lamellæ, whose action is revealed in certain individuals, only in a way which may be said to be abnormal. It is not the same in quadrupeds. The pinna of the ear is extremely mobile, and its displacements have a real value from the point of view of physiognomical expression. It is therefore necessary to review the muscles which move this pinna without giving them, at the same time, more importance than they merit, since in themselves they do not determine the formation of surface reliefs, which are sufficiently apparent. Notwithstanding that for certain of these muscles it is possible to trace their analogy with those of the auricular region of man, it is very difficult, because of their complexity, to trace this analogy for all. This is why we shall not be able here, as we have done for the other muscles of the subcutaneous layer, to give at the head of each paragraph the name of a human muscle, and then to group in the same paragraph the muscles which correspond to it in different quadrupeds. Therefore the nomenclature and the divisions adopted for these latter must serve us as a base or starting-point. Because the pinna of the horse's ear is so very mobile, we will first begin with a study of its auricular muscles. =Zygomatico-auricularis= (Fig. 92, 11).--This muscle, which is formed of two small bands of fleshy fibres, arises from the zygomatic arch in blending with the orbicular muscle of the eyelids; thence it is directed towards the base of the pinna of the ear, and is inserted into this base, and also into the cartilaginous plate situated in front of and internal to this, and resting on the surface of the temporal muscle; this is the scutiform cartilage. The zygomatico-auricularis, which we look on as the homologue of the anterior auricular of man, draws the pinna of the ear forwards. =Temporo-auricularis Externus= (Fig. 92, 12).--This, which is thin and very broad, covers the temporal muscle. It arises from the whole extent of the parietal crest, blending in this plane, in its posterior half, with the muscle of the opposite side. Thence it is directed outwards towards the pinna of the ear, and is inserted into the internal border of the scutiform cartilage and on the inner side of the concha--that is to say, of the conchinian cartilage--which forms the principal part of the pinna. We are supposing, in the description of the muscles which move it, that this pinna has its opening directed outwards. The external temporo-auricular, which recalls, from its situation, the superior auricular of man, is an adductor of the ear; besides, it causes it to describe a movement of rotation from without inwards, so as to direct its opening forwards. =Scuto-auricularis Externus.=--This muscle may be considered as supplementary to the external temporo-auricular; the concha fasciculus of this latter partly covers it. Extending from the scutiform cartilage to the inner side of the concha, it contributes to the movement of rotation by which the opening of the pinna of the ear is directed forwards. =Cervico-auricular Muscles= (Fig. 92, 13).--These muscles, three in number, are situated behind the pinna of the ear; they are called, from their mode of superposition, the superficial, middle, and deep. These arise, all three, from the superior cervical ligament, and pass from there towards the cartilage of the concha. They recall, as regards situation, the posterior auricular muscle of man. =Superficial Cervico-auricular= (_Cervico-auricularis superioris_).--This muscle, inserted into the posterior surface of the concha, draws this cartilage backwards and downwards. =Middle Cervico-auricular= (_Cervico-auricularis medius_).--Situated between the two other muscles of the same group, it proceeds, after having covered the superior extremity of the parotid gland, to be inserted into the external part of the base of the concha. It determines the rotation of this concha in such a way as to direct the opening of the ear backwards. =Deep Cervico-auricular= (_Cervico-auricularis inferioris_).--Covered by the preceding muscle and the superior portion of the parotid, it is inserted into the base of the pinna of the ear, and has the same action as the middle cervico-auricular. =Parotido-auricularis= (Fig. 92, 15).--This is a long and thin fleshy band which arises from the external surface of the parotid gland, and tapering as it passes upwards towards the pinna of the ear, is inserted into the external surface of the base of the concha, below the inferior part of the angle of reunion of the two borders which limit its opening. It inclines the pinna outwards; it is, accordingly, an abductor of the pinna. =Temporo-auricularis Internus.=--This muscle is covered by the external temporo-auricular and the superior cervico-auricular. It arises from the parietal crest, and is inserted into the internal surface of the concha. It is an adductor of the pinna of the ear. There are, finally, an internal scuto-auricular muscle and a tympano-auricular; but they do not present any interest for us; we can simply confine ourselves to making mention of them. In the ox, because of the situation of the temporal fossa and the fact that the external temporo-auricular muscle is applied, as in the horse, over the muscle which this fossa contains, this temporo-auricular muscle does not reach the middle line (Fig. 91, 12). But in the cat and the dog this muscle covers all the upper part of the head (Fig. 90, 12). It is divided into two parts: the interscutellar and the fronto-scutellar. The interscutellar is a single muscle, thin and broad, covering the temporal muscle and a portion of the occipital, extending from the scutiform cartilage of the pinna of one side to the same cartilage of the pinna belonging to the side opposite. It approximates the two pinnæ to one another by bringing them each into the position of adduction. The fronto-scutellar arises from the orbital process of the frontal bone, and from the orbital ligament, which at this level completes the interrupted osseous boundary of the orbital cavity. Thence it is directed, widening as it proceeds, towards the scutiform cartilage, and is there inserted by blending with the corresponding part of the great zygomatic. Its action is analogous to that of the preceding muscle; but, further, it directs the opening of the pinna forwards. These are the muscles which act, for example, when the dog, having his attention strongly attracted by any cause, pricks up his ears and turns the openings forward, in order the better to understand every sound which proceeds, or may possibly proceed, from that which he observes. From this, which may be extremely well seen in some individuals, results the appearance of vertical wrinkles of the skin in the interval between the pinnæ of the ears, these being caused by the folding of the integument, whilst the pinnæ approach one another. These movements, with which are associated fixation of look and a widening of the palpebral fissure, produce a peculiarly expressive look; this is why they merit our attention. =Zygomatico-auricularis= (Fig. 90, 11).--Arises from the internal surface of the great zygomatic, passes towards the pinna of the ear, and goes to be inserted into the external part of the base of the pinna, below its opening, to a prominence which corresponds to the antitragus of the human ear. It is to this antitragus, but proceeding from another direction, that the parotido-auricular muscle is inserted (Fig. 90, 15). With regard to the cervico-auriculars, they are all three present. The superior, or superficial, situated behind the interscutellar portion of the external temporo-auricular, has its origin on the median line of the neck; thence it passes towards the pinna of the ear, blending its fibres with those of the interscutellar muscle, and is inserted into the scutiform cartilage and the internal surface of the pinna. Such are the principal muscles of the ear in the carnivora; it would seem to us superfluous to dwell on the others of this region, so that we will here conclude the study of the muscles in general, and that of the myology of the head in particular. CHAPTER III EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE TERMINAL EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS We will first recall to mind that among the quadrupeds some are found of which the fingers and toes have their third phalanges terminated by claws--these are the unguiculates; and that in others the terminal extremity of each limb is completely encased in a horny envelope, the hoof--these are the ungulates. In the first group, the claws remind us to a certain extent of the arrangement of the nails in man; the inferior aspect of the paws is covered by an epidermic layer, thick and protective, which may be likened to the skin, correspondingly thick, which covers in the greater part of its extent the plantar surface of the foot in the human species. In the second group, the surface by which the third phalanx rests on the ground is correspondingly protected, but this time by a layer of horn which belongs to the hoof. After the preceding remarks, our study will be found to fall into a natural division, and it is in the order which we have just followed for the purpose of indicating its existence that we now proceed to study the nature and form of the different elements which complete or protect the digital extremities of the thoracic and abdominal limbs. =Claws.=--These horny coverings of the third phalanges, which we have to consider only in the dog and cat, may be compared with the nails of man, with which, however, they present, as is well understood, characteristic differences. The claws are compressed laterally, curved on themselves, and are terminated in front by a sharp point in the felide, but more blunted in the dog. Their superior border is convex and thick. We may say, therefore, that a claw is a sort of hollow tube, in the form of a cone flattened in the transverse direction, in which the third phalanx is set, and which is itself set in a groove formed by a kind of osseous hood which occupies the base of this third phalanx (see Fig. 37, p. 57). This definition is exact, as regards the general appearance; but, when more closely scrutinized, it is not sufficient. The tube in question is not formed of a single piece; each of the claws is formed by a lamina laterally folded, but of which the borders are not exactly joined together inferiorly; they leave between them a small interval, and this is filled by a layer of more friable horny substance, to which has been given the name of plantar nail. This arrangement, which is clearly defined in the dog (Fig. 93), is comparable to that which we shall afterwards meet with in connection with the sole of the hoof of the horse (see Fig. 100, p. 257). In the dog and the cat, the weight of the limb resting on the inferior surface of the phalanges, it was necessary that the region of the plantar surface of the foot corresponding to these latter should be protected; this is the function of certain fibro-adipose pads, which are situated there, and which are designated by the name of _plantar tubercles_. =Plantar Tubercles= (Fig. 94).--These tubercles, or dermic cushions, are divided, in each paw, into _tubercles of the digits_ (or of the toes), a _plantar tubercle_, and, on the fore-limbs, a _tubercle of the carpus_. The tubercles of the fingers (or of the toes) are of the same number as the latter. That which belongs to the thumb is but little developed, but the others are more so. They are in relation with the plantar surfaces of the second and third phalanges, so that when the paw is in contact with the ground the articulation which, in each of the fingers or toes, joins these phalanges, rests on the corresponding pad. The plantar tubercle is larger than the preceding. It is of a more or less rounded form; sometimes it is triangular, and then comparable in outline to the ace of hearts, the point of which is, in this case, turned towards the claws; its margin being sometimes strongly indented, it may also have a trilobate form. It is on it that rest the metacarpo-phalangeal or metatarso-phalangeal articulations, according to the limb studied. The tubercle of the carpus, situated at the level of the posterior surface of this latter, is less important than the preceding, the region which it occupies not reaching the ground during walking. But it is not to be neglected from the point of view of external form, because of the prominence which it produces. [Illustration: FIG. 93.--CLAW OF THE DOG: INFERIOR SURFACE. 1, Horny lamina of the claw; 2, plantar nail; 3, tubercle of the corresponding digit.] [Illustration: FIG. 94.--LEFT HAND OF THE DOG: INFERIOR SURFACE, PLANTAR TUBERCLES. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, Tubercles of the fingers; 2, plantar tubercle; 3, tubercle of the carpus.] In the ungulates the terminal extremity of the limb is, as we have above pointed out, enclosed in a horny envelope which is no other than the hoof. We will first study the hoof of the horse--a hoof which is single for each of the limbs, inasmuch as in this animal each of these has but a single digit. =Hoofs of the Solipeds.=--We will first study the hoof as regarded in a general way--that is, without taking into account the limb to which it belongs. We will afterwards point out the differences presented when the hoofs of the fore and hind limbs are compared. In connection with the external forms of the horse, the study which we are now commencing is of great importance. But, before entering upon it, it appears to us necessary to rapidly examine what the hoof contains (Fig. 95). [Illustration: FIG. 95.--VERTICAL ANTERO-POSTERIOR SECTION OF THE FOOT OF A HORSE. 1, Third phalanx; 2, fibro-cartilage; 3, podophyllous tissue; 4, inferior part of the wall; 5, section of the wall of the hoof; 6, cutigerous cavity; 7, tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges; 8, reinforcing band coming from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 9, tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges; 10, tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges.] In the interior of this horny box we find the third phalanx, a small sesamoid bone placed opposite to the posterior border of the latter, a portion of the inferior extremity of the second phalanx, and the tendons, which terminate at this region. To the third phalanx are added two fibro-cartilaginous plates, flattened laterally, which prolong backwards the bone to which they are annexed. The inferior border of each of these fibro-cartilages is fixed by its anterior part to two osseous prominences situated at each of the angles which terminate the small phalanx behind; these prominences are: _the basilar process_ and _the retrorsal process_ (Fig. 96); by its posterior part, this border is continuous with a structure known as _the plantar cushion_ (see further on). The posterior border is directed obliquely upwards and forwards. The superior border, which is convex or rectilinear, is thin, and is separated from the posterior border by an obtuse angle. Finally, the anterior border, which is directed obliquely downwards and backwards, is united to the ligamentous apparatus, which keeps the second and third phalanges in contact. These fibro-cartilages, at their upper extremities, project beyond the hoof, and therefore assist in the formation of the lateral regions of the foot,[35] at the part which is called the _crown_. They project less above the hoof in the posterior limbs. [35] Here, for the first time, apropos of the hoof, we use the word 'foot.' As in osteology and in myology we have, for the sake of clearness of comparison, designated under this name the region limited above by the tarsus, it is necessary to point out here that we employ the same word for a more restricted region. This we did in conformity with the usage of veterinarians, who so designate the region of the hoof. It is necessary to explain this double employment of the word, and, further, to show the particular meaning ascribed to it. [Illustration: FIG. 96.--THIRD PHALANX OF THE HORSE: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, EXTERNAL SURFACE. 1, Pyramidal eminence; 2, surface, for articulation with the inferior extremity of the second phalanx; 3, basilar process; 4, retrorsal process.] The posterior and inferior borders of these cartilages meet at an acute angle. The angle so formed, or cartilaginous bulb, constitutes the base of the region, which is commonly called the _heel_--a part of the foot which, as its name implies, is situated posteriorly, but which we must not confound, as we might be led to do, with the region occupied by the calcaneum. We know from our previous studies of comparative osteology that this latter is situated much higher up. The _plantar cushion_ is a sort of fibrous wedge which occupies the interval bounded by the fibro-cartilaginous plates which we have just been studying. Its inferior surface, the form of which we shall find to be reproduced by a portion of the corresponding surface of the hoof, is prolonged anteriorly into a point, while behind it is divided into two branches, which, diverging from one another, join the posterior angles of the fibro-cartilages. These two branches are separated by a median excavation. The different constituent elements which we have just been discussing give elasticity to the foot. To finish the examination of the parts contained in the hoof, we will add that among them is also found what is called the fleshy _envelope_, or _flesh_ of the foot. We divide the latter into three regions: the podophyllous tissue, striated or laminated flesh which is spread out over the anterior surface of the third phalanx; the pad, or the hardened skin which corresponds to the upper border of the hoof, and forms a prominence above the podophyllous tissue; and the villous flesh, or velvety tissue which covers the plantar surface of the third phalanx and the plantar cushion. These three tissues form as a whole the keratogenic membrane--that is to say, that which produces horny tissue, and consequently regenerates the hoof. It is this latter that we now proceed to study. When we examine its anterior surface or the opposite one, the hoof of the horse has the shape of a truncated cone with the base below and the summit cut off obliquely downwards and backwards (Fig. 97). Viewed on one of its lateral aspects, it may be compared to a truncated cylinder placed on the surface of the section (Fig. 98). We particularly call attention to this latter comparison, for it singularly aids us in making a representation of the foot of the horse when viewed laterally. Notwithstanding that the hoof forms apparently a homogeneous whole, it consists of three parts, which may be separated from one another by maceration. The indication of such disunion, artificially produced, may seem useless. It is not so, however, for this division of the hoof will permit us to carry out the study of the latter in a clearer, and consequently a more satisfactory, way. The three parts in question are the _wall_, or _crust_, the _sole_, and the _frog_. The _wall_ is that portion of the hoof which we see when the foot rests on the ground. It is a plate of horn which, applied to the anterior and lateral surfaces of the foot, diminishes in height as it approaches the posterior part of the region. Posteriorly and at each side the wall is folded on itself, and is then directed forwards to terminate in a point, after having enclosed the frog, which we will soon study. [Illustration: FIG. 97.--LEFT ANTERIOR FOOT OF THE HORSE: ANTERIOR ASPECT. 1, Outer side; 2, inner side.] Although the wall forms a continuous whole, it has been divided into regions to which special names are given. The anterior part, from the superior border to the inferior, is called the _pince_ or _toe_ for a width of 4 to 5 centimetres. External to the toe, and on each side of it, for a distance of 3 or 4 centimetres, is the _nipple_. Behind the _nipples_ are the _quarters_. Still further back, where the wall folds on itself, forming the _buttress_, is found the region of the _heels_. Finally, the portions of the wall which form its continuation in passing forward are called the _bars_.[36] These are only visible on the inferior surface of the hoof (see Fig. 100). [36] It is to the angle of inflexion or heel that some authors give the name of buttress; it is the bars which other authors designate in this fashion. The wall, convex transversely, is, in its anterior part (viz., the _toe_) inclined strongly downwards and forwards. This obliquity tends to become gradually effaced on the lateral parts to such a degree that at the quarters it becomes almost perpendicular to the surface of the ground. The internal quarter is less rounded than the external; in addition to this (Fig. 97), it approaches more nearly to the vertical direction. [Illustration: FIG. 98.--LEFT ANTERIOR FOOT OF THE HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT. 1, Fetlock; 2, spur or beard; 3, pastern; 4, outline determined by the external fibro-cartilage; 5, acute angle; 6, nipple; 7, quarter; 8, heel.] In our opinion, this latter difference clearly recalls certain characters of the general form of the human foot. In fact, the latter has its dorsal surface inclined downwards and outwards, whereas its internal border may be said rather to be vertical. A transverse section of the foot (Fig. 99) justifies this comparison, which to us appears interesting, not only as regards the resemblance which exists between these organs of support, but, further, because it constitutes a mnemonic which enables us, on condition that we remember the form of the human foot, to recall the above-described character of that of the horse. The greater convexity of the outer portion of the hoof is found equally on the human foot; the external border of this foot is more convex than the opposite one. The inferior border of the wall (Fig. 100) is, in the case of unshod horses, always in wear when in contact with the ground. It is intimately united to the circumference of the sole (see further on). [Illustration: FIG. 99.--VERTICAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A LEFT HUMAN FOOT: OUTLINE OF THE DIVIDED SURFACE OF THE POSTERIOR SEGMENT OF THIS SECTION (DIAGRAMMATIC FIGURE). AA´, Vertical axis passing through the middle of the leg and the second toe; 1, outer side; 2, inner side.] The superior border is hollowed on its internal surface by a groove, the cutigerous cavity or basil, which lodges the cushion (see Fig. 95). We have described this latter above, in connection with the flesh of the foot. The substance of the wall presents a fibrous appearance which is pretty strongly pronounced. The constituent fibres from which this appearance results are directed from the superior border towards the inferior in parallel and regular lines. The _sole_ is a horny plate which occupies the inferior surface of the hoof (Fig. 100). It is situated between the inferior border of the wall and the bars; and, on account of the oblique direction of these latter, it presents a strongly-marked groove of a [V]-form, with the opening directed backwards. In this depression is lodged the frog. The inferior surface is concave, and thus forms a sort of vault, more or less deep, according to the individual. The sole has a scaly, laminated aspect. We have seen (Fig. 93, and p. 249) that on the inferior surface of the claws of carnivora is found a small interval which is filled by a plate of a more friable horny substance, to which has been given the name of the plantar nail. It seems to us that there is an interesting relationship between the said plantar nail and the sole which we have just been studying. [Illustration: FIG. 100.--INFERIOR SURFACE OF A FORE-HOOF OF THE HORSE: LEFT SIDE. 1, Internal border of the wall (toe); 2, wall; 3, quarter; 4, heel; 5, bar; 6, sole; 7, frog; 8, median cavity; 9, prominence of the frog; 10, lateral cavity.] Indeed, these two horny structures appear to be homologous. Is not the lamina of the claw comparable to the wall of the hoof? And does not the interval which occurs at the inferior part of this latter, and is filled by the sole, recall that which, in extremely reduced form, is filled by the plantar portion of the claws? The _frog_ (Fig. 100) is a mass of horn, in form of a wedge, with its apex in front, which occupies the space limited laterally by the recurved portions of the wall (the bars) and the posterior border of the sole. It covers the plantar cushion previously described (p. 252) and reproduces its form. Its inferior surface is hollowed out in the middle by an excavation, which is known as the _median lacuna_. This cavity separates the branches of the frog, which terminate posteriorly by two swellings which are known as _the prominences of the frog_, forming two rounded elevations situated above the claws. These same branches unite in front of the median lacuna to form the body of the frog. This latter, in its anterior part, gradually narrows, and terminates in a point which occupies the bottom of the hollow limited laterally by the bars of the wall and the posterior border of the sole. Between the lateral surfaces of the frog and the bars are found two angular cavities--_the lateral lacunæ_, or the _commissures of the frog_. [Illustration: FIG. 101.--THIRD PHALANX OF THE HORSE: LEFT ANTERIOR LIMB, INFERIOR VIEW. 1, External border; 2, internal border; 3, semilunar crest; 4, 4, re-entrant processes.] [Illustration: FIG. 102.--THIRD PHALANX OF THE HORSE: LEFT POSTERIOR LIMB, INFERIOR VIEW. 1, External border; 2, internal border; 3, semilunar crest; 4, 4, re-entrant processes.] As an indispensable complement to the study which we have just made, it is necessary to add that the hoofs of the fore-limbs and those of the hind ones present differences of form which cannot be ignored--differences which we are already able to conjecture by looking at the respective third phalanges which terminate those limbs, and especially at their inferior surfaces (Figs. 101, 102). The hoofs of the fore-limbs (see Fig. 100), viewed on their plantar surface, are more rounded than those of the hind-limbs (Fig. 103)--so that their external contour may be compared to a semicircle--whilst the hind-hoofs, which are narrow and of more oval shape, rather recall by their form the aspect of an ogive. This seems to result from the fact that the fore-limbs support the more considerable part of the weight of the animal. The best proof which can be given of this overweighting is the eagerness with which very often, when a horse is stopped near the edge of a footpath, for example, he places his fore-feet on the latter. In thus raising his fore-quarters, he throws part of his weight backwards, and in this way relieves his fore-limbs. [Illustration: FIG. 103.--INFERIOR SURFACE OF A HIND-HOOF OF A HORSE: LEFT SIDE. 1, External border; 2, internal border.] With regard to the difference of form which we have just pointed out, we have sometimes heard the following comparison made: the contour of the hoofs of the fore-limbs, viewed from below, recalls that of an apple; that of the hoofs of the hind-limbs recalls the outline of a pear. As a mnemonic this comparison is insufficient, for nothing connects either of the forms indicated with the region to which the hoofs belong. We much prefer one made for us this very year by one of the students of our course at the School of Fine Arts, after the lecture in which we had just pointed out the differences in question. Giving the idea of a semicircle and an ogive, which we described above, he remarked to us that the idea would perhaps be more easily fixed in the memory if we associated with it the idea of the chronological order in which the Roman and ogival art succeeded. Indeed, as the Roman art preceded the ogival art, so the hoofs which have the semicircular form precede those which have the form of an ogive. This interpretation appeared to us ingenious; this is why we wished to give it here a place which seems to us to be merited. [Illustration: FIG. 104.--LEFT POSTERIOR FOOT OF A HORSE: EXTERNAL ASPECT.] The wall of the hoof of a fore-limb, viewed on one of its lateral surfaces (see Fig. 98), is more oblique than that of one of the hind-hoofs looked at in the same way (Fig. 104). This difference, very marked especially at the region of the toe, is correlated with that of the direction of the pastern. In fact, in the anterior limbs this is a little more oblique than in the opposite ones. We have still to describe, in connection with the horse, some epidermic tissues, which are known as _chestnuts_. The chestnut is a small, horny plate which is found on the internal surface of each of the limbs, at a level differing on the anterior from that of the posterior ones. On the anterior limbs the chestnut is situated on the internal surface of the forearm, towards the middle part, or the inferior third of this region. On the posterior limbs it is developed on the back of the superior extremity of the internal surface of the canon, towards the inferior part of the ham--that is, the tarsus. [Illustration: FIG. 105.--FOOT OF THE OX: LEFT SIDE, ANTERO-EXTERNAL VIEW. 1, Internal hoof; 2, external hoof; 3, internal surface of this latter; 4, internal spur.] Inasmuch as some authors consider the chestnuts as being vestiges of the thumb and the great-toe, we propose giving a mnemonic which will enable us to remember their situation, or, rather, their difference of level. If we consider that the thumb, in the human species, is longer than the first toe, we may easily remember that the chestnut is placed higher in the anterior limbs than in the posterior ones. Indeed, if we suppose a digit taking its origin at these points, it will be longer in front (the thumb) than behind (the first toe). =Hoofs of the Ox and the Pig.=--The ox has four hoofs on each foot--two which contain the third phalanges, and two others, rudimentary, situated at the posterior aspect of the limb, at the level of the inferior part of the canon; these latter bear the name of _spurs_. We will occupy ourselves especially with the former (Fig. 105). Each of the hoofs presents three faces which, if we consider them in relation to the median axis of the limb to which they belong, are: external, internal, and inferior. The external surface resembles the wall of the hoof of the horse. The internal surface is slightly concave from before backwards, so that the external and internal hoofs of the same foot are not in contact with each other, except by the extremities of this surface, and that an interval separates them between these two points. The inferior surface, slightly depressed, ends behind in a swelling produced by the plantar cushion, which covers a thin lamina of horn. At the anterior part of the hoof these three surfaces unite in forming a well-marked angle which, on account of the concavity of the internal surface, is slightly curved towards the axis of the foot. The pig has also four hoofs--two for the great digits and two for the lateral digits. They recall those of the ox. CHAPTER IV PROPORTIONS Inasmuch as we have taken for granted, in connection with the present volume, that before entering on the study of the anatomy of quadrupeds the reader was prepared for it by a sufficient knowledge of human anatomy, it is quite natural that we should extend the same supposition to the study of proportions. For this reason, the definition of proportions, considered from a general point of view, their signification, their function and their utility, are questions which it would be superfluous to enter upon here. We will content ourselves by calling to mind that the common measure chosen by preference is the length of the head, and that, ordinarily, it is with it that we compare the dimensions of other parts. Among the animals whose structure we have examined, there is one of which the proportions deserve to be marked in preference to every other: this is the horse. Wherefore this preference? In the first place, it is because of the overwhelming position which this animal occupies in the artistic representation of quadrupeds; that it is more frequently associated with man; that, notwithstanding its division into different races, its general proportions may be referred to a special type. It is also because the indications relative to these proportions will suffice to show the way which the artist must follow in order to find for himself, at the time when the necessity for it arises, the proportions which characterize the other animals. Our intention is not, in connection with the subject which now occupies us, to enter into a deep discussion on the various opinions which have been set forth. We desire, above all, to give some indications which, from the practical point of view, can be utilized in the representation of the horse, and at the beginning to demonstrate the advantages of these indications. Now, there is a fact which we have had occasion to note; it is the following: almost invariably, when a person who is little accustomed to represent the horse, or not previously informed of certain proportions of lengths, begins to draw from nature, the error generally committed is that of making the head too small and the body too long. Is it a preconceived idea which is the cause that one regards them in this manner? Perhaps. At all events, certain artists who have made the representation of horses their special study have even had this habit. It is therefore necessary to be informed of the proportions; this is the object of the study which we are now undertaking. Bourgelat,[37] in the eighteenth century, fixed for the first time and in complete fashion the proportions of the horse; it is he, consequently, who created the æsthetics of the horse. It is but justice to recall the fact. His system has a point of analogy with that which is employed to determine the human proportions. Indeed, Bourgelat chose the length of the head as a standard of measurement, and the subdivisions of the head for measures of less extent. 'Since beauty,' said he,[38] 'resides in the congruity and proportion of the parts, it is absolutely necessary to observe the dimensions, individual and relative, and in order to acquire a knowledge of the proportions, to assume a kind of measure which can be indiscriminately common for all horses. The part which can serve as a standard of proportion for all the others is the head. Take a measurement between two parallel lines--one tangent to the nape of the neck or the summit of the forelock, the other tangent to the extremity of the anterior lip--a line perpendicular to these two tangents will give you its geometrical length. Divide this length into three portions, and give to these three parts a special name, which may be applied indefinitely to all heads--as, for example, that of _prime_. Any head whatsoever will, accordingly, in its geometrical length, always have three _primes_; but all the parts which you will have to consider, whether in their length, in their height, or in their width, cannot constantly have either one prime, or a prime and a half, or three primes; subdivide, then, each _prime_ into three equal parts, which you will name _seconds_, and as this subdivision will not suffice to give you a just measure of all the parts, subdivide anew each _second_ into twenty-four _points_, so that a head divided into three _primes_ will have, by the second division, nine _seconds_, and two hundred and sixteen _points_ by the last.' [37] Claude Bourgelat, founder of the veterinary schools in France. He was born at Lyons in 1712, and died at Paris in 1779. [38] Bourgelat, 'Éléments de l'art vétérinaire. Traité de la conformation extérieure du cheval,' Paris, edition of 1785, p. 133. But where this system appears to us to have lost somewhat of its unity is when the author transforms it, in pointing out the following mode of procedure: 'But the head itself may err by default of proportion. This part is not, indeed, considered as either too short or too long, too thin or too thick, but by comparison with the body of the animal. Now, the body, being required to have--whether in length, reckoning from the point of the arm to the prominence of the buttock, or in height, reckoning from the summit of the withers to the ground--two heads and a half; whenever the head, by its geometrical length, shall give, in length or in height, to the body measured more than two and a half times its own length, it will be too short; and if it gives less, it will be too long. 'In the case in which one of these faults exists there would be no further question of establishing by its geometrical length the proportions of the other parts. Give up this common measure, and measure the height or the length of the body; divide the length or the height into five equal portions; take, then, two of these divisions, divide them into _primes_, _seconds_, and _points_, corresponding to the divisions and subdivisions which you would have made of the head, and you will have a common measure, such as the head would have given you if it had been proportionate.'[39] [39] Bourgelat, _loc. cit._, p. 135. [Illustration: FIG. 106.--THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE (AFTER BOURGELAT). _To face p. 265._] We understand, up to a certain point, that Bourgelat may have been able to give this advice which, generally speaking, is sufficiently practical, since, in certain cases, he was able to pronounce that such a head was too small or too large. But it is always mischievous, with regard to the effect produced on the reader, to propose to him, in the application of a rule, to suppress the foundation on which this rule is established. Besides, even if all the measurements compared with the two-fifths of the length of the body are proportionate with regard to one another, the animal, in spite of this, since the head must be taken into consideration, will, in a strict sense, be none the less disproportioned. The proportions given by Bourgelat are as follows[40] (Fig. 106): [40] _Ibid._, p. 136, and onward. 1. =Three geometrical lengths of the head= give: _The full height_ of the horse, reckoned from the forelock to the ground on which he rests, provided that the head be well placed.[41] [41] By 'the head being well placed,' Bourgelat means 'vertically posed,' the outline of the forehead then coinciding with a vertical line, which at the other end touches the anterior portion of the nose. 2. =Two heads and a half= (B)[42] equals: [42] The letters in parentheses relate to the corresponding measures marked by the same letters on the third diagram of Fig. 106. _The height of the body_ from the summit of the withers to the ground. _The length of the same body_, those of the forehand and of the hind-quarter taken as a whole from the point of the arm to the point of the buttock inclusive. 3. =An entire head= (A) gives: _The length of the forepart_ from the summit of the withers to the termination of the neck. _The height of the shoulders_ from the summit of the elbow to the top of the withers. _The thickness of the body_ from the middle of the belly to the middle of the back. _The width_ from one side to the other. 4. =A head measured from the top of the forelock to the commissure of the lips= (C). This measurement slightly curtailed, unless the mouth is very deeply cleft, equals: _The length of the crupper_, taken from the superior point of the anterior angle of the ilium to the tuberosity of the ischium, forming the point of the buttock. _The width of the crupper or of the haunches_, taken from the inferior points of the angles of the ilia. _The height of the crupper_, viewed laterally, taken from the summit of the posterior angles of the ilia to the point of the patella, the leg being in a state of rest. _The lateral measure of the posterior limb_, from the point of the patella, to the lateral and salient part of the ham, to the right of the articulation of the tibia with the trochlea. _The perpendicular height of the articulation above named_ above the ground. _The distance from the point of the arm_ to the angle formed by the junction of the head and neck. _The distance from the summit of the withers_ to the junction of the neck with the thorax. 5. =Twice this last measure= (C)[43] gives almost: [43] The proportions given in the two paragraphs 6 and 7 are, under another form, the same as those pointed out in paragraph 2, with this difference, that in this latter they are more clearly expressed. _The distance of the summit of the withers_ to the tip of the patella. _The distance of the point of the elbow_ to the summit of the crupper or the posterior angles of the ilia. 6. =Three times this measure, plus a half-width of the pastern, the equivalent of two heads and a half=, will give: _The height of the body_, taken from the top of the withers to the ground. _Its length_, taken from the point of the arm to the point of the buttock inclusive. 7. =This same measure, plus the entire width of the pastern=, gives: _The total length of the body_, taken accurately. 8. =Two-thirds the length of the head= (D) will equal: _The width of the chest_, from the tip of one arm to that of the other, from outside to outside. _The horizontal measurement of the crupper_ taken between two verticals, of which one forms a tangent to the buttock, and the other passes through the summit of the crupper and touches the tip of the patella. _The third of the length of the hind-quarter and of the body_ taken together, as far as the vertical from the withers, touching the elbow. _The anterior length of the hind-limb_, taken from the tuberosity of the tibia to the fold of the ham. 9. =One-half of the length of the head= (E) is the same as: _The horizontal distance from the tip of the arm_ to the vertical line from the summit of the withers and touching the elbow. _The width of the neck_, viewed laterally, taken from its insertion in the trough of the jaw to the roots of the first hairs of the mane, on a line which forms with the superior contour two equal angles. 10. =One-third of the entire length of the head= (F) gives: _The height of its superior part_ from the summit of the forelock to a line which passes through the most salient points of the orbits. _The width of the head_ below the lower eyelids. _The lateral width of the forearm_, taken from its anterior origin to the point of the elbow. 11. =Two-thirds of this length=[44] (G) gives: [44] That is to say, two-ninths of the whole length of the head. _The distance of the point of the elbow_ above the plane of the lower surface of the sternum. _The depression of the back_ in relation to the summit of the withers. _The lateral width of the posterior limbs near the hams._ _The space or distance of the forearms from one ars_[45] to the opposite. [45] We call the region where the superior and internal part of the forearm is joined to the trunk the 'ars.' The space between the ars of one side and the ars of the opposite side is called the 'inter-ars.' 12. =One-half of the third of the entire length of the head=[46] (H) equals: [46] That is to say, one-sixth of the total length of the head. _The thickness of the forearm_, viewed from the front, and taken horizontally from the ars to its external surface. _The width of the crown of the fore-feet_ whether from one side to the other, or from before backwards. _The width of the crown of the hind-feet_, from one side to the other only. _The width of the posterior fetlocks_, taken from the front to the origin of the spur. _The width of the knee_ seen from the front. Note: this measure is a little too large. _The thickness of the ham._ Note: this measure is a little under the mark. 13. =One-fourth of the third of the length of the head=[47] (I) gives: [47] That is, one-twelfth of the length of the head. _The thickness of the canon of the fore-limb_: that of the hind-quarter is a little thicker. 14. =One-third of this same measure=[48] (K) equals: [48] That is, a ninth of the length of the head. _The thickness of the fore-limb close to the knee_ in its narrowest part. _The thickness of the posterior pasterns_, viewed laterally. 15. =The height from the elbow to the fold of the knee= (L) is the same as: _The height from this same fold to the earth._ _The height from the patella to the fold of the ham._ _The height from the fold of the ham to the crown._ 16. =The sixth part of this measure= (M) gives: _The width of the canon of the fore-limb_, viewed laterally, in the middle of its length. _The fetlock_, viewed from the front. 17. =The third of this same measure= (N) is very nearly equal to: _The width of the ham_, from the fold to the point. 18. =A fourth of this measure= (O) gives: _The width of the knee_, measured laterally. _The length of the knee._ 19. =The interval between the eyes from one great angle to the other= (P) equals: _The width of the hind-leg_, viewed laterally, from the cleft of the buttocks to the inferior part of the tuberosity of the tibia. 20. =One-half of this interval between the eyes= (1/2 P) gives: _The width of the posterior canon-bone_, viewed laterally. _The width of the fetlock of the fore-limb_, from its anterior summit to the root of the spur. Finally, the difference of the height of the crupper with respect to the summit of the withers. It is certain that the multiplicity of these proportions, and above all the exaggeration of details into which Bourgelat fell in indicating certain of the measures which constitute the bases of some of them, may repel the reader. For this cause we desire to add to the preceding, and also because the question which we are treating would be incomplete without it, the results obtained and published by other more modern authors, and in particular by Colonel Duhousset.[49] [49] E. Duhousset, 'Le Cheval,' Paris, 1881. This author, one of whose constant occupations is the measurement of the different regions of the horse, has the incontestable merit of having drawn attention to this question, and of having strained all his energies in the propagation of the knowledge which until then was little diffused. Among the proportions which he recommends, there are some which are the result of his own observations; whilst others, which he has verified and adopted, are the result of a judicious selection of those given by Bourgelat, which we have just reproduced in the preceding pages. We join thereto also certain indications furnished by MM. A. Goubeaux and G. Barrier,[50] distinguishing these latter by the initials (G. and B.) of their authors (Fig. 107). [50] Armand Goubeaux and Gustave Barrier, 'De l'extérieure du Cheval,' Paris, 1882. =The length of the head almost exactly equals=: 1. Depth from the back to the belly, N, O,[51] the thickness of the body.[52] [51] Look for the points indicated by these letters on Fig. 107, which is related to the proportions which are here discussed. [52] The proportion previously indicated by Bourgelat (see p. 265, paragraph 3). 2. From the summit of the withers to the point of the arm, H, E. 3. From the superior fold of the stifle to the point of the ham, J´, J. 4. From the point of the ham to the ground, J, K. 5. From the dorsal angle of the scapula to the point of the haunch, D, D. [Illustration: FIG. 107.--PROPORTIONS OF THE HORSE (AFTER COLONEL DUHOUSSET).] 6. From the passage of the girth to the fetlock, M, I, or higher in large horses and racers; to the middle of the fetlock or lower for small ones and those of medium size. 7. From the superior fold of the stifle to the summit of the crupper in those specimens whose coxo-femoral angle is very open. This distance is always much less in others (G. and B.).[53] [53] A proportion relative to the same region, and which at the outset might appear similar, is pointed out by Bourgelat (see p. 266, paragraph 4). But there exists a difference, for Bourgelat compared the length of the head, measured from the forelock to the commissure of the lips, and not that of the entire head, to the distance which separates the summit of the rump and the tip of the patella. =Two and a half times the length of the head= gives: 1. The height of the withers, H, above the ground.[54] [54] This proportion is that given by Bourgelat (see p. 265, paragraph 2). 2. The height of the summit of the crupper above the ground.[55] [55] Consequently the withers and the crupper, being the same height, are situated on the same horizontal plane. Bourgelat, on the contrary, points out a difference of level in connection with these regions. According to him the summit of the crupper is situated below the horizontal plane passing the withers, and this distance equals half of the space which separates the great angle of one eye from that of the other (see p. 269, paragraph 20). 3. Very often the length of the body, from the point of the arm to that of the buttock, although for a long time the type of Bourgelat had been set aside as a conventional model, short and massive.[56] [56] See p. 265, paragraph 2. And M. Duhousset adds to this: 'The drawing that we offer, which has two heads and a half in height and length, is that of a horse which we frequently meet with' (see Fig. 107; see also p. 279, where we again consider this question of the length of the body of the horse). 'The crupper, from the point of the haunch to that of the buttock, D, F, is always less than that of the head. This difference varies from 5 to 10 centimetres. The width of the crupper, from one haunch to the other, often very slightly exceeds its length.' MM. Goubeaux and Barrier add that frequently it equals it.[57] [57] If we refer to the proportions indicated by Bourgelat, we shall find that the proportions relative to the crupper are also indicated there (see p. 266, paragraph 4). 'The crupper, such as we have just defined it, D, H, may also be found to a fair degree of exactness, as regards length, four times on the same horse.' 1. From the point of the buttock to the inferior part of the stifle, F, P. 2. The width of the neck, a little in front of the withers to a little above the point of the arm, S, X.[58] [58] MM. Goubeaux and Barrier replace this by the following: 'The width of neck at its inferior attachment from its insertion into the chest to the origin of the withers, S, X.' Bourgelat discovered the same proportion (see p. 266, last line of paragraph 4). 3. From this latter point to below the lower jaw, X, Q, when the head is naturally placed parallel to the shoulders, E, H.[59] [59] MM. Goubeaux and Barrier replace this by the following: 'From the insertion of the neck into the chest to the lower border of the lower jaw, X, Q, when the head is parallel to the shoulder.' 4. From the nape to the nostrils, _n, n´_.[60] [60] MM. Goubeaux and Barrier add: 'Or to the commissure of the lips.' It is thus, besides, that Bourgelat measured the head for comparison with the crupper (see p. 266, paragraph 4). The measure of =half of the head= also acts as a good guide for the construction of the horse, when we know that it frequently applies to many of the parts--to wit: 1. From the forehead above the eyes, perpendicular to the line which is tangent to the lower jaw, P, Q. 2. Outline of the neck at the level of the base of the head, Q, L.[61] [61] Proportion indicated by Bourgelat (see p. 267, paragraph 9). 3. From the crown of the fore-foot to below the knee, T, T´. 4. In the legs, from the base of the fetlock to that of the ham, U, V. 5. Finally, it is nearly of the length of the humerus from the point E to the radius.[62] [62] MM. Goubeaux and Barrier replace these by the following: 1. 'From the most prominent part of the lower jaw to the profile of the forehead above the eye, P, Q (thickness of the head). 2. 'From the throat to the superior border of the neck behind the nape, Q, L (attachment of the head). 3. 'From the inferior part of the knee to the crown, T, T´. 4. 'From the base of the ham to the fetlock, U, V. 5. 'Finally, from the point of the arm to the articulation of the elbow (approximate length of the arm).' PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE[63] [63] Extract from the work of MM. Goubeaux and Barrier on the exterior of the horse. As before, the initials G. and B. of these authors are added. Although it is very difficult, says M. Duhousset, when we speak of measurements taken on the living animal, to formulate other than approximations, we believe we have determined with sufficient accuracy the following results, which are the outcome of our numerous observations. The head which we present is that of a horse which we have frequently come across as a mean term between the highly bred and the draught horse. Under this heading, it will not be devoid of interest to accompany with dimensions the two drawings to which are consigned the measurements in question. =Head viewed in Profile= (Fig. 108).--Length, A, B, from the nape to the margin of the lips, 0·60 metre. Thickness, C, D, from the angle of the lower jaw to the anterior surface (a half-head), 0·30 metre. This line passes through the middle of the eye, taken perpendicularly, to the profile of the anterior surface. Many common horses present it, especially the heavier draught horses; in finely-bred subjects it is a little shorter (G. and B.). Depth, I, H, of the neck in its narrowest part (a half-head), 0·30 metre. It is frequently greater; this is noticeable in all instances where the superior parts of the neck are deficient in fineness. It is this which we see in draught horses, and in those which become too fleshy (G. and B.). Distance, O, R, of the internal commissure of the eye from the superior border of the commissure of the nostril (G. and B.) (a half-head), 0·30 metre. It is more considerable on the common head, and on that which is too long. Distance, A, O, from the nape to the internal angle of the eye, 0·22 metre. This distance is equivalent to the thickness of the head, P, Q, taken perpendicularly from the profile of the anterior surface, and passing at the level of the maxillary fissure and spine. It is, again, equal to Q, O, from the internal angle of the eye to the maxillary fissure; and to P, G, from the middle of the face to the commissure of the lips (G. and B.). The distance, P, E, from the middle of the face to the maxillary spine is about the sixth of the total length of the head--0·10 metre. [Illustration: FIG. 108.--PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE, VIEWED IN PROFILE (AFTER COLONEL DUHOUSSET).] The line B, E, reckoned from the extremity of the lips to the maxillary spine, is equal: To E, F, from the maxillary spine to the external auditory meatus, to be seen only on the skull; To H, G, from the insertion of the neck in the trough to the commissure of the lips (G. and B.); To Q, R, from the maxillary fissure to the superior commissure of the nostril (G. and B.); To Q, B, from the fissure of the maxilla to the border of the lips (G. and B.); To O, D, from the internal angle of the eye to the angle of the lower jaw, provided that the line C, D be in proportion (G. and B.). [Illustration: FIG. 109.--THE SAME DESIGN AS THAT OF FIG. 108, ON WHICH WE HAVE INDICATED, BY SIMILAR LINES, THE PRINCIPAL CORRESPONDING MEASUREMENTS. Half the length of the head, and the dimensions which equal it; distance which separate the nape from the internal angle of the eye, and the dimensions which equal it; distance which separates the internal angle of the eye from the border of the lips, and the dimensions which equal it.[64]] [64] It is thus that in our teaching, but by means of lines of different colours, we present the proportions reproduced in Fig. 108. Experience has demonstrated to us that this replacement of letters by conventional lines renders the proportions more easily appreciable, and that these lines, striking the eye more forcibly, then impress themselves better on the memory. Fig. 111 bears the same relation to Fig. 110. Finally, very frequently to O, H, from the internal angle of the eye to the insertion of the throat into the maxillary trough (G. and B.). An equality still more frequent is that which exists between the distances: O, B, from the internal angle of the eye to the margin of the lips; A, H, from the nape to the insertion of the throat into the maxillary trough; And H, B, from this latter point to the margins of the lips. [Illustration: FIG. 110.--PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD OF THE HORSE, SEEN FROM THE FRONT (AFTER COLONEL DUHOUSSET).] =The Head, Front View= (Fig. 110).--If, to continue our examination, adds M. Duhousset, we regard the head from the front, we find its greatest width at A, B, the extreme points of the orbital arches. This width is 22 centimetres. It is again equal to: A, C, from one arch to the nape; A, D, from one arch to the middle of the face. D, E, from the middle of the face to the margin of the lips. From the auditory canal, G, to the maxillary spine, F, is the same distance as from this point to the margins of the lips, E, or, better, to the end of the teeth. [Illustration: FIG. 111.--THE SAME FIGURE AS FIG. 110, ON WHICH WE HAVE MARKED BY SIMILAR LINES THE PRINCIPAL MEASUREMENTS WHICH CORRESPOND THERETO. Distance which separates one of the orbital arches from that of the opposite side, and the dimensions which equal it; distance which separates the auditory meatus from the maxillary spine, and the dimensions which equal it; distance which separates one maxillary spine from that of the opposite side, and the dimensions which equal it; distance which separates the lip of one side from that of the opposite, and the dimensions which equal it.[65]] [65] See the note relative to Fig. 109. The line G, C, from the auditory meatus to the nape, is equal to the sixth of the head, 10 centimetres; the line A, G, from the orbital arch to the auditory meatus, is a little longer, and measures 12 centimetres. The distance F, I, comprised between the maxillary spines, is 18 centimetres. It is equal to: O, O, the distance between the internal angles of the eyes (G. and B.); F, R, the distance from the maxillary spine to the superior commissure of the corresponding nostril (G. and. B.); F, P, from the maxillary spine to the _salt-cellar_.[66] [66] We designate under the name _salt-cellar_ a depression situated external to the frontal region and above the eye. From the nape to the internal angle of the eye, C, O, is the same distance as from this latter point to the commissure of the lips, O, T; and from the maxillary spine to the upper lip F, S (G. and B.). The distance apart, T, T, of the two commissures of the lips gives, very nearly, the distance from the superior border of the orbital arch to the base of the ear or the auditory meatus. In the state of rest, the outer limit of the separation of the nostrils does not exceed the width of the knee;[67] we frequently find the same distance intercepted above the nape by the tranquil ears. In the figure (Fig. 110) we have intentionally represented them directed in a different plane, in order to show that when the pinna is turned backward, it none the less preserves the contour of bracket form, more or less pronounced according to the breeding of the subject, and characterizing in repose the interior curves of the ear. [67] We remind our readers that the name 'knee' is given by veterinarians to the region occupied by the carpus. The extreme limit of the lips, M, N, but very slightly exceeds that of the nostrils; on many heads of harmonious proportions this distance is found to be the half of A, B. In order not to interrupt the course of the preceding exposition, we decided to withhold till afterwards some reflections which have been suggested to us by certain of the proportions which are there indicated. The proportions in question are important--we may even say that they are fundamental, for they have for object the relation which exists between the length of the head, the height of the body, and the length of the latter. We have already seen that, according to Bourgelat, the length of the head is contained two and a half times in the length of the body, from the point of the arm to the point of the buttock; and, also, two and a half times in the height measured from the apex of the withers to the ground (see p. 265). We saw afterwards that M. Duhousset, having adopted these proportions, pointed out, further, that the same dimension was again found equally to exist from the summit of the crupper to the ground--a height which Bourgelat considered as being of less extent. There results, then, from the latter proportions, which we have just recalled, this interesting fact: that they simplify very much, from the point of view of design, the placing in position of the horse, on the condition always that this latter be always viewed directly on one of its lateral aspects. [Illustration: FIG. 112.--HORSE OF WHICH THE LENGTH CONTAINS MORE THAN TWO AND A HALF TIMES THAT OF THE HEAD, AND OF WHICH THIS DIMENSION (A, B) EXCEEDS THE HEIGHT.] Indeed, in this case, if we except the neck and the head, the body, inasmuch as its height and its length are equal, may be inscribed in a square, of which one of the sides corresponds to the withers and to the summit of the crupper, two of the other sides to the point of the arm and to that of the buttock the fourth being represented by the ground. This is simple, but this simplicity even has its inconveniences. It follows that this proportion, thus expressed, seems to exclude from every artistic representation certain categories of horses, which upon the whole might be regarded as beautiful, and the existence of which in any case it would be a pity not to indicate. [Illustration: FIG. 113.--HORSE OF WHICH THE LENGTH CONTAINS MORE THAN TWO AND A HALF TIMES THAT OF THE HEAD, AND OF WHICH THIS DIMENSION (A, B) EXCEEDS THE HEIGHT.] Let us examine at the outset that which is relative to the length of the body, equal to two and a half times the length of the head. This proportion is sometimes met with, and therefore may be considered exact; but it is necessary to add that its existence is not discoverable in the majority of cases. That for some authors it constitutes a perfect model we will not gainsay, but it is our impression that, when it exists, the head appears a little large, or, more exactly, the body a little short. Without attaining exactly to three times the length of the head, as some authors (Saint-Bel, Vallon) have announced, the body of the horse, nevertheless, measured as is stated above, frequently contains it more than two and a half times. We give in support of this some outline reproductions, executed after photographs (Figs. 112, 113, 114). There still remains the question regarding the equality of the height and of the length of the body of the horse. This equality, after the proportions previously indicated, would seem bound to appear in all the cases observed. Now, if we measure the examples reproduced in Figs. 112, 113, and 114, we shall see that sometimes the two dimensions are unequal, the height being greater than the length, or inversely. [Illustration: FIG. 114.--HORSE OF WHICH THE LENGTH CONTAINS MORE THAN TWO AND A HALF TIMES THAT OF THE HEAD, AND OF WHICH THIS DIMENSION (A, B) IS INFERIOR TO THE HEIGHT.] It is the same, if we examine a certain number of specimens; we are able to determine that the proportion chosen in preference by authors is not exactly that which is oftenest met with. It will, very probably, be objected that it is so for the most beautiful types, and that the indifferent ones are generally the more numerous. The essential thing would be to know, above all, if the type of two heads and a half of length and of height is really the only beautiful one. However that may be, of the fifty African horses measured by M. Duhousset, only fourteen possessed the equality indicated; twenty-six were less long than high, and ten more long than high.[68] [68] E. Duhousset, 'The Horse,' Paris, 1881. CHAPTER V THE PACES OF THE HORSE As a completion of the studies we have just been making, some notions relative to the paces of the horse seem to us to be absolutely indicated. Let it be permitted to us to remind the reader in this connection that we have already been for twenty-one years occupied with this question, and that by means of an articulated figure, a sort of movable mannikin, we have endeavoured to demonstrate to artists the differences which characterize the various paces of the horse.[69] The arrangement then employed cannot, evidently, be used in the present volume, but we will inspire ourselves, in the preparation of the present chapter, with the elements of demonstration which we have employed, and which, in the course of our teaching, we have had the satisfaction of seeing favourably received. [69] Édouard Cuyer, 'Les Allures du Cheval,' demonstrated with the aid of a coloured, separable, and articulated table, Paris, 1883. This table was the subject of a note communicated to the Academy of Sciences by Professor Marey ('Comptes rendus de l'Académie de Sciences') at the meeting of June 26, 1882. On the other hand, it has been the subject of a presentation which we have had the honour of being permitted to make to the Academy of Fine Arts at the meeting of November 4, 1882. The fasciculus in question has been since united with a more complete whole as regards the study of the horse. E. Cuyer and E. Alex, 'Le Cheval: Extérieur, Structure et Fonctions, Races,' avec 26 planches coloriées, découpées et superposées, Paris, 1886. The progressive movements by which an individual transports himself from one place to another do not operate according to a unique method and with a constantly uniform velocity. These various modes of progression are designated under the name of _paces_. It is extremely difficult to analyze, by simple observation, the movements which characterize these gaits. Let us, for example, examine the displacements made by the limbs of a horse during that of walking; if we have no notion of these displacements, it will be, so to speak, impossible to determine in what order they are executed. The sight of the imprints left on the ground by the hoofs is not a sufficient means of demonstration, especially for artists. The noise made by the blows of these limbs, or by the little bells of different timbre suspended from them, are absolutely in the same case. Processes enabling us to fix or to register the paces are in every way preferable. Such really exist; they are: instantaneous photography and those which constitute the graphic method of Professor Marey. The results given by the photograph are certainly appreciable; but, from the didactic point of view, we give the preference to the graphic method, the general characters and the mode of application of which we now proceed to analyze.[70] [70] We cannot too strongly recommend the reading of the excellent works which Professor Marey has published, and which have for their object the study of movements, as well as the exhibition of the procedures which he has employed. E. J. Marey, 'La Machine Animale,' Paris, 1873; 'La Méthode graphique dans les Sciences expérimentales,' Paris, 1884; 'Le Vol des Oiseaux,' Paris, 1890; 'Le Mouvement,' Paris, 1894. It is necessary to understand first of all, in this connection, that which relates to a man's walking pace. The method of Professor Marey rests on the following principle: Suppose two rubber globes connected with one another by a tube. If we compress one of these globes, the air which it contains will be driven into the other, and will afterwards return when the pressure has ceased. Nothing more simple, evidently; but it is necessary to describe it in detail in order the better to comprehend that which follows: The walker who is the subject of experiment is furnished with special shoes (Fig. 115), having thick indiarubber soles, hollowed in the interior, so that the whole thus constituted forms a sort of hollow cushion which is compressed under the influence of the pressure of the foot on the ground. A tube which is attached to a registering apparatus, which the person who is walking carries in his hand, communicates with this cavity (Fig. 116). This apparatus is formed of a metal drum, which is closed at its upper part by a flexible membrane. Each time that one of the man's feet presses on the ground, the air contained in the cavity of the sole of the shoe is driven into the drum, which we have just mentioned, and the flexible membrane of this drum is elevated. To this membrane is attached a vertical rod which supports a horizontal style. [Illustration: FIG. 115.--EXPERIMENTAL SHOES, INTENDED TO RECORD THE PRESSURE OF THE FOOT ON THE GROUND.] When the membrane, as we have just seen, is elevated, the style is lifted, and then descends when the pressure of the foot ceases. It traces these displacements on a leaf of paper, the surface of which is covered with a thin layer of lamp-black, which it removes by its contact; different parts of this surface are successively presented to it, the paper being rolled round a cylinder which is turned on its axis by means of a clockwork movement. It is necessary to add that the inscription is made, in the study of the walk of man, by means of two styles, each corresponding to one of the feet. The tracings thus obtained, which are read from left to right, are sufficiently simple; but to understand them properly, it is necessary to remember that the style undergoes a movement of ascensional displacement during each pressure of a foot, and that, on the other hand, it descends when the latter is separated from the ground. We also see, on the tracing which it leaves, a line which ascends and then descends; the meaning of this is that first the foot presses on the ground, and is afterwards raised from it. [Illustration: FIG. 116.--RUNNER FURNISHED WITH THE EXPLORATORY AND REGISTERING APPARATUS OF THE VARIOUS PACES.] On the tracing (Fig. 117), the line D relates to the right foot; the line G, which is dotted so that it may not be confused with the preceding, corresponds to the left foot. The line G first ascends; the meaning of which is that the left foot presses on the ground; afterwards it descends: this indicates that the pressure of the foot has ceased. It is the same for the right foot. As we see, the pressures succeed each other; when the left foot touches the ground, the right is separated from it; when the latter presses the ground, it is the left which no longer rests there. The line O is related to the movements of the body, as indicated by the oscillations of the head. We will neglect these. But this tracing, which serves us for an example, is not, it must indeed be said, of very easy reading; it would be still less so if the paces of a horse were registered, for there would then be four lines, the entanglement of which would cause greater complication. These difficulties of reading need be no longer feared, if we transform the tracing into a notation by means of the following diagram. There are drawn (Fig. 118) below the graphic tracing two horizontal lines (1, 2). From the point where the line D rises (commencement of the pressure of the right foot), and from the point where this same line descends (end of the same pressure), we let fall two vertical lines joining the two horizontal ones mentioned above. At this plane, and between the two vertical lines, we mark a broad white one (_a, b_). This expresses, by its length, the duration of the period of pressure of the right foot. In doing the same for the line G, we obtain for the indication of a pressure of the left foot an interval of the same kind, in which are marked cross-lines, or which is tinted gray, in order to avoid all confusion with the preceding tracing. [Illustration: FIG. 117.--TRACING OF THE RUNNING OF A MAN (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY.) D, Pressures and elevations of the right foot; G, pressures and elevations of the left foot.] This notation can, with sufficient exactitude, be compared to that which is employed in the musical scale. The horizontal lines 1 and 2 represent the _compass_. We there also see _notes_; these are the bars indicating the pressure, of which the value--that is to say, the duration--is represented by the length of these bars. It is the same with regard to the intervals of _silence_: these are expressed by the intervals which separate the pressures, and correspond to the moments in which, during certain paces, such as running, the body is raised from the ground. Besides, we see intervals of this kind on the notation reproduced (Fig. 118) relative to the running of man. [Illustration: FIG. 118.] [Illustration: FIG. 119.] In order to make the signification of these tracings still better understood, we reproduce four varieties of them (Fig. 119). The first notation is that of ordinary walking. The pressures succeed each other regularly. The second shows what takes place during the ascent of a staircase. At a certain moment, the weight of the body is upon both feet at the same time, one of them not quitting the lower step, until the other is already in contact with the step above. Accordingly, there is thus produced an overriding of the pressures. The third is relative to running, and has already been represented in Fig. 118. The pressures of the feet are separated by the times of suspension. The fourth also represents running, but in this case more rapid and characterized by the shorter pressures, the slightly longer periods of suspension intervals, and the quicker succession of movements. Before putting aside the indications relating to the walking movements of man--indications which it was necessary to give in order to render intelligible those which are connected with the paces of the horse--we have yet to fix the value of that which we call 'a step.' It is generally admitted that a step is constituted by the series of movements which are produced between the corresponding phases of the action of one foot and that of the other--for example, between the moment at which the right foot commences its pressure on the ground and that at which the left foot commences its own. It is necessary to adopt here another method of looking at it, and to regard the preceding as being but a _half-step_. The step should then be defined as being constituted by the series of movements which are executed between two similar positions of the same foot--as, for example, between the commencement of a pressure of the right foot and the similar phase of the following pressure of the same foot. We shall soon understand the importance of this definition. Before entering on the details of the paces of the horse, it is necessary to see how the limbs of the latter oscillate during the period of a complete step; or, which is the same thing, to determine what the displacements are which a limb executes between two similar positions of its foot. If we examine one of the limbs during a forward movement of the animal, we see that this limb passes through two principal phases: (1) It is raised from the ground; (2) it resumes contact with the ground. Each of these phases is divided into three periods of time, which we proceed to analyze in connection with the anterior limb. [Illustration: FIG. 120.--SWING OF THE RAISED ANTERIOR LIMB (AFTER G. COLIN).[71] C, Lifting; B, suspension; A, placing.] [71] G. Colin, 'Traité de Physiologie Comparée des Animaux,' third edition, Paris, 1886. The foot quits the ground (Fig. 120, C); this may be called _lifting_; the limb is oblique in direction downwards and backwards. This same limb is flexed and carried forward (Fig. 120, B), and, as it is supported by the action of its flexors, this is the period named _suspension_; the hoof is vertical. Then the limb is carried still further forward, becoming extended (Fig. 120, A); the heel is lowered, and the foot, being oblique, is directed towards the ground; this is the _placing_. Then takes place pressure (Fig. 121). The foot has just been placed on the ground; the limb is oblique in direction downwards and forwards; this we call _commencement of the pressure_ (Fig. 121, A). Then the body, being carried forward, whilst the hoof, D, is fixed on the ground, the limb becomes vertical: this stage is _mid-pressure_ (Fig. 121, B). Finally, the progression of the body continuing, the limb becomes oblique downwards and backwards; it is now at the _termination of pressure_ (Fig. 121, C), and proceeds to lift itself anew if another step is to be made. In conclusion, the inferior extremity of the limb describes, from its elevation to its being placed on the ground, an arc of a circle around its superior extremity (Fig. 121, D); whilst, during the pressure, it is its superior extremity which describes one around its inferior extremity, then fixed on the ground (Fig. 121, D). [Illustration: FIG. 121.--SWING OF THE ANTERIOR LIMB ON THE POINT OF PRESSURE (AFTER G. COLIN). A, Commencement of the pressure; B, centre of the pressure; C, termination of the pressure.] If we simultaneously examine the two fore-limbs, we remark that when one of them begins its pressure the other ends it, and _vice versâ_. As to the hind-limbs, the oscillations are similar to those of the fore ones. In the second half of the pressure--that is, when they are passing from the vertical direction (Fig. 122, A) to extreme obliquity backwards (Fig. 122, C)--the effect of their action is to give propulsion to the body. The fore and hind limbs make the same number of steps, and the steps have the same length. The limbs of any quadruped--but we make special allusion to those of the horse--are divided into groups in the following manner: The anterior pair constitutes the _anterior biped_. The _posterior biped_ is that formed by the posterior limbs. The name of _lateral biped_ serves to designate the whole formed by the two limbs of the same side. The right fore-limb and the right hind-limb form the _right lateral biped_. The two others form the _left lateral biped_. [Illustration: FIG. 122.--POSTERIOR LIMB, GIVING THE IMPULSE (AFTER G. COLIN). A, Commencement of pressure; B, centre of pressure; C, termination of pressure.] A fore-limb and hind-limb belonging to the opposite side form a _diagonal biped_, which also takes the name of the fore-limb which forms a part of it. Thus, _the right diagonal biped_ is formed by the association of the right fore-limb and the left hind one. The _left diagonal biped_ is, consequently, the inverse. It is necessary to remember well these preliminary indications; it is the only means of comprehending with facility that which is about to follow. Let us first return to the grouping of the limbs. The denominations _anterior_ and _posterior bipeds_ render clearly perceptible the comparison which consists in regarding a horse when walking as capable of being represented by two men marching one behind the other, and making the same number of steps. According as they move the legs of the same side at the same time in 'covering the step,' or march in contretemps step, we find reproduced all the rhythms which characterize the different paces of the horse. [Illustration: FIG. 123.--NOTATION OF THE AMBLING GAIT IN THE HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY).] Professor Marey has studied these paces by a similar method to that which he adopted for the walking of man, and which we have already described. He employed hollow balls fixed under the hoofs, and a registering apparatus with four styles, each corresponding to one of the limbs. The tracing obtained is rather complicated, since two sets of lines are found marked. But a notation similar to that of which we have spoken can be discovered, and its exact signification should now be determined. For this purpose, we have selected the most simple (see Fig. 123). We there see, placed in two superimposed lines, the pressure markings of the right feet (white bands), and of the left feet (gray bands). On the upper line are found those related to the fore-legs; the lower lines contain those associated with the hind-legs. It is, in brief, the superposition of two notations of the human walking movements. And seeing that, as we have previously pointed out, we may make a comparison between a quadruped and two men placed one behind the other, it is easy to understand the significance of the superimposed notations, if we accustom ourselves to look on them as the notations of two bipeds. To read these notations--that is, to learn to know what occurs at each of the movements of the pace--it is necessary, indeed, to remember that they should be examined in vertical sections; it is to each of these sections--of these vertical divisions--that each of the movements which we more particularly wish to analyze corresponds. We proceed to study first the pace of ambling, because it is the most simple; we shall then consider the trot, and, finally, we shall examine that which is the most complicated, viz., the step. [Illustration: FIG. 124.--THE AMBLE: RIGHT LATERAL PRESSURE.[72]] [72] The figures which, in the present study, reproduce the different paces, have been made from our articulated horse (see the note on p. 282). =The Amble.=--To give an exact idea of the general character of the amble, let us fancy the two men whom we discussed above marching one behind the other and walking in step--that is, moving the legs of the same side simultaneously. They will thus represent the amble, which, indeed, results from the alternate displacements of the lateral bipeds; the limbs of the same side (right or left) execute the same movements in the same time. This is what the notation indicates (Fig. 123). We there see that the pressures of the right fore-foot, marked by the white bands in the upper range, are exactly superposed on those of the right hind one, which are marked by a similar band on the lower line; this means that the pressures took place in the same time. We there see also a similar arrangement of the gray bands, which has a similar significance for the left fore and hind feet. And if we recollect the three phases of pressure (see p. 289, and Figs. 121, 122), we shall comprehend, in looking at the diagrams, that, at the initial stage (A), the limbs are commencing their pressure, and are oblique downwards and forwards; that afterwards (B) the two limbs are vertical, since they are at the middle of the pressure stage; and that finally (C) they are oblique downwards and backwards, for it is then the termination of their pressure (Fig. 124). [Illustration: FIG. 125.--NOTATION OF THE GAIT OF THE TROT IN THE HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY).] During the time that the right limbs are pressing (notation, white bands) the left limbs are raised; afterwards these latter take up the pressure (gray bands), and then the right limbs are raised in their turn. During the pace of ambling the weight of the body, which is wholly sustained by the limbs of one side only, is not in equilibrium, so that the limbs which are raised return by a brisk movement to the position of support in order to re-establish it. =The Trot.=--We have just seen that, in order to represent the amble, the two marchers moved their right limbs simultaneously, and then their left ones. Let us suppose now that the hinder man anticipated by half a pace the movement of the front one, then will be found realized the association and the nature of the displacements of the limbs during the pace of the trot. By this anticipation of a half-step (we have defined, p. 288, what is to be understood by the word _step_), it follows that when the marcher who is in front advances his right leg it is the left leg of the marcher who follows him that is carried in the same direction. We should thus conclude from this that the trot is characterized by a succession of displacements of the diagonal bipeds. [Illustration: FIG. 126.--THE TROT; RIGHT DIAGONAL PRESSURE.] [Illustration: FIG. 127.--THE TROT; TIME OF SUSPENSION.] Indeed, if we examine the notation of this gait (Fig. 125), we see that with the pressure of the right fore-foot is found associated the pressure of the left hind-foot. It is, accordingly, a typical diagonal biped (Fig. 126). [Illustration: FIG. 128.--NOTATION OF THE PACE OF STEPPING IN THE HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY). L, Right lateral pressure; D, right diagonal pressure; L´, left lateral pressure; D´, left diagonal pressure.] But it is necessary to add that these groups of pressures do not succeed one another without interruption, except in the slow trot. In the ordinary trot, or in that in which the animal's strides are very long, the body between each of the double pressures which we have just been considering is projected forward with such force that it remains for an instant separated from the ground. This is what we designate by the name of _time of suspension_ (Fig. 127). The notation in this case would be slightly different from that which we reproduce above, in this sense: that between the diagonal pressures there then would be found an interval, since during the time the body is suspended none of the feet can produce a pressure-mark (see, with regard to these intervals, the notations of the running of a man, Fig. 118, and Fig. 119, 3, 4). =The Walk.=--Although slow, a feature which would seem to make it possible to permit its analysis in a horse when walking, this pace is difficult to comprehend without sufficient preliminary study. [Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE STEP: RIGHT LATERAL PRESSURE.] [Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE STEP: RIGHT DIAGONAL PRESSURE.] We saw above that in order to represent the amble the marchers had to move the legs of the same side simultaneously. We have also just seen that in order to represent the trot the marcher at the back had to anticipate by a half-step. Suppose, now, that this same marcher anticipates the man in front by a quarter-step only, or by a half-pressure period, and thus will be found realized the order of succession of the limbs in the gait or pace called the _walk_. The feet meet the ground one after the other, since they are each in advance by half the duration of a pressure. The strokes are four in number during the period of a step of this pace; in the amble and in the trot they do not exceed two, for then the limbs strike the ground in lateral diagonal pairs. [Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE GALLOP: FIRST PERIOD.] [Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE GALLOP: SECOND PERIOD.] [Illustration: FIG. 133.--THE GALLOP: THIRD PERIOD.] [Illustration: FIG. 134.--THE GALLOP: TIME OF SUSPENSION.] If we examine the notation of the pace of walking (Fig. 128), we see that the right fore-foot commences its pressure when the right hind-foot is in the middle of its own, and that the hinder left begins in the middle of that of the right fore-foot, and that it is itself at the midst of its pressure when the left fore-foot touches the ground, etc. In a word, the foot-fallings occur in the following order and at regular intervals--the fore right foot is here considered as acting first: right fore, left hind, left fore, right hind, and so on in succession. [Illustration: FIG. 135.--NOTATION OF THE GALLOP DIVIDED INTO THREE PERIODS OF TIME (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY). 1, First period; 2, second period; 3, third period.] As to the nature of the bipeds which succeed one another, it is easy to understand them by means of the notation. In reading this from left to right, we see that the associations of pressure are first made by the two right feet, then by a right foot and a left one, then by two left feet, and, finally, by a left and right. It is, accordingly, a succession this time of lateral and diagonal pressures. [Illustration: FIG. 136.--NOTATION OF THE GALLOP OF FOUR PERIODS IN THE HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY). 1, First period; 2, second period; 3, third period; 4, fourth period.] Thus, we find at the start a right lateral pressure (Fig. 129), next a right diagonal (Fig. 130), then a left lateral; finally, a left diagonal pressure. It is thus that the initial letters L, D, L´, D´ further indicate the notations represented in Fig. 128. =The Gallop.=--The ordinary gallop is a pace of three phases. The first is characterized by the fact that one hind-limb alone rests on the ground (Fig. 131); in the second the animal is on a diagonal support (Fig. 132); in the third it comes down on a fore-limb (Fig. 133). The body is then raised (Fig. 134), and to this period of suspension succeed anew the three modes of pressure indicated above. The gallop is said to be from either right or left. In the gallop from the right, the right fore-leg is the more frequently in advance of its neighbour; it is the last to be placed on the ground. The left foot of the posterior biped is the one which commences the action. An entirely opposite arrangement characterizes the gallop from the left. [Illustration: FIG. 137.--LEAP OF THE HARE (AFTER G. COLIN).] The notation reproduced in Fig. 135 corresponds to the gallop from the right. It is there seen, as we pointed out above, that in the first phase the exclusive support of the left hind-foot takes place (1); that afterwards, in the second, commence simultaneously, the pressures of the left fore and the right hind foot (2); this is the left diagonal support; and that finally, in the third, the body comes down on a fore-limb, which is then the right (3); and that for a moment it is on this limb alone that the animal rests. To these three phases on the notation succeeds an interval; this is the period of suspension. The gallop of four phases only differs from the preceding in that the foot-fallings of each diagonal biped occur at slight intervals, and give distinct sounds. The notation is reproduced in Fig. 136. [Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE LEAP.] [Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE LEAP.] [Illustration: FIG. 140.--THE LEAP.] [Illustration: FIG. 141.--THE LEAP.] =The Leap.=--The leap is an act by which the body is wholly raised from the ground and projected upwards and forwards to a greater or less distance. It is prepared for by the flexing of the hind-limbs, which, by being suddenly extended, project the body, and thus enable it to pass over an obstacle. This preparatory arrangement is very remarkable in the leap of the lion, the cat, and the panther, which execute springs of great length; in the horse, in which the leap is not an habitual mode of progression, this flexion of the hinder limbs is less marked. With this animal the leap is generally associated with the gallop; nevertheless, it is sometimes made from a stationary position. In observing the hare or the rabbit, in which the leap is habitual, we notice (Fig. 137) that the hind-limbs, being extremely flexed, rest on the ground as far as the calcaneum, are then straightened by the action of their extensors, become vertical and then oblique backwards at the moment the body is thrown forward into space by the sudden extension of these limbs. The action of the extensors is energetic and instantaneous, and their energy is greater than in ordinary progression, for it is required to lift the body and to project it forcibly a more or less considerable distance. It is the extreme rapidity of this action which enables the animal to clear an obstacle, for without this condition the body would be raised, but not separated from the ground. First of all, in reaching the obstacle to be cleared, the horse prepares to leap by taking the attitude of rearing; the hind-limbs are flexed and carried under the body, the fore-quarters are raised, and the different segments of the fore-limbs are flexed (Fig. 138). [Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE LEAP.] [Illustration: FIG. 143.--THE LEAP.] One sudden trigger action produced by the violent contraction of the extensors of the hind-legs then takes place, and the animal is projected forwards, while he flexes the fore-legs more and more (Fig. 139). He has then risen above the obstacle (Fig. 140). Then while he makes the downward and forward balancing movement, and points his fore-limbs in the same direction, he flexes the hind ones (Fig. 141). Whilst the latter are further flexed, in order to pass the obstacle in their turn, the fore-limbs which are extended come into contact with the ground (Fig. 142). Finally, in the last phase of the leap, the animal, raising himself in front, after the impact of his hind-feet has taken place (Fig. 143), prepares to continue the pace at which he progressed before meeting the obstacle which he had to clear. THE END _London: Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C._ THE ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS [Illustration] SECTIONAL INDEX PAGE =Generalities of Comparative Anatomy= 1 OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY =The Trunk:= _Vertebral Column_ 4 Sacrum 10 Coccygeal vertebræ 11 Direction and form of the vertebral column 11 _Thorax_ 12 Sternum 14 Ribs and costal cartilages 14 =The Anterior Limbs:= _Shoulder_ 20 Scapula 21 Clavicle 25 _Arm_ 28 Humerus 28 General view of the form of the forearm and hand 34 Forearm 38 Hand 44 =The Anterior Limbs in Certain Animals:= _Plantigrades_: Bear 49 _Digitigrades_: Cat, dog 51 _Unguligrades_: Pig 57 Sheep, Ox 60 Horse 64 Proportions of the arm, the forearm, and metacarpus 70 Articulations of the anterior limbs 71 Scapulo-humeral articulation 72 Humero-ulnar articulation, or elbow 74 Radio-ulnar articulation 75 Articulation of the wrist 75 Metacarpo-phalangeal articulations 76 Interphalangeal articulations 77 =The Posterior Limbs:= _Pelvis_ 78 Iliac bone 78 _The Thigh_ 83 Femur 83 Knee-cap 85 _The Leg_ 85 Tibia 86 Fibula 87 _The Foot_ 87 =The Posterior Limbs in Some Animals:= _Plantigrades_: Bear 90 _Digitigrades_: Cat, dog 91 _Unguligrades_: Pig 94 Sheep, ox 95 Horse 99 Articulations of the posterior limbs 105 Coxo-femoral articulation 105 Femoro-tibial articulation, or knee 106 Tibio-tarsal articulation, and of the bones of the tarsus 107 =The Head in General, and in Some Animals in Particular:= Direction of the head 109 The skull 112 The face 118 The skull of birds 127 MYOLOGY =Muscles of the Trunk:= Pectoralis major 131 Pectoralis minor 133 Serratus magnus 134 =Muscles of the Abdomen:= External oblique 136 Internal oblique 137 Transversalis abdominis 138 Rectus abdominis 138 Pyramidalis abdominis 139 =Muscles of the Back:= Trapezius 140 Latissimus dorsi 142 Rhomboid 144 =The Cutaneous Muscle of the Trunk= 147 =The Coccygeal Region:= Ischio-coccygeal muscle 149 Superior sacro-coccygeal muscle 150 Lateral sacro-coccygeal muscle 150 Inferior sacro-coccygeal muscle 150 =Muscles of the Neck:= Mastoido-humeralis 150 Sterno-mastoid 153 Omo-trachelian 155 Levator anguli scapulæ 156 Splenius 158 =Infrahyoid Muscles:= Sterno-thyroid and sterno-hyoid 160 Omo-hyoid 160 =Suprahyoid Muscles:= Mylo-hyoid 161 Digastric 161 =Panniculus of the Neck= 162 =Muscles of the Anterior Limbs:= _Muscles of the Shoulder_ 162 Deltoid 162 Subscapularis 163 Supraspinatus 164 Infraspinatus 165 Teres minor 166 Teres major 166 Panniculus muscle of the shoulder 167 _Muscles of the Arm_ 168 Anterior region 169 Biceps 169 Brachialis anticus 170 Coraco-brachialis 170 Posterior region 171 Triceps 171 _Supplemental or Accessory Muscle of the Latissimus Dorsi_ 173 _Muscles of the Forearm_ 174 Anterior and external region 176 Supinator longus 176 First and second external radial 176 Supinator brevis 179 Extensor communis digitorum 179 Extensor minimi digiti 183 Posterior ulnar 185 Anconeus 185 Long abductor of the thumb 186 Short extensor of the thumb 187 Long extensor of the thumb 187 Proper extensor of the index 187 Internal and posterior region 188 Pronator teres 188 Flexor carpi radialis 189 Palmaris longus 189 Anterior ulnar 191 Superficial flexor of the digits 193 Long proper flexor of the thumb 197 Pronator quadratus 198 _Muscles of the Hand_ 199 =Muscles of the Posterior Limbs:= _Muscles of the Pelvis_ 200 Gluteus medius 200 Gluteus maximus 201 _Muscles of the Thigh_ 204 Muscles of the posterior region 205 Biceps 205 Semi-tendinosus 206 Semi-membranosus 207 Muscles of the anterior region 210 Triceps 210 Tensor fascia lata 211 Sartorius 211 Muscles of the internal region 213 Gracilis 213 _Muscles of the Leg_ 213 Muscles of the anterior region 214 Tibialis anticus 214 Extensor proprius pollicis 219 Extensor longus digitorum 219 Peroneus tertius 224 Muscles of the external region 224 Peroneus longus 224 Peroneus brevis 225 Muscles of the posterior region 227 Gastrocnemius 227 Soleus 228 Plantaris 228 Popliteus 228 Superficial flexor of the toes 229 Flexor longus digitorum 230 Tibialis posticus 230 Flexor longus pollicis 231 _Muscles of the Foot_ 231 Dorsalis pedis 231 _Muscles of the Head_ 232 Masticatory muscles 232 Masseter 232 Temporal muscle 234 Cutaneous muscles of the head 234 Occipito-frontalis 234 Orbicularis palpebrarum 234 Pyramidalis nasi 235 Corrugator supercilii 235 Zygomaticus major 235 Zygomaticus minor 236 Levator labii superioris proprius 237 Levator labii superioris alæque nasi 238 Transversus nasi 239 Caninus 239 Orbicularis oris 240 Triangularis oris 240 Quadratus menti 240 Prominence of the chin 240 Buccinator 241 Maxillo-labialis 242 Zygomatico-auricularis 242 Temporo-auricularis externus 243 Scuto-auricularis externus 243 Cervico-auricular muscles 243 Cervico-auricularis superioris 244 Cervico-auricularis medius 244 Cervico-auricularis inferioris 244 Parotido-auricularis 244 Temporo-auricularis internus 244 Zygomatico-auricularis 245 EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE TERMINAL EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS Claws 247 Plantar tubercles 248 Hoofs of the solipeds 250 Hoofs of ox and pig 261 * * * * * Proportions 262 Proportions of head of horse 273 (front view) 276 Paces of the horse 282 Amble 293 Trot 294 Walk 296 Gallop 300 Leap 364 ERRATA P. 105, _Articulations_ of the Posterior Limbs. P. 107, Tibio-tarsal _Articulation_. THE END _London: Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C._ +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | | | | Footnotes have been moved to underneath the paragraph, table or | | illustration they refer to. | | | | Illustrations have been moved so as to not disrupt the flow of the | | text. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations and in references | | have not been changed, and are therefore not always correct. | | | | The Table of Contents and the Sectional Index are not complete and | | contain slightly different wording than the names of sections in | | the text. This has been left as in the original work. | | | | The Errata have already been changed in the text. | | | | The author uses the terms chromophotograph and chronophotograph | | (and derivations of these words); these words have not been | | changed. The correct term in these cases is chronophotograph. | | | | Page 143, Fig. 69: atlas is mentioned twice (nrs. 12 and 13); only | | nr. 13 indicates the atlas. | | | | The text used is that of the original work, including | | inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation and lay-out, and | | differences between main text, footnotes and captions, except when | | mentioned below. | | | | Changes made to the text: | | Some minor obvious typographical errors have been corrected | | silently. | | Periods have been removed from some section headings for | | consistency. | | Page 2, footnote [2]: Mathias-Duval changed to Mathias Duval | | (full name: Mathias-Marie Duval). | | Page 23: _see_ replaced with see for consistency. | | Page 44 (footnote 12): Edward Cuyer changed to Édouard Cuyer as | | elsewhere. | | Page 53, captions (2x): AA¹ changed to AA´ as in drawing and | | text. | | Page 120, Fig. 63, caption: 14´, malar bone added, 14 changed to | | anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossæ (as in previous| | figures). | | Page 216: tendo-Achilles changed to tendo-Achillis as elsewhere. | | Page 234: Fig. 0, 92 changed to Fig. 90, 2. | | Page 254, Fig. 98: epternal changed to external. | | Page 269, last paragraph: one anchor to same footnote deleted. | | Page 325: L, D, L', D' changed to L, D, L´, D´. | | Footnotes 13, 17: La Natura changed to La Nature. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+