the field and garden vegetables of america; containing full descriptions of nearly eleven hundred species and varieties; with directions for propagation, culture, and use. by fearing burr, jr. illustrated. boston: crosby and nichols, , washington street. . entered, according to act of congress, in the year , by fearing burr, jr., in the clerk's office of the district court of the district of massachusetts. boston: printed by john wilson and son, , water street * * * * * to hon. albert fearing, president of the hingham agricultural and horticultural society, whose earnest labors and liberal contributions in the cause of humanity have endeared his name to the aged poor and to orphan children, and whose active services have exerted so beneficial an influence on agricultural pursuits in his native town, this volume is gratefully and respectfully dedicated by the author. * * * * * preface. though embracing all the directions necessary for the successful management of a vegetable garden, the present volume is offered to the public as a manual or guide to assist in the selection of varieties, rather than as a treatise on cultivation. through the standard works of american authors, as well as by means of the numerous agricultural and horticultural periodicals of our time, all information of importance relative to the various methods of propagation and culture, now in general practice, can be readily obtained. but, with regard to the characteristics which distinguish the numerous varieties; their difference in size, form, color, quality, and season of perfection; their hardiness, productiveness, and comparative value for cultivation,--these details, a knowledge of which is important as well to the experienced cultivator as to the beginner, have heretofore been obtained only through sources scattered and fragmentary. to supply this deficiency in horticultural literature, i have endeavored, in the following pages, to give full descriptions of the vegetables common to the gardens of this country. it is not, however, presumed that the list is complete, as many varieties, perhaps of much excellence, are comparatively local: never having been described, they are, of course, little known. neither is the expectation indulged, that all the descriptions will be found perfect; though much allowance must be made in this respect for the influence of soil, locality, and climate, as well as for the difference in taste of different individuals. much time, labor, and expense have been devoted to secure accuracy of names and synonymes; the seeds of nearly all of the prominent varieties having been imported both from england and france, and planted, in connection with american vegetables of the same name, with reference to this object alone. the delay and patience required in the preparation of a work like the present may be in some degree appreciated from the fact, that in order to obtain some comparatively unimportant particular with regard to the foliage, flower, fruit, or seed, of some obscure and almost unknown plant, it has been found necessary to import the seed or root; to plant, to till, to watch, and wait an entire season. though some vegetables have been included which have proved of little value either for the table or for agricultural purposes, still it is believed such descriptions will be found by no means unimportant; as a timely knowledge of that which is inferior, or absolutely worthless, is often as advantageous as a knowledge of that which is of positive superiority. that the volume may be acceptable to the agriculturist, seedsman, and to all who may possess, cultivate, or find pleasure in, a garden, is the sincere wish of the author. f. b., jr. hingham, march, . acknowledgments. in the preparation of this work, i have received the cheerful co-operation of many esteemed personal friends, to whom i would here express my grateful acknowledgments. for many valuable suggestions with regard to the culture and general management of the potato, as well as for much important information respecting nearly all of our american varieties of this vegetable, i am indebted to j. f. c. hyde, esq., of newton, mass.; whose long experience in the production of seedlings, as well as in the cultivation of established kinds, will give peculiar value to this portion of the volume. the illustrations, so excellent and truthful, are from the pencil of mr. isaac sprague, of cambridge, mass.; whose fine delineations of animal as well as vegetable life have won for him the reputation of being "the first of living artists." i am peculiarly indebted to rev. e. porter dyer, of hingham, for much valuable advice and assistance; and cannot too fully express my obligations for the unvarying kindness and courteous manner in which repeated, and perhaps often unseasonable, requests for aid have been received and granted. my acknowledgments are also due to hon. joseph breck, author of "book of flowers," and late president of the massachusetts horticultural society; to charles m. hovey, esq., editor of "the magazine of horticulture," and president of the massachusetts horticultural society; to p. b. hovey, esq., nurseryman and seedsman, of cambridge, mass.; and to daniel t. curtis, esq., seedsman and florist, and for many years chairman of the committee on vegetables of the massachusetts horticultural society. for information or other very acceptable assistance, i am also indebted to rev. calvin lincoln, of hingham; rev. john l. russell, of salem, mass.; john a. butler, esq., of chelsea, mass.; edward s. rand, jun., esq., of boston; mr. austin bronson, of enfield, n.h.; george w. pratt, esq., of boston; john m. ives, esq., of salem, mass.; mr. james scott, of hatfield, mass.; mr. alonzo crafts, of whately, mass.; mr. john c. hovey, of cambridge, mass.; mr. isaac p. rand, of dorchester, mass.; mr. george everett, of concord, mass.; and caleb bates, of kingston, mass. from a work entitled "descriptions des plantes potagères, par vilmorin, andrieux, et cie., paris;" from charles m'intosh's excellent "book of the garden;" the "gardener's assistant," by robert thompson; "rogers's vegetable cultivator;" and "lawson's agriculturist's manual,"--i have made liberal extracts; and lest, in the course of the volume, any omission of authority may occur where it should have been accredited, my indebtedness to the valuable publications above mentioned is here candidly confessed. in adapting directions for cultivation, prepared for one climate, or section of country, to suit that of another quite dissimilar, so much alteration of the original text has at times been found necessary, that i have not felt at liberty to affix the name of the original writer, but have simply added the usual marks denoting derivation of authority. abbreviations and authorities. _big._--plants of boston and vicinity. by jacob bigelow, m.d. boston, . _bon. jard._--le bon jardinier pour l'année . par a. boiteau et m. vilmorin. _corb._--the american gardener. by william corbett. concord, boston, and new york, . _cot. gard._--the cottage gardener. by george w. johnson and robert hogg. weekly. london. _count. gent._--the country gentleman. by luther tucker and son. weekly. albany, n.y. _de cand._--the candolle's systema naturale. by prof. de candolle. vols. vo. paris, , . _down._--the fruit and fruit-trees of america. by a. j. downing. revised and corrected by charles downing, . _gard. chron._--the gardener's chronicle. weekly. by prof. lindley. to the present time. _gray._--manual of the botany of the northern united states. by prof. asa gray. new york, . _hort._--the horticulturist, and journal of art and rural taste. monthly. by p. barry and j. jay smith. philadelphia. _hov. mag._--the magazine of horticulture, botany, and rural affairs. by c. m. hovey. boston. monthly. to the present time. _law._--the agriculturist's manual. by peter lawson and son. edinburgh, . _lind._--a guide to the orchard and kitchen garden. by george lindley. london, . _loud._--encyclopædia of gardening. by j. c. loudon. london, . _loud._--encyclopædia of agriculture. by j. c. loudon. london, . _low._--the elements of practical agriculture. by david low. london, . _m'int._--the book of the garden. by charles m'intosh. vols. edinburgh and london, . _mill._--the gardener's and botanist's dictionary. by philip miller. revised by prof. martyn. london, . _neill._--neill's journal of a horticultural tour, &c. vo. edinburgh, . _new am. cyclopædia._--new american cyclopædia. d. appleton & co., new york. vols. royal vo. to . _rog._--the vegetable cultivator. by john rogers. london, . _thomp._--the gardener's assistant. by robert thompson. _trans._--the transactions of the london horticultural society. commenced , and continued at intervals to the present time. _vil._--description des plantes potagères. par vilmorin, andrieux, et cie. paris, . * * * * * contents. chap. i.--_esculent roots._ the beet. carrot. chervil, turnip-rooted. chinese potato, or japanese yam. chufa, or earth almond. german rampion. jerusalem artichoke. kohl rabi. oxalis, tuberous. oxalis, deppe's. parsnip. potato. radish. rampion. swede or ruta-baga turnip. salsify, or oyster plant. scolymus. scorzonera. skirret. sweet potato. tuberous-rooted chickling vetch. tuberous-rooted tropæolum. turnip. - chap. ii.--_alliaceous plants._ the cive. garlic. leek. onion. rocambole. shallot. welsh onion. - chap. iii.--_asparaginous plants._ the artichoke. asparagus. cardoon. hop. oosung. phytolacca. - chap. iv.--_cucurbitaceous plants._ the cucumber. egyptian cucumber. globe cucumber. gourd, or calabash. the melon. musk-melon. persian melons. water-melon. papanjay, or sponge cucumber. prickly-fruited gherkin. pumpkin. snake cucumber. squash. - chap. v.--_brassicaceous plants._ borecole, or kale. broccoli. brussels sprouts. cabbage. cauliflower. colewort. couve tronchuda, or portugal cabbage. pak-chöi. pe-tsai, or chinese cabbage. savoy. sea-kale. - chap. vi.--_spinaceous plants._ amaranthus. black nightshade. leaf-beet, or swiss chard. malabar nightshade. nettle. new-zealand spinach. orach. patience dock. quinoa. sea-beet. shepherd's purse. sorrel. spinach. wild or perennial spinach. - chap. vii.--_salad plants._ alexanders. brook-lime. buckshorn plantain. burnet. caterpillar. celery. celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery. chervil. chiccory, or succory. corchorus. corn salad. cress, or peppergrass. cuckoo flower. dandelion. endive. horse-radish. lettuce. madras radish. mallow, curled-leaf. mustard. nasturtium. garden picridium. purslain. rape. roquette, or rocket. samphire. scurvy-grass. snails. sweet-scented chervil, or sweet cicely. tarragon. valeriana. water-cress. winter-cress, or yellow rocket. wood-sorrel. worms. - chap. viii.--_oleraceous plants._ angelica. anise. balm. basil. borage. caraway. clary. coriander. costmary. cumin. dill. fennel. lavender. lovage. marigold. marjoram. nigella. parsley. peppermint. rosemary. sage. savory. spearmint. tansy. thyme. - chap. ix.--_leguminous plants._ american garden-bean. asparagus-bean. lima bean. scarlet-runner. sieva. chick-pea. chickling vetch. english bean. lentil. lupine. pea. pea-nut. vetch, or tare. winged pea. - chap. x.--_medicinal plants._ bene-plant. camomile. coltsfoot. elecampane. hoarhound. hyssop. licorice. pennyroyal. poppy. palmate-leaved or turkey rhubarb. rue. saffron. southernwood. wormwood. - chap. xi.--_mushrooms, or esculent fungi._ agaricus. boletus. clavaria. morchella, or morel. tuber, or truffle. - chap. xii.--_miscellaneous vegetables._ alkekengi, or ground cherry. corn. egg-plant. martynia. oil radish. okra, or gumbo. pepper. rhubarb, or pie-plant. sunflower. tobacco. tomato. - index field and garden vegetables. chapter i. esculent roots. the beet. carrot. chervil, turnip-rooted. chinese potato, or japanese yam. chufa, or earth almond. german rampion. jerusalem artichoke. kohl rabi. oxalis, tuberous. oxalis, deppes. parsnip. potato. radish. rampion. swede, or ruta-baga turnip. salsify, or oyster plant. scolymus. scorzonera. skirret. sweet potato. tuberous-rooted chickling vetch. tuberous-rooted tropæolum. turnip. the beet. beta vulgaris. the common beet, sometimes termed the red beet, is a half-hardy biennial plant; and is cultivated for its large, succulent, sweet, and tender roots. these attain their full size during the first year, but will not survive the winter in the open ground. the seed is produced the second year; after the ripening of which, the plant perishes. when fully developed, the beet-plant rises about four feet in height, with an angular, channelled stem; long, slender branches; and large, oblong, smooth, thick, and fleshy leaves. the flowers are small, green, and are either sessile, or produced on very short peduncles. the calyxes, before maturity, are soft and fleshy; when ripe, hard and wood-like in texture. these calyxes, which are formed in small, united, rounded groups, or clusters, are of a brownish color, and about one-fourth of an inch in diameter; the size, however, as well as depth of color, varying, to some extent, in the different varieties. each of these clusters of dried calyxes contains from two to four of the true seeds, which are quite small, smooth, kidney-shaped, and of a deep reddish-brown color. these dried clusters, or groups, are usually recognized as the seeds; about fifteen hundred of which will weigh one ounce. they retain their vitality from seven to ten years. _soil and fertilizers._--the soil best adapted to the beet is a deep, light, well-enriched, sandy loam. when grown on thin, gravelly soil, the roots are generally tough and fibrous; and when cultivated in cold, wet, clayey localities, they are often coarse, watery, and insipid, worthless for the table, and comparatively of little value for agricultural purposes. a well-digested compost, formed of barnyard manure, loam and salt, makes the best fertilizer. where this is not to be obtained, guano, superphosphate of lime, or bone-dust, may be employed advantageously as a substitute. wood-ashes, raked or harrowed in just previous to sowing the seed, make an excellent surface-dressing, as they not only prevent the depredations of insects, but give strength and vigor to the young plants. the application of coarse, undigested, strawy manure, tends to the production of forked and misshapen roots, and should be avoided. _propagation and culture._--beets are always raised from seed. for early use, sowings are sometimes made in november; but the general practice is to sow the seed in april, as soon as the frost is out of the ground, or as soon as the soil can be worked. for use in autumn, the seed should be sown about the middle or th of may; and, for the winter supply, from the first to the middle of june. lay out the ground in beds five or six feet in width, and of a length proportionate to the supply required; spade or fork the soil deeply and thoroughly over; rake the surface smooth and even; and draw the drills across the bed, fourteen inches apart, and about an inch and a half in depth. sow the seeds thickly enough to secure a plant for every two or three inches, and cover to the depth of the drills. should the weather be warm and wet, the young plants will appear in seven or eight days. when they are two inches in height, they should be thinned to five or six inches apart; extracting the weaker, and filling vacant spaces by transplanting. the surplus plants will be found an excellent substitute for spinach, if cooked and served in like manner. the afterculture consists simply in keeping the plants free from weeds, and the earth in the spaces between the rows loose and open by frequent hoeings. mr. thompson states that "the drills for the smaller varieties should be about sixteen inches apart, and the plants should be thinned out to nine inches apart in the rows. the large sorts may have eighteen inches between the rows, but still not more than nine inches from plant to plant in the row. when large-sized roots are desired, the rows may be eighteen inches or two feet apart, and the plants twelve or fifteen inches distant from each other in the rows. but large roots are not the best for the table; and it is better to have two medium-sized roots, grown at nine inches apart, than one of perhaps double the size from twice the space. as a square foot of ground should afford plenty of nourishment to produce a root large enough for the table, the area for each plant may, therefore, be limited to that extent. if the rows are sixteen inches apart, and the plants thinned to nine inches in the row, each plant will have a space equal to a square foot. such, of course, would also be the case if the rows were twelve inches apart, and the plants the same distance from each other in the row. but it is preferable to allow a greater space between the rows than between the plants in the row: for, by this arrangement, the leaves have better scope to grow to each side, and the plants so situated grow better than those which have an equal but rather limited space in all directions; whilst the ground can also be more easily stirred, and kept clean." _taking the crop._--roots, from the first sowings, will be ready for use early in july; from which time, until october, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. they should be drawn as fast as they attain a size fit for use; which will allow more time and space for the development of those remaining. for winter use, the roots must be taken up before the occurrence of heavy frosts, as severe cold not only greatly impairs their quality, but causes them to decay at the crown. remove the leaves, being careful not to cut or bruise the crown; spread the roots in the sun a few hours to dry; pack them in sand or earth slightly moist; and place in the cellar, out of reach of frost, for the winter. "the london market-gardeners winter their beets in large sheds, stored in moderately damp mould, and banked up with straw. mr. cuthill states that it is a mistake to pack them in dry sand or earth for the winter; and that the same may be said of parsnips, carrots, salsify, scorzonera, and similar roots. "the object here is, that the moist soil may not draw the natural sap out of the roots so readily as dry sand would do; and hence they retain their fresh, plump appearance, and their tenderness and color are better preserved. in taking up the roots, the greatest care must be exercised that they are neither cut, broken, wounded on the skin, nor any of the fibres removed; and, when the small-leaved varieties are grown, few, if any, of the leaves should be cut off."--_m'int._ if harvested before receiving injury from cold, and properly packed, they will retain, in a good degree, their freshness and sweetness until the new crop is suitable for use. _seed._--to raise seed, select smooth and well-developed roots having the form, size, and color by which the pure variety is distinguished; and, in april, transplant them eighteen inches or two feet apart, sinking the crowns to a level with the surface of the ground. as the stalks increase in height, tie them to stakes for support. the plants will blossom in june and july, and the seeds will ripen in august. in harvesting, cut off the plants near the ground, and spread them in a light and airy situation till they are sufficiently dried for threshing, or stripping off the seeds; after which the seeds should be exposed, to evaporate any remaining moisture. an ounce of seed will sow from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet of drill, according to the size of the variety; and about four pounds will be required for one acre. _use._--"the roots are the parts generally used, and are boiled, stewed, and also eaten cold, sliced in vinegar and oil. they enter into mixed salads, and are much used for garnishing; and, for all these purposes, the deeper colored they are, the more they are appreciated. some, however, it ought to be noticed, prefer them of a bright-red color; but all must be of fine quality in fibre, solid, and of uniform color. the roots are also eaten cut into thin slices, and baked in an oven. dried, roasted, and ground, they are sometimes mixed with coffee, and are also much employed as a pickle. mixed with dough, they make a wholesome bread; but, for this purpose, the white or yellow rooted sorts are preferred. the roots of all the varieties are better baked than boiled."--_m'int._ the young plants make an excellent substitute for spinach; and the leaves of some of the kinds, boiled when nearly full grown, and served as greens, are tender and well-flavored. some of the larger varieties are remarkably productive, and are extensively cultivated for agricultural purposes. from a single acre of land in good condition, thirty or forty tons are frequently harvested; and exceptional crops are recorded of fifty, and even sixty tons. in france, the white sugar-beet is largely employed for the manufacture of sugar,--the amount produced during one year being estimated to exceed that annually made from the sugar-cane in the state of louisiana. for sheep, dairy-stock, and the fattening of cattle, experience has proved the beet to be at once healthful, nutritious, and economical. _varieties._--the varieties are quite numerous, and vary to a considerable extent in size, form, color, and quality. they are obtained by crossing, or by the intermixture of one kind with another. this often occurs naturally when two or more varieties are allowed to run to seed in close proximity, but is sometimes performed artificially by transferring the pollen from the flower of a particular variety to the stigma of the flower of another. the kinds now in cultivation are as follows; viz.:-- bark-skinned. _vil._ oak bark-skinned. [illustration: bark-skinned beet.] root produced entirely within the earth, broadest near the crown, and thence tapering regularly to a point; average specimens measuring four inches in their greatest diameter, and about one foot in depth. skin dark brown, thick, hard, and wrinkled, or striated, sometimes reticulated or netted, much resembling the bark of some descriptions of trees; whence the name. flesh very deep purplish-red, circled, and rayed with paler red, fine-grained, sugary, and tender. leaves numerous, spreading, bright green, slightly stained with red; the leaf-stems and nerves bright purplish-red. an early and comparatively new french variety, of fine flavor, excellent for summer use, and, if sown as late as the second week in june, equally valuable for the table during winter. not recommended for field culture. sow in rows fourteen inches apart, and thin to six inches apart in the rows. barrott's new crimson. _thomp._ root similar in form to the castelnaudary, but somewhat larger; smooth and regular, and not apt to fork. flesh dark crimson, fine-grained and tender. leaf-stalks yellow. bassano. early flat bassano. turnip-rooted bassano. rouge plate de bassano. _vil._ bulb flattened; six or seven inches in diameter by three or four inches in depth; not very regular or symmetrical, but often somewhat ribbed, and terminating in a very small, slender tap-root. skin of fine texture; brown above ground; below the surface, clear rose-red. flesh white, circled or zoned with bright pink; not very close-grained, but very sugary and well-flavored. leaves numerous, erect, of a lively green color, forming many separate groups, or tufts, covering the entire top, or crown, of the root. leaf-stems short, greenish-white, washed or stained with rose. an italian variety, generally considered the earliest of garden-beets, being from seven to ten days earlier than the early blood turnip-rooted. the flesh, although much coarser than that of many other sorts, is tender, sweet, and of good quality. roots from early sowings are, however, not suited for winter use; as, when overgrown, they almost invariably become too tough, coarse, and fibrous for table use. to have them in perfection during winter, the seed should not be sown till near the close of june. in moist, favorable seasons, it succeeds well in comparatively poor, thin soil. cultivate and preserve as directed for the early turnip-rooted. cattell's dwarf blood. root small, regularly tapering. flesh deep blood-red. leaves small, bright red, spreading, or inclined to grow horizontally. quality good,--similar to that of the red castelnaudary; which variety it much resembles in its general character. on account of its small size, it requires little space, and may be grown in rows twelve inches apart. cow-horn mangel wurzel. _vil._ serpent-like beet. cow-horn scarcity. a sub-variety of the mangel wurzel, producing its roots almost entirely above ground; only a small portion growing within the earth. root long and slender, two feet and a half in length, and nearly three inches in diameter at its broadest part; often grooved or furrowed lengthwise, and almost invariably bent and distorted,--the effect either of the wind, or of the weight of its foliage. flesh greenish white, circled with red at the centre. leaves of medium size, green, erect; the leaf-stems and nerves pale red or rose color. it derives its different names from its various contorted forms; sometimes resembling a horn, and often assuming a shape not unlike that of a serpent. the variety is much esteemed and extensively cultivated in some parts of europe, although less productive than the white sugar or long red mangel wurzel. early mangel wurzel. early scarcity. disette hâtive. _vil._ aside from its smaller size, this variety much resembles the common red mangel wurzel. root contracted towards the crown, which rises two or three inches above the surface of the soil, and tapering within the earth to a regular cone. skin purplish rose, deeper colored than that of the last named. flesh white, circled or zoned with pale red. leaves spreading, green; the leaf-stems rose-colored. it is remarkable for the regular and symmetrical form of its roots, which grow rapidly, and, if pulled while young, are tender, very sweet, and well flavored. planted the last of june, it makes a table-beet of more than average quality for winter use. when sown early, it attains a comparatively large size, and should have a space of twenty inches between the rows; but, when sown late, fifteen inches between the rows, and six inches between the plants in the rows, will afford ample space for their development. early blood turnip-rooted. early turnip beet. [illustration: early blood turnip-rooted] the roots of this familiar variety are produced almost entirely within the earth, and measure, when of average size, from four inches to four and a half in depth, and about four inches in diameter. form turbinate, flattened, smooth, and symmetrical. neck small, tap-root very slender, and regularly tapering. skin deep purplish-red. flesh deep blood-red, sometimes circled and rayed with paler red, remarkably sweet and tender. leaves erect, not very numerous, and of a deep-red color, sometimes inclining to green; but the stems and nerves always of a deep brilliant red. the early blood turnip beet succeeds well from canada to the gulf of mexico; and in almost every section of the united states is more esteemed, and more generally cultivated for early use, than any other variety. among market-gardeners, it is the most popular of the summer beets. it makes a rapid growth, comes early to the table, and, when sown late, keeps well, and is nearly as valuable for use in winter as in summer and autumn. in common with most of the table sorts, the turnip-rooted beets are much sweeter and more tender if pulled before they are fully grown; and consequently, to have a continued supply in their greatest perfection, sowings should be made from the beginning of april to the last of june, at intervals of two or three weeks. the roots, especially those intended for seed, should be harvested before severe frosts, as they are liable to decay when frozen at the crown, or even chilled. sow in drills fourteen inches apart; and, when two inches in height, thin out the plants to six inches apart in the drills. an acre of land in good cultivation will yield from seven to eight hundred bushels. german red mangel wurzel. disette d'allemagne. _vil._ an improved variety of the long red mangel wurzel, almost regularly cylindrical, and terminating at the lower extremity in an obtuse cone. it grows much out of ground, the neck or crown is comparatively small, it is rarely forked or deformed by small side roots, and is generally much neater and more regular than the long red. size very large; well-developed specimens measuring from eighteen to twenty inches in length, and seven or eight inches in diameter. flesh white, with red zones or rings; more colored than that of the last named. leaves erect, green; the stems and nerves washed or stained with rose-red. for agricultural purposes, this variety is superior to the long red, as it is larger, more productive, and more easily harvested. german yellow mangel wurzel. green mangel wurzel. jaune d'allemagne. _vil._ root produced half above ground, nearly cylindrical for two-thirds its length, terminating rather bluntly, and often branched or deformed by small side-roots. size large; when well grown, measuring sixteen or eighteen inches deep, six or seven inches in diameter, and weighing from twelve to fifteen pounds. skin above ground, greenish-brown; below, yellow. flesh white, occasionally zoned or marked with yellow. leaves of medium size, rather numerous, erect, very pale, or yellowish green; the stems and ribs light green. while young and small, the roots are tender and well-flavored; but this is a field rather than a table beet. in point of productiveness, it differs little from the common long red, and should be cultivated as directed for that variety. half long blood. dwarf blood. fine dwarf red. early half long blood. rouge nain. _vil._ [illustration: half long blood.] root produced within the earth, of medium size, or rather small; usually measuring about three inches in thickness near the crown, and tapering regularly to a point; the length being ten or twelve inches. skin smooth, very deep purplish-red. flesh deep blood-red, circled and rayed with paler red, remarkably fine grained, of firm texture, and very sugary. leaves small, bright red, blistered on the surface, and spreading horizontally. leaf-stems short. an excellent, half-early, garden variety, sweet, and well flavored, a good keeper, and by many considered very superior to the common long blood. when full grown, it is still tender and fine-grained, and much less stringy and fibrous than the last named, at an equally advanced stage of growth. it may be classed as one of the best table-beets, and is well worthy cultivation. improved long blood. long smooth blood. this is an improved variety of the common long blood, attaining a much larger size, and differing in its form, and manner of growth. when matured in good soil, its length is from eighteen inches to two feet; and its diameter, which is retained for more than half its length, is from four to five inches. it is seldom very symmetrical in its form; for, though it has but few straggling side-roots, it is almost invariably bent and distorted. skin smooth, very deep or blackish purple. flesh dark blood-red, sweet, tender, and fine grained, while the root is young and small, but liable to be tough and fibrous when full grown. leaves small, erect-red, and not very numerous. leaf-stems blood-red. this beet, like the common long blood, is a popular winter sort, retaining its color well when boiled. it is of larger size than the last named, grows more above the surface of the ground, and has fewer fibrous and accidental small side-roots. while young, it compares favorably with the old variety; but, when full grown, can hardly be said to be much superior. to have the variety in its greatest perfection for winter use, the seed should not be sown before the th of june; as the roots of this, as well as those of nearly all the table-varieties, are much more tender and succulent when very rapidly grown, and of about two-thirds their full size. sow in drills fifteen inches apart, and thin to eight inches apart in the drills; or sow on ridges eighteen inches apart. long blood. common long blood. the roots of this familiar variety are long, tapering, and comparatively slender; the size varying according to the depth and richness of the soil. skin dark purple, sometimes purplish-black. flesh deep blood-red, very fine grained and sugary, retaining its color well after being boiled. leaves rather numerous, of medium size, erect, deep purplish-red; the leaf-stems blood-red. one of the most popular of winter beets; but, for late keeping, the seed should not be sown before the middle of june, as the roots, when large, are frequently tough and fibrous. the improved long blood is a variety of this, and has, to a considerable extent, superseded it in the vegetable garden; rather, it would seem, on account of its greater size, than from any real superiority as respects its quality or keeping properties. long red mangel wurzel. red mangel wurzel. marbled field beet. _law._ root fusiform, contracted at the crown, which, in the genuine variety, rises six or eight inches above the surface of the ground. size large, when grown in good soil; often measuring eighteen inches in length, and six or seven inches in diameter. skin below ground purplish-rose; brownish-red where exposed to the air and light. leaves green; the stems and nerves washed or stained with rose-red. flesh white, zoned and clouded with different shades of red. the long red mangel wurzel is hardy, keeps well, grows rapidly, is very productive, and in this country is more generally cultivated for agricultural purposes than any other variety. according to lawson, the marbled or mixed color of its flesh seems particularly liable to vary: in some specimens, it is almost of a uniform red; while, in others, the red is scarcely, and often not at all, perceptible. these variations in color are, however, of no importance as respects the quality of the roots. the seed may be sown from the middle of april to the last of may. if sown in drills, they should be at least eighteen inches apart, and the plants should be thinned to ten inches in the drills. if sown on ridges, the sowing should be made in double rows; the ridges being three and a half or four feet apart, and the rows fifteen inches apart. the yield varies with the quality of the soil and the state of cultivation; thirty and thirty-five tons being frequently harvested from an acre. while young, the roots are tender and well-flavored, and are sometimes employed for table use. long white green-top mangel wurzel. green-top white sugar. long white mangel wurzel. disette blanche à collet verte. _vil._ an improved variety of the white sugar beet. root produced much above ground, and of very large size; if well grown, measuring nearly six inches in diameter, and eighteen inches in depth,--the diameter often retained for nearly two-thirds the length. skin green, where exposed to light and air; below ground, white. flesh white. leaves green, rather large, and not so numerous as those of the white sugar. very productive, and superior to the last named for agricultural purposes; the quality being equally good, and the yield much greater. long yellow mangel wurzel. jaune grosse. _vil._ [illustration: long yellow mangel wurzel.] root somewhat fusiform, contracted towards the crown, which rises six or eight inches above the surface of the ground. size remarkably large; when grown in deep rich soil, often measuring twenty inches in length, and five or six inches in thickness. skin yellow, bordering on orange-color. flesh pale yellow, zoned or circled with white, not close-grained, but sugary. leaves comparatively large, pale green; the stems and nerves yellow; the nerves paler. the variety is one of the most productive of the field-beets; but the roots are neither smooth nor symmetrical, a majority being forked or much branched. in the vicinity of paris, it is extensively cultivated, and is much esteemed by dairy farmers on account of the rich color which it imparts to milk when fed to dairy-stock. compared with the german yellow, the roots of this variety are longer, not so thick, more tapering; and the flesh is of a much deeper color. it has also larger foliage. pine-apple short-top. _hov. mag._ root of medium size, fusiform. skin deep purplish-red. flesh very deep blood-red, fine-grained, as sweet as the bassano, tender, and of excellent quality for table use. leaves very short and few in number, reddish-green; leaf-stems and nerves blood-red. in its foliage, as well as in the color of the root, it strongly resembles some of the long blood varieties; but it is not so large, is much finer in texture, and superior in flavor. it is strictly a garden or table beet, and, whether for fall or winter use, is well deserving of cultivation. red castelnaudary. _trans._ this beet derives its name from a town in the province of languedoc in france, where the soil is particularly adapted to the growth of these vegetables, and where this variety, which is so much esteemed in france for its nut-like flavor, was originally produced. the roots grow within the earth. the leaves are thickly clustered around the crown, spreading on the ground. the longest of the leaf-stems do not exceed three inches: these and the veins of the leaves are quite purple, whilst the leaves themselves are green, with only a slight stain of purple. the root is little more than two inches in diameter at the top, tapering gradually to the length of nine inches. the flesh, which is of a deep purple, and exhibits dark rings, preserves its fine color when boiled, is very tender and sweet, and presents a delicate appearance when cut in slices. being small in its whole habit, it occupies but little space in the ground, and may be sown closer than other varieties usually are. not generally known or much cultivated in this country. red globe mangel wurzel. betterave globe rouge. _vil._ root nearly spherical, but tapering to pear-shaped at the base; nearly one-third produced above ground. size large; well-grown specimens measuring seven or eight inches in diameter, and nine or ten inches in depth. skin smooth, and of a rich purplish rose-color below ground; brown above the surface, where exposed to the sun. flesh white, rarely circled, with rose-red. leaves pale green, or yellowish green; the stems and ribs or nerves sometimes veined with red. this variety is productive, keeps well, and, like the yellow globe, is well adapted to hard and shallow soils. it is usually cultivated for agricultural purposes, although the yield is comparatively less than that of the last named. in moist soils, the yellow globe succeeds best; and, as its quality is considered superior, it is now more generally cultivated than the red. white globe mangel wurzel. a sub-variety of the yellow and red globe, which, in form and manner of growth, it much resembles. skin above ground, green; below, white. leaves green. flesh white and sugary; but, like the foregoing sorts, not fine grained, or suited for table use. productive, easily harvested, excellent and profitable for farm purposes, and remarkably well adapted for cultivation in hard, shallow soil. white sugar. white silesian. betterave blanche. _vil._ [illustration: white sugar beet.] root fusiform, sixteen inches in length, six or seven inches in its greatest diameter, contracted towards the crown, thickest just below the surface of the soil, but nearly retaining its size for half the depth, and thence tapering regularly to a point. skin white, washed with green or rose-red at the crown. flesh white, crisp, and very sugary. leaves green; the leaf-stems clear green, or green stained with light red, according to the variety. the white sugar beet is quite extensively grown in this country, and is employed almost exclusively as feed for stock; although the young roots are sweet, tender, and well flavored, and in all respects superior for the table to many garden varieties. in france, it is largely cultivated for the manufacture of sugar and for distillation. of the two sub-varieties, some cultivators prefer the green-top; others, the rose-colored or red-top. the latter is the larger, more productive, and the better keeper; but the former is the more sugary. it is, however, very difficult to preserve the varieties in a pure state; much of the seed usually sown containing, in some degree, a mixture of both. it is cultivated in all respects as the long red mangel wurzel, and the yield per acre varies from twenty to thirty tons. white turnip-rooted. a variety of the early turnip-rooted blood, with green leaves and white flesh; the size and form of the root, and season of maturity, being nearly the same. quality tender, sweet, and well flavored; but, on account of its color, not so marketable as the last named. wyatt's dark crimson. whyte's dark crimson. rouge de whyte. _vil._ root sixteen inches long, five inches in diameter, fusiform, and somewhat angular in consequence of broad and shallow longitudinal furrows or depressions. crown conical, brownish. skin smooth, slate-black. flesh very deep purplish-red, circled and rayed with yet deeper shades of red, very fine-grained, and remarkably sugary. leaves deep red, shaded with brownish-red: those of the centre, erect; those of the outside, spreading or horizontal. the variety is not early, but of fine quality; keeps remarkably well, and is particularly recommended for cultivation for winter and spring use. much esteemed in england. yellow castelnaudary. _trans._ _vil._ root produced within the earth, broadest at the crown, where its diameter is nearly three inches, and tapering gradually to a point; the length being about eight inches. skin orange-yellow. flesh clear yellow, with paler zones or rings. leaves spreading, those on the outside being on stems about four inches in length; the inner ones are shorter, numerous, of a dark-green color, and rather waved on the edges: the leaf-stems are green, rather than yellow. an excellent table-beet, being tender, yet firm, and very sweet when boiled, although its color is not so agreeable to the eye. yellow globe mangel wurzel. betterave jaune globe. _vil._ [illustration: yellow globe mangel wurzel.] this is a globular-formed beet, measuring about ten inches in diameter, and weighing ten or twelve pounds; about one-half of the root growing above ground. skin yellow, where it is covered by the soil; and yellowish-brown above the surface, where exposed to light and air. flesh white, zoned or marked with yellow, close-grained and sugary. leaves not large or numerous, rather erect, green; the stems and ribs paler, and sometimes yellowish. the yellow globe is one of the most productive of all the varieties; and, though not adapted to table use, is particularly excellent for stock of all descriptions, as the roots are not only remarkably sugary, but contain a considerable portion of albumen. it retains its soundness and freshness till the season has far advanced, does not sprout so early in spring as many others, and is especially adapted for cultivation in hard, shallow soil. the yield varies from thirty to forty tons per acre, according to soil, season, and culture; although crops are recorded of fifty tons and upwards. sow from the last of april to the last of may; but early sowings succeed best. if sown in drills, they should be made twenty inches apart, and the plants should be thinned to ten inches apart in the drills; if sown on ridges, sow in double rows, making the ridges three feet and a half, and the rows sixteen inches apart. on account of its globular form, the crop can be harvested with great facility by the use of a common plough. yellow turnip-rooted. a sub-variety of the blood turnip-rooted, differing principally in color, but to some extent also in its form, which is less compressed. leaves large, yellowish-green; the leaf-stems and nerves yellow. flesh yellow, comparatively close-grained, sweet and tender. not much cultivated on account of its color; the red varieties being preferred for table use. * * * * * the carrot. daucus carota. the carrot, in its cultivated state, is a half-hardy biennial. it is indigenous to some parts of great britain, generally growing in chalky or sandy soil, and to some extent has become naturalized in this country; being found in gravelly pastures and mowing fields, and occasionally by roadsides, in loose places, where the surface has been disturbed or removed. in its native state, the root is small, slender, and fibrous, or woody, of no value, and even of questionable properties as an article of food. _soil, sowing, and culture._--the carrot flourishes best in a good, light, well-enriched loam. where there is a choice of situations, heavy and wet soils should be avoided; and, where extremes are alternatives, preference should be given to the light and dry. if possible, the ground should be stirred to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches, incorporating a liberal application of well-digested compost, and well pulverizing the soil in the operation. the surface should next be levelled, cleared as much as possible of stones and hard lumps of earth, and made mellow and friable; in which state, if the ground contains sufficient moisture to color the surface when it is stirred, it will be ready for the seed. this may be sown from the first of april to the th of may; but early sowings succeed best. the drills should be made an inch in depth; and for the smaller, garden varieties, about ten inches apart. the larger sorts are grown in drills about fourteen inches apart; the plants in the rows being thinned to five or six inches asunder. _harvesting._--the roots attain their full size by the autumn of the first year; and, as they are not perfectly hardy, should be dug and housed before the ground is frozen. when large quantities are raised for stock, they are generally placed in bulk in the cellar, without packing; but the finer sorts, when intended for the table, are usually packed in earth or sand, in order to retain their freshness and flavor. with ordinary precaution, they will remain sound and fresh until may or june. _seed._--to raise seed, select good-sized, smooth, and symmetrical roots; and as early in spring as the frost is out of the ground, and the weather settled, transplant to rows three feet apart, and fifteen inches apart in the rows, sinking the crowns just below a level with the surface of the ground. the seed-stalks are from four to six feet in height, with numerous branches. the flowers appear in june and july; are white; and are produced at the extremities of the branches, in umbels, or flat, circular groups or clusters, from two to five inches in diameter. the seed ripens in august; but, as all the heads do not ripen at once, they should be cut off as they successively mature. the stiff, pointed hairs or bristles with which the seeds are thickly covered, and which cause them to adhere together, should be removed either by threshing or by rubbing between the hands; clearing them more or less perfectly, according to the manner of sowing. if sown by a machine, the seeds should not only be free from broken fragments of the stems of the plant, but the surface should be made as smooth as possible. for hand-sowing, the condition of the seed is less essential; though, when clean, it can be distributed in the drill more evenly and with greater facility. the seeds of the several varieties differ little in size, form, or color, and are not generally distinguishable from each other. they will keep well two years; and if preserved from dampness, and placed in a cool situation, a large percentage will vegetate when three years old. in the vegetable garden, an ounce of seed is allowed for one hundred and fifty feet of drill; and, for field culture, about two pounds for an acre. an ounce contains twenty-four thousand seeds. _use._--though not relished by all palates, carrots are extensively employed for culinary purposes, and are generally considered healthful and nutritious. they form an important ingredient in soups, stews, and french dishes of various descriptions; and by many are much esteemed, when simply boiled, and served with meats or fish. "carrots may be given to every species of stock, and form in all cases a palatable and nourishing food. they are usually given in their raw state, though they may be steamed or boiled in the same manner as other roots. "horses and dairy-cows are the live-stock to which they are most frequently given. they are found in an eminent degree to give color and flavor to butter; and, when this is the end desired, no species of green-feeding is better suited to the dairy. to horses they may be given with cut straw and hay; and, thus given, form a food which will sustain them on hard work. they afford excellent feeding for swine, and quickly fatten them. when boiled, they will be eaten by poultry; and, mixed with any farinaceous substance, form an excellent food for them. they are also used for distillation, affording a good spirit." the varieties are as follow:-- altringham. _law._ altringham. long red altringham. _vil._ the altrincham carrot measures about fourteen inches in length, by two inches in diameter. it retains its thickness for nearly two-thirds its length: but the surface is seldom regular or smooth; the genuine variety being generally characterized by numerous crosswise elevations, and corresponding depressions. neck small and conical, rising one or two inches above the surface of the soil. skin nearly bright-red; the root having a semi-transparent appearance. flesh bright and lively, crisp and breaking in its texture; and the heart, in proportion to the size of the root, is smaller than that of the long orange. leaves long, but not large or very numerous. according to lawson, it is easily distinguished from the long orange by the roots growing more above ground, by its more convex or rounded shoulders, and by its tapering more irregularly, and terminating more abruptly. it is, however, exceedingly difficult to procure the variety in its purity, as it is remarkably liable to sport, although the roots grown for seed be selected with the greatest care. it is a good field-carrot, but less productive than the long orange and some others; mild and well flavored for the table, and one of the best sorts for cultivation for market. thompson states that "it derives its name from a place called altrincham, in cheshire, eng., where it is supposed to have originated. in seedsmen's lists it is frequently, but erroneously, called the altringham." early frame. early forcing horn. earliest short forcing horn. early short scarlet. [illustration: early frame.] root grooved or furrowed at the crown, roundish, or somewhat globular; rather more than two inches in diameter, nearly the same in depth, and tapering suddenly to a very slender tap-root. skin red, or reddish-orange; brown or greenish where it comes to the surface of the ground. foliage small and finely cut or divided, not so large or luxuriant as that of the early horn. the early frame is the earliest of all varieties, and is especially adapted for cultivation under glass, both on account of its earliness, and the shortness and small size of its roots. it is also one of the best sorts for the table, being very delicate, fine-grained, mild, and remarkably well flavored. where space is limited, it may be grown in rows six inches apart, thinned to three inches apart in the rows; or sown broadcast, and the young plants thinned to three inches apart in each direction. early half-long scarlet. half-long red. _vil._ root slender and tapering, measuring seven or eight inches in length, and two inches in its greatest diameter. crown hollow. skin red below the surface of the ground, green or brown above. flesh reddish-orange, fine-grained, mild, and well flavored. foliage similar to that of the early frame, but not abundant. the variety is remarkably productive; in good soil and favorable seasons, often yielding an amount per acre approaching that of the long orange. season intermediate between the early garden and late field sorts. early horn. early scarlet horn. early short dutch. dutch horn. [illustration: early horn carrot.] root six inches in length, two inches and a half in diameter, nearly cylindrical, and tapering abruptly to a very slender tap-root. skin orange-red, but green or brown where it comes to the surface of the ground. flesh deep orange-yellow, fine-grained, and of superior flavor and delicacy. the crown of the root is hollow, and the foliage short and small. the variety is very early, and as a table-carrot much esteemed, both on account of the smallness of its heart and the tenderness of its fibre. as the roots are very short, it is well adapted for shallow soils; and on poor, thin land will often yield a greater product per acre than the long orange or the white belgian, when sown under like circumstances. sow in rows one foot apart, and thin to four inches in the rows. flander's large pale scarlet. _vil._ flander's pale red. root produced within the earth, fourteen or fifteen inches long, three or four inches in diameter at the broadest part, fusiform, not very symmetrical, but often quite crooked and angular. the crown is flat, very large, and nearly covered by the insertion of the leaves. flesh reddish-yellow, and rather coarse-grained. foliage large and vigorous. the roots are formed early and with great certainty. it is also very productive, of large size, keeps remarkably well; and, though of coarse texture, one of the best sorts for cultivation for farm-purposes. it originated in flanders, and is comparatively an old variety, but is little disseminated, and not grown to any extent, in this country. long orange. root long, thickest at or near the crown, and tapering regularly to a point. size very variable, being much affected by soil, season, and cultivation: well-grown specimens measure fifteen inches in length, and three inches in diameter at the crown. skin smooth, of a reddish-orange color. flesh comparatively close-grained, succulent, and tender, of a light-reddish vermilion or orange color, the heart lighter, and large in proportion to the size of the root. foliage not abundant, but healthy and vigorous, and collected into a comparatively small neck. the roots are usually produced entirely within the earth. if pulled while very young and small, they are mild, fine-grained, and good for table use; but, when full grown, the texture is coarser, and the flavor stronger and less agreeable. the long orange is more cultivated in this country for agricultural purposes than all other varieties. with respect to its value for stock, its great productiveness, and its keeping properties, it is considered the best of all the sorts for field culture. a well-enriched soil will yield from six hundred to eight hundred bushels per acre. the seed is usually sown in drills, about fourteen inches apart, but sometimes on ridges, eighteen or twenty inches apart, formed by turning two furrows together; the ridges yielding the largest roots, and the drills the greatest quantity. two pounds of seed are usually allowed to an acre; but, if sown by a well-regulated machine, about one-half this quantity will be sufficient. long red belgian. yellow belgian. yellow green-top belgian. [illustration: long red belgian carrot.] root very long, fusiform, contracted a little towards the crown, but nearly of uniform thickness from the top down half the length. size large; when grown in deep soil, often measuring twenty inches in length, and nearly three inches in diameter. the crown rises four or five inches above the surface of the ground, and is of a green color; below the surface, the skin is reddish-yellow. flesh orange-red. this variety, like the white, originated in belgium. in europe it is much esteemed by agriculturists, and is preferred to the white belgian, as it is not only nearly as productive, but has none of its defects. long yellow. long lemon. root fusiform, three inches in diameter at the crown, and from, twelve to fourteen inches in depth. skin pale yellow, or lemon-color, under ground; but greenish on the top, or crown, which rises a little above the surface of the soil. flesh yellow, the heart paler, and, like that of the long orange, of large size. while young, the roots are delicate, mild, and well flavored; but, when full grown, valuable only for stock. the long lemon is easily harvested, and is very productive, yielding nearly the same quantity to the acre as the long orange; which variety it much resembles in its general character, and with which it is frequently, to a greater or less extent, intermixed. long surrey. long red. james's scarlet. this variety much resembles the long orange: the roots, however, are more slender, the heart is smaller, and the color deeper. "it is popular in some parts of england, and is extensively grown over the continent." long white. common white. root produced entirely below ground, regularly fusiform, fifteen inches long, by about three inches in its largest diameter. skin white, stained with russet-brown. flesh white, and generally considered sweeter than that of the colored varieties. the common white has been but little cultivated since the introduction of the white belgian; a variety much more productive, though perhaps not superior either in flavor, or fineness of texture. new intermediate. [illustration: new intermediate.] an english variety, comparatively of recent introduction. root broadest at the crown, and thence tapering very regularly to a point. size full medium; well-grown specimens measuring nearly three inches in diameter at the broadest part, and about one foot in length. skin bright orange-red. flesh orange-yellow, fine-grained, sweet, well flavored, and, while young, excellent for table use. very hardy, and also very productive; yielding, according to the best english authority, a greater weight per acre than any other yellow-fleshed variety. purple or blood red. violette. _vil._ root fusiform, and very slender, fourteen inches in length, by two inches and a half in diameter at the top or broadest part. skin deep purple, varying to some extent in depth of shade, but generally very dark. flesh purple at the outer part of the root, and yellow at the centre or heart; fine grained, sugary, and comparatively well flavored. not much cultivated for the table, on account of the brown color it imparts to soups or other dishes of which it may be an ingredient. it is also inclined to run to seed the year it is sown. it has, however, the reputation of flourishing better in wet, heavy soil, than any other variety. short white. blanche des vosges. _vil._ root obtusely conical, seven or eight inches long, by about four inches in diameter at the crown, which is large, flat, greenish, and level with the surface of the ground. skin white, tinted with amber, smooth and fine. flesh yellowish-white, remarkably solid, and fine in texture; sweet and well flavored. foliage rather finely divided, and as vigorous as the long orange. the short white yields well, retains its qualities during winter, and is well adapted for cultivation in soils that are hard and shallow. studley. long red brunswick. root fusiform, very long, and regular; the crown level with the surface of the soil. in good cultivation, the roots attain a length of sixteen inches, and a diameter of nearly two inches. color bright reddish-orange, like the altrincham. an excellent table-carrot, but flourishes well only in deep, mellow soil. white belgian. green-top white. root very long, fusiform, eighteen to twenty inches in length, and four or five inches in diameter. in the genuine variety, the crown rises five or six inches from the surface of the ground; and, with the exception of a slight contraction towards the top, the full diameter is retained for nearly one-half of the entire length. skin green above, white below ground. flesh white, tending to citron-yellow at the centre or heart of the root; somewhat coarse in texture. foliage rather large and vigorous. the white belgian carrot is remarkable for its productiveness, surpassing in this respect all other varieties, and exceeding that of the long orange by nearly one-fourth. it can be harvested with great facility, and gives a good return even on poor soils. the variety is not considered of any value as a table esculent, and is grown almost exclusively for feeding stock; for which purpose, it is, however, esteemed less valuable than the yellow-fleshed sorts, because less nutritious, and more liable to decay during winter. since its introduction, it has somewhat deteriorated; and, as now grown, differs to some extent from the description given above. the roots are smaller, seldom rise more than two or three inches above the soil, and taper directly from the crown to the point. a judicious selection of roots for seed, continued for a few seasons, would undoubtedly restore the variety to its primitive form and dimensions. the same amount of seed will be required as of the long orange: and the general method of culture should be the same; with the exception, that, in thinning out the plants, the white belgian should have more space. white belgian horn. transparent white. _vil._ root seven or eight inches in length, and two inches in its greatest diameter, tapering regularly from the crown to the point. skin fine, clear white. flesh very white, and almost transparent, mild, tender, and delicate. a french variety, remarkable for the peculiar, pure white color of its skin and flesh. * * * * * turnip-rooted chervil. parsnip chervil. chærophyllum bulbosum. [illustration: turnip-rooted chervil.] a hardy, biennial plant, from the south of europe. the root is fusiform, four or five inches long, and nearly an inch and a half in diameter; skin, grayish-black; flesh, white. the leaves are compound, the leaflets very deeply cut, and the divisions of the upper leaves very narrow and slender. the flowers are white, and terminate the top of the plant in umbels, or large, circular, flat, spreading bunches. the seeds are long, pointed, furrowed, concave on one side, of a brownish color, and retain their power of germination but one year. an ounce contains sixty-five hundred seeds. _soil and cultivation._--the seeds may be sown in drills, in october or april, in the manner of sowing the seeds of the common carrot: preference to be given to rich, mellow soil. the roots will attain their full size by the following august or september, when they should be harvested. with a little care to prevent sprouting, they may be preserved until april. _seed._--the roots intended for seed should be set in the open ground in autumn or in spring. the seeds will ripen in august, and should be sown within a month or two of the time of ripening; or, if kept till spring, should be packed in earth or sand: for, when these precautions are neglected, they will often remain dormant in the ground throughout the year. _use._--the tuberous-rooted chervil promises to be a valuable esculent root. m. vilmorin considered it worthy to be classed with the potato, though not equally productive. on his authority, upwards of six tons have been produced on an acre; an amount which he states may be greatly increased by a judicious selection of the best roots for seed. the roots, which are eaten boiled, are of a gray color, and nearly of the size and form of an early horn carrot. the flesh is white, farinaceous, and of a flavor intermediate between that of a chestnut and a potato. * * * * * chinese potato, or japanese yam. dioscorea batatas. stem twelve feet or more in length, of a creeping or climbing habit; leaves heart-shaped, though sometimes halberd-formed; flowers small, in clusters, white. "the root is of a pale russet color, oblong, regularly rounded, club-shaped, exceedingly tender, easily broken, and differs from nearly all vertical roots in being largest at the lower end." [illustration: chinese potato, or japanese yam.] _propagation and cultivation._--the chinese potato requires a very deep, light, rather sandy, and tolerably rich soil; and this should be thoroughly stirred to the depth of at least two feet. no fresh manure should be used, but fine, well-decomposed compost applied, and deeply as well as very thoroughly incorporated with the soil; avoiding however, if possible, its direct contact with the growing roots. it is propagated either by small roots; by the top or neck of the large roots, cut off to the length of five or six inches; or by the small bulbs, or tubers, which the plants produce in considerable numbers on the stem, in the axils of the leaves. these should be planted the last of april, or as soon as the ground is in good working condition. lay out the land in raised ridges two feet and a half or three feet asunder; and on the summit set the bulbs, or tubers, with the point or shoot upwards, eight or ten inches apart; and cover about an inch deep. cultivate in the usual manner during the summer; and late in autumn, after the tops are dead, and just before the closing-up of the ground, take up the roots, dry them a short time in the sun, and store them in the cellar for use. the roots are perfectly hardy, and will sustain no injury from the coldest winter, if left unprotected in the open ground. during the second season, the growth of the old root is not continued, but gradually decays as the new roots are formed. a well-grown root will measure about two feet in length, and two inches and a half at its broadest diameter. _use._--the flesh is remarkably white, and very mucilaginous in its crude state. the roots are eaten either boiled or roasted, and require rather more than half the time for cooking that is usually given to the boiling or roasting of the common potato. when cooked, they possess a rice-like taste and consistency, are quite farinaceous, and unquestionably nutritive and valuable for food. * * * * * chufa, or earth almond. edible cyperus. nut rush. cyperus esculentus. a perennial plant, from the south of europe. the roots are long and fibrous, and produce at their extremities numerous small, rounded or oblong, jointed, pale-brown tubers, of the size of a filbert. the flesh of these roots, or tubers, is of a yellowish color, tender, and of a pleasant, sweet, and nut-like flavor. the leaves are rush-like, about eighteen inches high, a little rough, and sharply pointed. the flower-stalks are nearly of the same height as the leaves, three-cornered, hard, and leafless, with the exception of five or six leaflike bracts at the top, from the midst of which are produced the spikelets of flowers, which are of a pale-yellow color. _propagation and culture._--it is propagated by planting the tubers in april or may, two inches deep, in drills two feet apart, and six inches apart in the drills. they will be ready for harvesting in october. in warm climates, the plant, when once introduced into the garden, spreads with great rapidity, and is exterminated with much difficulty. in the northern and middle states, the tubers remaining in the open ground are almost invariably destroyed by the winter. _use._--it is cultivated for its small, almond-like tubers, which, when dried, have somewhat the taste of the almond, and keep a long period. they are eaten either raw or roasted. "the plant grows spontaneously in the light, humid soils of spain; and is cultivated in germany and the south of france. the tubers are chiefly employed for making an orgeat,--a species of drink much used in spain, cuba, and other hot climates where it is known. when mashed to a flour,--which is white, sweet, and very agreeable to the taste,--it imparts to water the color and richness of milk."--_hort._ * * * * * german rampion. tree primrose. evening primrose. oenothera biennis. the german rampion, or evening primrose, common in this country to gravelly pastures and roadsides, is a hardy biennial plant, and, when in full perfection, measures three or four feet in height, with long, flat, pointed leaves, and large, yellow, fragrant flowers. the seed-pods are oblong, four-sided; the seeds are small, angular, of a brown color, and retain their germinative properties three years. _sowing and cultivation._--the seeds should be sown annually, in april, in a rich and shady situation; for if grown in a dry, sunny exposure, and sown very early in the season, the plants are inclined to run to flower during the summer: which renders the roots worthless; for they then become hard and fibrous. sow in drills an inch deep, and fourteen inches apart; thin to six or eight inches in the rows; cultivate in the usual form; and, in september, the roots will be ready for use. for winter use, take up the roots before freezing weather, and pack in sand. for spring use, they may be taken directly from the ground. _to raise seed._--two or three plants, left in the ground through the winter, will yield an abundant supply of seeds the following summer. _use._--the root is the only part used. this, when full grown, is generally from ten to twelve inches long, fusiform, occasionally with a few strong fibres, whitish on the outside, and white within. the thick, outer covering separates readily, and should be removed when the root is eaten in its crude state. it possesses a nutty flavor; but is inferior to the true rampion, having a slight pungency. if required as a raw salad, it should be eaten while young. when the roots have attained their full size, they are usually dressed in the manner of skirret and scorzonera. * * * * * jerusalem artichoke. helianthus tuberosus. the jerusalem artichoke is a hardy perennial. in its manner of growth and flowering, it much resembles the common sunflower; of which, as its scientific term suggests, it is really a species. stem six to eight feet high, very rough, and much branched; leaves alternate, large, rough, heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the ends, and indented on the borders; flowers large, yellow,--produced on the top of the plant, at the extremities of the branches. _soil, propagation, and culture._--"it thrives best in a light, mellow soil, made rich by the application of old, decomposed manure; but the roots will flourish well if planted in any corner of the garden less suited for other descriptions of vegetables. to obtain fine roots, however, the soil should be trenched fifteen or eighteen inches in depth. "it is propagated by planting the small tubers, or offsets: the large tubers may also be cut or divided into several pieces, each having one eye, as practised with the potato. in april, or early in may, lay out the rows three feet apart, drop the tubers one foot apart in the rows, and cover three inches deep. as the plants come up, hoe the ground between the rows from time to time; and draw a little earth around their stems, to support them, and to afford the roots a thicker covering." _taking the crop._--the new tubers will be suitable for use in the autumn. in digging, great care should be taken to remove the small as well as the full-grown; for those not taken from the ground will remain fresh and sound during the winter, and send up in the spring new plants, which, in turn, will increase so rapidly, as to encumber the ground, and become troublesome. in localities where the crop has once been cultivated, though no plants be allowed to grow for the production of fresh tubers, yet the young shoots will continue to make their appearance from time to time for many years. _use._--"the roots, or tubers, are the parts of the plant eaten. these are boiled in water till they become tender; when, after being peeled, and stewed with butter and a little wine, they will be as pleasant as the real artichoke, which they nearly resemble both in taste and flavor." m'intosh says that the tubers may be used in every way as the potato; and are suited to persons in delicate health, when debarred from the use of most other vegetables. _varieties._--for a long period, there was but a single variety cultivated, or even known. recent experiments in the use of seeds as a means of propagation have developed new kinds, varying greatly in their size, form, and color, possessing little of the watery and insipid character of the heretofore grown jerusalem artichoke, and nearly or quite equalling the potato in flavor and excellence. common white. tubers large, and often irregular in form; skin and flesh white; quality watery, and somewhat insipid. it is unfit for boiling, but is sometimes served baked or roasted. it makes a very crisp and well-flavored pickle. purple-skinned. a french variety, produced from seed. tubers purplish rose-color; flesh dryer when cooked, and finer flavored, than that of the foregoing. red-skinned. like the purple-skinned, produced from seed. skin red. between this and the last named there are various intermediate sorts, differing in shades of color, as well as in size, form, and quality. yellow-skinned. _law._ the tubers of this variety are of a yellowish color, and are generally smaller, and even more irregularly shaped, than those of the common white. they are, however, superior in quality, and of a more agreeable taste when cooked. * * * * * kohl rabi. turnip cabbage. brassica caulo-rapa. [illustration: green kohl rabi.] the kohl rabi is a vegetable intermediate between the cabbage and the turnip. the stem, just above the surface of the ground, swells into a round, fleshy bulb, in form not unlike a turnip. on the top and about the surface of this bulb are put forth its leaves, which are similar to those of the swede turnips; being either lobed or entire on the borders, according to the variety. the seeds are produced the second year; after the ripening of which, the bulb perishes. _sowing and cultivation._--mr. thompson's directions are as follows: "kohl rabi may be sown thinly, broadcast, or in drills four inches apart, in april, may, or june. when the young plants are an inch or two in height, they may be transplanted into any good, well-enriched piece of ground, planting them eight inches apart, in rows fifteen inches asunder, and not deeper in the ground than they were in the seed-bed. water should be given till they take fresh root, and subsequently in dry weather as required; for though the plants suffer little from droughts, yet the tenderness of the produce is greatly impaired by an insufficient supply of moisture. with the exception of stirring the ground and weeding, no further culture is required. the crop will be fit for use when the bulbs are of the size of an early dutch turnip: when allowed to grow much larger, they are only fit for cattle. of field varieties, the bulbs sometimes attain an immense size; weighing, in some cases, fourteen pounds." _seed._--take up a few plants entire in autumn; preserve them during winter in the manner of cabbages or turnips; and transplant to the open ground in april, two feet apart in each direction. the seeds are not distinguishable from those of the swede or ruta-baga turnip, and retain their vitality from five to seven years. _use._--the part chiefly used is the turnip-looking bulb, formed by the swelling of the stem. this is dressed and eaten with sauce or with meat, as turnips usually are. while young, the flesh is tender and delicate, possessing the combined flavor of the cabbage and turnip. they are said to keep better than any other bulb, and to be sweeter and more nutritious than the cabbage or white turnip. "in the north of france, they are extensively grown for feeding cattle,--a purpose for which they seem admirably adapted, as, from having a taste similar to the leaves of others of the species, they are found not to impart any of that peculiar, disagreeable taste to the milk, which it acquires when cows are fed on turnips." _varieties._--these are as follow:-- artichoke-leaved. _thomp._ _vil._ cut-leaved. of german origin, deriving its name from the resemblance of the leaves to those of the artichoke. bulb small, and not smooth or symmetrical. the leaves are beautifully cut, and are very ornamental; but the bulb is comparatively of little value. not much cultivated. early dwarf white. _vil._ bulb white, smaller than that of the common white, and supported close to the ground. the leaves are also smaller, and less numerous. it is earlier, and finer in texture, than the last named; and, while young, excellent for the table. transplant in rows fifteen inches apart, and ten inches asunder in the rows. early purple vienna. _thomp._ _vil._ this corresponds with the early white vienna, except in color, which, in this variety, is a beautiful purple, with a fine glaucous bloom. the leaf-stems are very slender, and the leaves smooth, and few in number. these two vienna sorts are by far the best for table use. when taken young, and properly dressed, they form an excellent substitute for turnips, especially in dry seasons, when a crop of the latter may fail or become of inferior quality. early white vienna. _thomp._ dwarf, small, early; bulb handsome, firm, glossy, white, or very pale-green. the leaves are few, small, with slender stems, the bases of which are dilated, and thin where they spring from different parts on the surface of the bulb. the flesh is white, tender, and succulent, whilst the bulb is young, or till it attains the size of an early white dutch turnip; and at or under this size it should be used. set the plants in rows fifteen inches apart, and ten inches from plant to plant in the lines. green. similar to, if not identical with, the common white. the bulbs are pale-green, attain a very large size, and the variety is hardy and productive. not suited to garden culture, but chiefly grown for farm-purposes. purple. _thomp._ _vil._ this variety differs little from the white, except in color; the bulb being purple, and the leaf-stems and nerves also tinged with purple. like the white, it attains a large size, and is only adapted for field culture; the flesh being too coarse and strong-flavored for table use. white. _thomp._ _vil._ bulb large,--when full grown, measuring seven or eight inches in diameter, and weighing from eight to ten pounds; leaves rather large and numerous; skin very pale, or whitish-green; stem about six inches high. hardy, very late, and chiefly employed for farm-purposes. the variety should be cultivated in rows eighteen inches apart, and the plants should stand one foot apart in the rows. * * * * * oxalis, tuberous-rooted.--_law._ tuberous-rooted wood-sorrel. oca. oxalis crenata. of the tuberous-rooted oxalis, there are two varieties, as follow:-- white-rooted. oca blanca. stem two feet in length, branching, prostrate or trailing, the ends of the shoots erect; leaves trifoliate, yellowish-green, the leaflets inversely heart-shaped; flowers rather large, yellow,--the petals crenate or notched on the borders, and striped at their base with purple. the seeds are matured only in long and very favorable seasons. in its native state, the plant is perennial; but is cultivated and treated, like the common potato, as an annual. _cultivation._--the tubers should be started in a hot-bed in march, and transplanted to the open ground in may, or as soon as the occurrence of settled warm weather. they thrive best in dry, light, and medium fertile soils, in warm situations; and should be planted in hills two feet and a half apart, or in drills two feet and a half apart, setting the plants or tubers an inch and a half deep, and fifteen or eighteen inches apart in the drills; treating, in all respects, as potatoes. the tubers form late in the season; are white, roundish, or oblong, pointed at the union with the plant, and vary in size according to soil, locality, and season; seldom, however, exceeding an inch in diameter, or weighing above four ounces. the yield is comparatively small. _use._--the tubers are used as potatoes. when cooked, the flesh is yellow, very dry and mealy, of the flavor of the potato, with a very slight acidity. the tender, succulent stalks and foliage are used as salad. oxalis, red tuberous-rooted. oca colorada. plant similar in habit to the white tuberous-rooted; but the branches, as well as the under surface of the leaves, are more or less stained with red. tubers larger than those of the last named, roundish, tapering towards the connection with the plant, and furnished with numerous eyes in the manner of the common potato; skin smooth, purplish-red; flesh often three-colored,--the outer portion of the tuber carmine-red, the central part marbled, and the intermediate portion yellow,--the colors, when the root is divided transversely, appearing in concentric zones, or rings. the flesh contains but little farinaceous matter, and possesses a certain degree of acidity, which, to many palates, is not agreeable. propagated, and in all respects cultivated, like the white. either of the varieties may also be grown from cuttings, which root readily. according to a statement from the london horticultural society's journal, the acidity may be converted into a sugary flavor by exposing the tubers to the action of the sun for eight or ten days,--a phenomenon which is analogous to what takes place in the ripening of most fruits. when treated in this form, the tubers lose all trace of acidity, and become as floury as the best descriptions of potatoes. if the action of the sun is continued for a long period, the tubers become of the consistence and sweet taste of figs. mr. thompson states that the disagreeable acid taste may also be removed by changing the water when they are three-quarters boiled. the plants are tender, and are generally destroyed early in autumn by frost. the tubers must be taken up before freezing weather, packed in sand, and placed in a dry, warm cellar for the winter. deppe's oxalis. _thomp._ _vil._ oxalis deppei. a perennial plant from mexico, very distinct from the tuberous-rooted species before described. stalk about one foot in height, smooth and branching; leaves four together, the leaflets wedge-shaped, pale yellowish-green, the upper surface marked by two brownish lines or stains in the form of two sides of a triangle; flowers terminal, of a carmine-rose or pink-red color, stained with green at the base of the petals. "the roots are fleshy, tapering, white, and semi-transparent, and furnished on the top of the crown with a mass of scaly bulbs, sometimes amounting to fifty in number, by means of which the plant can be easily propagated. when well grown, the roots are about four inches in length, and from one inch to one inch and a half in thickness."--_thomp._ _soil and culture._--"this oxalis requires a light, rich soil, mixed with decayed vegetable matter; and it prefers a southern aspect, provided the soil is not too dry. "it may be raised from seed; but is generally propagated by planting the bulbs, which should be set the last of april or beginning of may, or when all danger of frost is over, six inches apart, in rows one foot asunder. the bulbs should be only just covered with soil; for thus they occupy a position, with regard to the surface, similar to that in which they are produced: and this seems indispensable, if fine roots are to be obtained. "the stems have been observed to spring up from a considerable depth; but, in this case, tap-roots were not formed. during summer, the soil must be kept moist in dry weather; otherwise, when rain falls abundantly, the sudden accession of water to the roots occasions their splitting. the plants should be allowed to grow as long as there is no danger from frost; but, previous to this occurring, they should either be taken up or protected. if protected from frost by frames or otherwise, the roots will continue to increase in size till near november. when taken up, the roots should be divested of the numerous bulbs formed on their crowns, and then stored up for use in a cool, dry place, but secure from frost. a similar situation will be proper for the small bulbs; or they may be kept in dry sand till the season of planting."--_thomp._ the plant has been cultivated with the most complete success, with no especial preparation of the soil; merely planting the bulbs in shallow drills, the ground being dug and manured as for other kitchen-garden crops. _use._--in a communication to the "gardener's chronicle," prof. morren gives the uses of the plant as follow:-- "the uses of the oxalis are many. the young leaves are dressed like sorrel in soup, or as a vegetable. they have a fresh and agreeable acid, especially in spring. the flowers are excellent in salad, alone, or mixed with corn salad, endive of both kinds, red cabbage, beet-root, and even with the petals of the dahlia, which are delicious when thus employed. when served at table, the flowers, with their pink corolla, green calyx, yellow stripes, and small stamens, produce a fine effect. the roots are gently boiled with salt and water, after having been washed and slightly peeled. they are then eaten like asparagus in the flemish fashion, with melted butter and the yolk of eggs. they are also served up like scorzonera and endive, with white sauce; and form, in whatever way they are dressed, a tender, succulent dish, easy to digest, agreeing with the most delicate stomach. the analogy of the root with salep indicates that its effect should be excellent on all constitutions." "the bright rose-colored flowers being very ornamental, the plant is sometimes employed as an edging for walks."--_thomp._ * * * * * the parsnip. pastinaca sativa. the parsnip is a hardy biennial, indigenous to great britain and some parts of the south of europe, and, to a considerable extent, naturalized in this country. in its native state, the root is small and fibrous, and possesses little of the fineness of texture, and delicacy of flavor, which characterize the parsnip in its cultivated state. the roots are fusiform, often much elongated, sometimes turbinate, and attain their full size during the first year. the flowers and seeds are produced the second year; the plant then measuring five or six feet in height, with a grooved or furrowed, hollow, branching stem. the flowers are yellow, in large spreading umbels five or six inches in diameter. the seeds ripen in july and august; are nearly circular; about one-fourth of an inch in diameter; flat, thin, very light, membranous on the borders, and of a pale yellowish-brown or yellowish-green color. they vary but little in size, form, or color, in the different varieties; and retain their vitality but two years. about six thousand seeds are contained in one ounce. _propagation, soil, and cultivation._--it is always propagated from seed sown annually. _soil._--the soil should be mellow, deep, and of a rich vegetable texture. "if in moderate condition by the manuring of the previous crop, it will be better than applying manure at sowing. should it be necessary to do so, let the manure be in the most thorough state of decomposition; or, if otherwise, incorporate it with the soil, as far from the surface as possible. the parsnip will grow in a stronger soil than the carrot; and succeeds comparatively well when grown in sand, or even in peat, if well manured." _preparation of the ground, and sowing._--"the seed should be sown as early in spring as the ground is in good working condition. as most of the varieties have long fusiform roots, ordinary ploughing will not stir the soil to a sufficient depth for their greatest perfection; and, as the amount of the crop mainly depends on the length of the roots, it is of the first importance to provide for this fact by making the ground fine and friable above and below, to the depth of at least fifteen inches: eighteen or twenty would be better. when the soil has thus been thoroughly pulverized, level off the surface, and rake it fine and smooth, and sow the seed in drills fourteen inches apart and an inch and a half deep; allowing half an ounce of seed for one hundred feet of drill, and from five to six pounds to the acre. when the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them out to about six inches in the rows; and, as they transplant readily, any vacant space can be filled by resetting the surplus plants. keep the earth between the rows loose, and free from weeds, and also the spaces in the rows, until the leaves cover the ground; after which, little further care will be required. the roots will attain a good size by the middle of september, from which time a few may be drawn for present use; but the parsnip is far best at full maturity, which is indicated by the decay of the leaf in october." _harvesting._--the parsnip sustains no injury when left in the open ground during winter; and it is a common practice to take up in the fall a certain quantity of roots to meet a limited demand in the winter months, allowing the rest to remain in the ground until spring. the roots thus treated are considered to have a finer flavor; that is to say, are better when recently taken from the ground. in taking up the crop in autumn, which should be done just previous to the closing-up of the ground, be careful to remove the soil to a sufficient depth, so as not to injure the roots. the thrust of the spade that easily lifts a carrot without essential injury, will, if applied to the parsnip, break the roots of nine in ten at scarcely half their length from the surface of the ground. as the roots keep much fresher, and retain their flavor much better, when taken up entire, the best method is to throw out a trench beside the rows, to the depth of the roots, when they can be easily, as well as perfectly, removed. they should be dug in pleasant weather, and laid on the ground exposed to the sun for a few hours to dry; "and when all the earth is rubbed off them, and their leaves cut off to within an inch of their crowns, they may be stowed away in sand, dry earth, or in any dry, light material most convenient." when thus packed, they will keep well in almost any location, either in the cellar or storehouse. if the roots which have remained in the ground during winter be taken up in spring, and the tops removed as before directed, they may be packed in sand or earth, and will remain fresh and in good condition for use until may or june. _to raise seed._--in april, thin out the roots, that have been in the ground during the winter, to about eighteen inches apart; or, at the same season, select a few good-sized and symmetrical roots from those harvested in the fall, and set them eighteen inches apart, with the crowns just below the surface of the ground. they will send up a stalk to the height and in the manner before described, and the seeds will ripen in august. the central umbel of seeds is always the largest, and is considered much the best. _use._--"the parsnip is considered as a wholesome and nutritious article of food, and is served at table in various styles in connection with salted meats and fish. the roots, aside from this manner of using, form what may be called an excellent side-dish; when, after being boiled, not too soft, they are dipped in thin batter of flour and butter or the white of eggs, and afterwards fried brown." they contain a considerable portion of sugar, and are considered more nutritive than carrots or turnips. the roots form a common ingredient in soups; and are sometimes used for making bread, and also a kind of wine said to resemble malmsey of madeira. aside from the value of the parsnip as a table vegetable, it is one of the most economical roots for cultivation for farm purposes, as it not only produces an abundant and almost certain crop, but furnishes very nourishing food particularly adapted to and relished by dairy-stock. _varieties._--the varieties, which are not numerous, are as follow:-- common, or dutch. _trans._ swelling parsnip. long smooth dutch. the leaves of this kind are strong and numerous; generally about two feet long or high. the roots are from twenty to thirty inches in length, and from three to four inches in diameter at the shoulder, regularly tapering to the end, occasionally producing a few strong fangs. the crown is short and narrow, elevated, and contracting gradually from the shoulder, which is generally below the surface of the ground. seeds from america, holland, and germany, sown in the garden of the london horticultural society, all proved alike; though some were superior to others in the size of their roots, owing, it was thought, both to a careful selection of seed-roots and to the age of the seeds. it was found that new seeds uniformly produced the largest roots. early short-horn. _m'int._ a recently introduced variety, similar to the turnip-rooted, but shorter. very delicate and fine-flavored. guernsey. _trans._ panais long, of the french. the leaves of this kind grow much stronger and somewhat taller than those of the common parsnip. the leaflets are also broader. the only distinguishable difference in the roots is, that those of the guernsey parsnip are the larger and more perfect, being sometimes three feet long. roots produced from seed obtained from guernsey were evidently much superior to those which were grown from seed raised in other localities: from which it would appear that the guernsey parsnip is only an improved variety of the common, arising from soil and cultivation in that island. dr. m'culloch states that, in guernsey, its roots grow to the length of four feet. in its flavor, it differs little from the common dutch parsnip. hollow-crowned. _trans._ long jersey. hollow-crowned guernsey. hollow-headed. in this variety, the leaves are shorter and not so numerous as those of the common parsnip. the roots are oblong, about eighteen inches in length, and four inches in diameter at the shoulder, more swollen at the top, and not tapering gradually, but ending somewhat abruptly with a small tap-root. the crown is short, and quite sunk into the shoulder, so as to form a hollow ring around the insertion of the stalks of the leaves; and grows mostly below the surface of the ground. it is a good sort for general cultivation, especially as it does not require so deep a soil as either the common, or guernsey. there is little difference in the flavor or general qualities of the three varieties. siam, or yellow. _thomp._ panais de siam. this is said to be more tender and richer in flavor than any of the other varieties. it is mentioned by dr. neill in the "encyclopædia britannica," and is described by m. noisette as being yellowish in color, and in form intermediate between the guernsey and turnip-rooted parsnips. he also states that it is the most esteemed. it does not, however, appear to be known at the present day in this country. turnip-rooted. _trans._ panais rond, of the french. [illustration: turnip-rooted parsnip.] the leaves of this sort are few, and do not exceed twelve to sixteen inches in length. the roots are from four to six inches in diameter, tunnel-shaped, tapering very abruptly, with a strong tap-root; the whole being from twelve to fifteen inches in length. the rind is rougher than either of the other sorts; the shoulder very broad, growing above the surface of the soil; convex, with a small, short crown. it is much the earliest of the parsnips; and, if left in the ground, is liable to rot in the crown. the leaves also decay much sooner than those of most other sorts. it is particularly adapted to hard and shallow soils; and, from its coming into use much earlier than any other kind, very desirable. in flavor, it is mild and pleasant, though less sugary than the long-rooted kinds. the flesh, when dressed, is more yellow than that of any other variety. * * * * * the potato. solanum tuberosum. the potato is a native of central or tropical america. in its wild or natural state, as found growing on the mountains of mexico or south america, the tubers rarely exceed an inch in diameter, and are comparatively unpalatable. during the last half-century, its cultivation within the united states has greatly increased; and it is now considered the most important of all esculent roots, and next to the cereals in value as an article of human subsistence. _soil._--the soils best suited to the potato are of the dryer and lighter descriptions; pasture lands, or new land, with the turf freshly turned, producing the most abundant as well as the most certain crops. on land of a stiff, clayey texture, or in wet soils, they are not only extremely liable to disease, but the quality is usually very inferior. "on soils which have been long cropped and heavily manured, they rarely succeed well; and hence garden ground, in most cases, does not produce tubers of so good quality as those obtained from the fields." _fertilizers._--"in good garden soil, the less manure that is used, the better flavored will be the produce; and it will also be much less affected by the disease. therefore, whilst the malady prevails, or symptoms of it still remain, it is not advisable to apply much manure. "amongst the fertilizers that are employed, may be enumerated, in addition to barnyard and stable manure, leaves, leaf-mould, peat-charcoal, and other carbonaceous substances, lime, gypsum, or plaster, and bone-dust. "wood-ashes are useful in supplying potash and other inorganic substances required by the plant; and they may be advantageously applied where the soil contains a large amount of decayed vegetable matter. the same remark will also apply to lime, which is useful in destroying slugs and other vermin, which attack the tubers. plaster, bone-dust, and superphosphate of lime, are best for humid soils. they induce earliness; and where this is an object, as it must be so long as the disease continues, they may be applied with considerable advantage."--_thomp._ _propagation._--"this is almost universally from tubers; the seed being seldom sown, except for the production of new varieties. with many it is a doubtful question, whether the tubers cut, or planted whole, yield the greater return. from experiments made in the garden of the london horticultural society at chiswick, it was found, on the mean of two plantations,--one made early in the season, and the other about one month later,--that the produce from cut sets exceeded that from whole tubers by nearly one ton per acre. in the latter planting, the produce from whole tubers was somewhat greater than that from single eyes: but, in the early plantation, the cut sets gave nearly two tons per acre more produce than the whole tubers; the weight of potatoes planted being deducted in every case. "another important consideration is, whether small tubers or large ones should be employed for making sets; for if, by using the former, an equally good crop could be obtained, a considerable saving in the expense of sets would be effected. large tubers, however, are preferable, for the following reasons: in all plants, large buds tend to produce large shoots; and small or weak buds, the reverse. now, the eyes of potatoes are true buds, and in small tubers they are comparatively weak: they consequently produce weak shoots, and the crop from such is inferior to that obtained from plants originating from larger tubers, furnished with stronger eyes; and this conclusion has been justified by the results of actual experiments. "the part of the potato employed for planting is not a matter of indifference. it was found, by an experiment made in the garden of the horticultural society, that sets taken from the points of the tubers, and planted early in the season, yielded at the rate of upwards of three tons per acre more produce than was obtained from employing the opposite end of the tubers. in a plantation made a month afterwards, the difference was much less, but still in favor of the point, or top end, of the potato."--_thomp._ with regard to the quantity of seed per acre, great diversity of opinion exists among cultivators. much, of course, depends on the variety, as some sorts not only have more numerous eyes, but more luxuriant and stronger plants, than others. of such varieties, a much less quantity will be required than of those of an opposite character. from a series of experiments carefully made for the purpose of ascertaining the amount of seed most profitable for an acre, it was found that from six to eight bushels, if planted in hills, answered better than more: for, when too much seed was used, there were many small tubers; and where the tubers had been divided into very small parts, or single eyes, the plants were more feeble, and the yield less in number and weight, though usually of larger size. _methods of planting and cultivation._--potatoes are usually planted either in hills or ridges; the former method being the more common in this country. if planted in hills, they should be made from three feet to three and a half apart; the distance to be regulated by the habit of the variety under cultivation. if in ridges or drills, they may be made from two and a half to three feet apart; although some of the earlier and smaller kinds may be successfully grown at eighteen or twenty inches. "of sets formed by the division of an average-sized tuber into four parts, three may be allowed a hill; or, if planted in drills, the sets may be placed from seven to twelve inches asunder,--the distance to be regulated by the habit or size of the plant. on light, warm land, the sets should be covered about four inches in depth; but in wet, cold soil, three inches will be sufficient. "as soon as the plants are fairly above the surface, hoeing and surface-stirring should be commenced. the earth should gradually be drawn about the hills, or along the ridges, at each successive hoeing, and every encouragement given to the side-roots to extend themselves: for nearly at their extremities the tubers are formed; so that deeply stirring the ground between the hills or ridges tends to their extension. this latter treatment, however, must not be carried beyond a certain stage in the growth of the plant, or after the tubers have reached a considerable size, as the extremities of the roots might be seriously injured. some varieties of potatoes produce their tubers at a much greater distance from the stem than others. these are chiefly to be found among the later sorts. most of the early kinds produce theirs close to the stem, or at the extremity of very short runners; seldom more than nine inches from the stalk of the plant." _forcing._--this should be commenced from three to four weeks before the season for planting in the open ground. the earliest varieties should be chosen for the purpose, selecting whole tubers of medium size, and placing them close together, in a single layer, among half-decayed leaves or very light loam, on the surface of a moderate hot-bed. "when the shoots have attained the height of two or three inches, and the weather has become sufficiently mild, they should be carefully taken out, and divided into sets; in the process of cutting up the tubers, avoiding as much as possible doing injury to the small fibrous roots, and also to the growing shoots. these sets should then be planted out in hills or drills, in the usual manner and at the usual depth; if possible, leaving the upper portion of the young shoot just above the surface of the ground. some care is requisite in planting out the sets, particularly in covering; for, if the soil is applied too rudely, the sprouts, which separate very easily from the tubers, are exceedingly liable to be broken off, and the set destroyed for early use. if severe cold or frosty weather occurs, the plants should be protected by straw, or any convenient, light material, placed along the drills or on the hills." _taking the crop, and method of preservation._--"the early varieties should be dug for use as they attain a suitable size; which, in warm exposure, will be about the beginning of july; and thence till the middle of august, in less favorable places. the practice of partially removing the soil from about the roots, and gathering the largest tubers, leaving the smaller ones, with the expectation that they will attain a larger size, is a mode of proceeding which seldom realizes the hopes of the cultivator; for the potato, if once disturbed at the roots, seldom recovers the check. "when no apprehension is felt on account of disease, a week's delay in commencing on the crop will be found of great importance both to the bulk and quality; for just previous to the decay of the tops, if pleasant weather prevails and the ground is sufficiently moist, the tubers increase in size with great rapidity. "late varieties usually constitute the great portion of the main crop, and are those which require most care in taking up and storing. so long as the plants continue green, the potato should be allowed to remain in the ground; as this is quite indicative that the tubers have not arrived at full maturity." in the preservation of potatoes, it is of the first importance that they be excluded from light. if this is neglected, they become not only injurious, but actually poisonous; and this is especially the fact when they are allowed to become of a green color, which they readily will do on exposure to the light. in a state of complete darkness they should therefore be placed, the day they are taken out of the ground; and it were even better that they were stored in rather a damp state, than that they should be exposed for a day to the light with a view to dry them. drying has a bad effect on the skin of the potato; for, if subjected to this, the skin and part of the epidermis are made to part with their natural juices, which ever afterwards renders them incapable of absorbing moisture, even if presented to them. fermentation is also an important evil to be guarded against, as it changes the whole substance of the potato, and, so far as seed potatoes are concerned, destroys their vegetative principle. as security against this, they should be stored either in barrels or boxes, or in long, narrow ridges, with partitions of earth between. potatoes once dried should never be again moistened until just before using. "keeping potatoes has the effect of diminishing the quantity of starch contained in them. according to mr. johnson, those which in october yielded readily seventeen per cent of starch, gave, in the following april, only fourteen and a half per cent. the effect of frost is also to lessen the quantity of starch. it acts chiefly upon the vascular and albuminous part; but it also converts a portion of the starch into sugar: hence the sweetish taste of frosted potatoes."--_m'int._ _varieties._--messrs. peter lawson and sons describe one hundred and seventy-five varieties: and other foreign authors enumerate upwards of five hundred, describing the habit of the plant; size, form, and color of the tubers; quality and general excellence; and comparative value for cultivation. they are obtained from seeds; the latter being quite small, flat, and lens-shaped. one hundred and five thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their germinative properties three years. the process is as follows: "select some of the largest and best berries, or balls, when fully ripe, which is denoted by the withering of the stalk; and separate the seeds from the pulp, and dry them thoroughly in the sun. these should be sown in the following spring, and the produce taken up in october. the tubers will then have nearly attained the size of small plums. the best of these should be selected, and the product of each plant carefully and separately preserved. in the month of april following, they should be planted at a distance from one another of from fifteen to eighteen inches; and, when they rise about two inches from the ground, they should be earthed up slightly with the hoe,--an operation which may be repeated during the season. when they have arrived at maturity, they are to be taken up, keeping the product of each stalk by itself; which product is again to be planted the ensuing spring. a judgment of the properties of the varieties will then have been formed, and those are to be reserved for cultivation which are approved of. it will be found, that, whatever had been the character of the parent stock, the seeds will produce numerous varieties, some white, some dark, in color, with tubers of different forms, round, oblong, and kidney-shaped, and varying greatly in the dryness, color, and farinaceous character, of the flesh."--_low._ ash-leaved early. stem nearly two feet in height, erect, with long, smooth, shining, and drooping foliage; flowers very seldom produced; tubers white, roundish, rough-skinned; flesh white, of medium quality. the variety is healthy, and remarkably early; well suited to open culture, but not adapted for growing under glass, on account of its tall habit. ash-leaved kidney. one of the earliest of the garden varieties, well adapted for forcing under glass or for starting in a hot-bed, and subsequent cultivation in the open ground. the plant is of spreading habit, and about eighteen inches in height; leaves small, recurved; tubers of medium size, kidney-shaped, white; flesh white, dry, and well flavored. very healthy. introduced. biscuit. _law._ plant two feet and a half high, spreading; leaves rather rough, large, and of a pale-green color; flowers whitish; tubers rather small, round, smooth, and of a light-brownish color. a very healthy variety, mealy, well flavored, and quite productive. the plants do not decay, nor do the tubers attain full maturity, until nearly the close of the season: the latter are, however, of good quality, and in perfection for the table soon after being harvested. black chenango. black mercer. plant vigorous, and generally of healthy habit; tubers nearly of the form of the lady's finger, but of larger size; skin very deep purple, or nearly black; flesh purple, both in its crude state and when cooked; quality good, usually dry, and of good flavor. the black chenango is moderately productive, and withstands disease better than almost any other potato; but its dark color is objectionable. compared with many of the recent varieties, it has little merit, and is not a profitable sort for extensive cultivation. buckeye. a western variety; grown also to a considerable extent in some parts of the middle states. "it is a handsome, round potato; white throughout, except a little bright pink at the bottom of the eye. it is very early,--ripening as early as the chenango; attains a good marketable size as soon as the dykeman; cooks very dry and light; and is fine flavored, particularly when first matured. it throws up a very thick, vigorous, and luxuriant vine; grows compactly in the hill, and to a large size, yielding abundantly." for planting for early use, it is a promising variety: but for a late or medium crop, upon strong, rich ground, it is said to grow so rapidly, and to so great a size, that many of the tubers are liable to be hollow-hearted; which considerably impairs their value for table use. calico. similar to the pink-eyed; varying little except in color, which is mostly red, with occasional spots and splashes of white. it is in no respect superior to the last-named variety in quality, and cannot be considered of much value for agricultural purposes or for the table. california red. a bright-red potato from california. tubers variable in form, from long to nearly round, rather smooth; eyes slightly depressed. it is one of the most productive of all the varieties; but, on account of its extreme liability to disease, cannot be recommended for general cultivation. carter. a medium-sized, roundish, flattened, white potato, once esteemed the finest of all varieties, but at present nearly or quite superseded by the jackson white, of which it is supposed to be the parent. eyes rather numerous, and deeply sunk; flesh very white, remarkably dry, farinaceous, and well flavored. originated about thirty years ago, in berkshire county, mass., by mr. john carter. churchill. a variety said to have originated in maine, and often sold in the market for the "state of maine;" which it somewhat resembles in size, form, and color. flesh yellow. not a desirable sort. it is much inferior to the "state of maine;" and, in many places, the latter variety has been condemned in consequence of the churchill having been ignorantly cultivated in its stead. cristy. an early sort, of good quality, but rather unproductive. shape somewhat long, though often nearly round; color white and purple, striped, and blended together. it is of no value as an agricultural variety; and, for table use, cannot be considered superior to many other varieties equally healthy and more prolific. cups. introduced. plant upright, stocky, surviving till frost; flowers pale purple; tubers pink or reddish, large, oblong, often irregular; flesh dry and farinaceous. very healthy and productive, but better suited for agricultural purposes than for the table. danvers seedling. danvers red. plant healthy and vigorous. the large, full-grown tubers are long; and the smaller, undeveloped ones, nearly round. color light red, with faint streaks of white; eyes moderately sunk; quality fair. this variety originated in danvers, essex county, mass.; and, when first introduced, was not only of good size and quality, but remarkably productive. it has, however, much deteriorated; and is now, both as respects quality and yield, scarcely above an average. at one period, it had the reputation of being one of the best varieties for keeping, and of entirely withstanding the attacks of the potato disease. davis's seedling. this variety originated in the town of sterling, mass.; and was early disseminated through the influence of the massachusetts horticultural society, at whose exhibitions it attracted much attention on account of its size and beauty. for general cultivation, it is probably one of the most profitable sorts known, as it yields abundantly, even with ordinary attention. under a high state of cultivation, seven hills have produced a bushel of potatoes. the tubers are of good size, red, nearly round, though sometimes more or less flattened. eyes deeply sunk, and not very numerous; flesh nearly white, slightly tinged with pink beneath the skin when cooked; quality good, being dry, farinaceous, and well flavored. it requires the full season for its complete perfection, and resists disease better than most varieties. as a winter potato, or for extensive cultivation for market, it is one of the best of all varieties; and commends itself to the farmer, both as respects quality and yield, as being greatly superior to the peach-blow, pink-eye, vermont white, and many similar varieties, which so abound in city markets. dykeman. plant of medium strength and vigor, rarely producing seed or blossoms; tubers large, roundish, often oblong; color white, clouded at the stem-end and about the eyes (which are moderately sunk and rather numerous) with purple; flesh white, or yellowish-white, its quality greatly affected by season, and the soil in which the variety may be cultivated. in certain descriptions of rather strong, clayey land, the yield is often remarkably great, and the quality much above medium. in such land, if warm and sheltered, the tubers attain a very large size quite early in the season, and find a ready sale in the market at greatly remunerative prices. under other conditions, it frequently proves small, waxy, and inferior in quality, and profitless to the cultivator. notwithstanding these defects, its size, earliness, and productiveness render it worthy of trial. early blue. tubers of medium size, roundish, of a bright purple or bluish color; eyes moderately deep; flesh, when cooked, white, or yellowish-white, mealy, and well flavored. this old and familiar variety is one of the earliest of the garden potatoes, of fine quality, and one of the best for forcing for early crops. it retains its freshness and flavor till late in the spring; is of comparatively healthy habit; and, though but moderately productive, is worthy more general cultivation. early cockney. plant of medium strength and vigor, recumbent, rarely blossoming, and usually ripening and decaying early in the season, or before the occurrence of frost; tubers white, large, roundish, rough; flesh yellowish-white, or nearly white, dry, farinaceous, and of good flavor; hardy, moderately productive, and recommended as a desirable intermediate variety for the garden or for field culture. introduced. early manly. plant medium or small, rarely blossoming, and decaying early in the season; tubers of medium size, white, roundish; flesh yellowish-white, dry, mealy, and mild flavored. it yields well, and is a good variety for early garden culture. introduced. flour-ball. plant reclining, of rather slender habit, rarely blossoming; tubers of medium size, white, round, the skin quite rough or netted; flesh white, dry, farinaceous, and mild flavored. it yields abundantly, and is a good sort for the garden; but would prove less profitable for growing for the market than many other varieties of larger size. fluke kidney. _cot. gard._ plant vigorous, with luxuriant, deep-green foliage; continuing its growth till late in the season, or until destroyed by frost. the tuber is remarkable for its singular shape, of a flattened oval, frequently measuring eight or nine inches in length by nearly three inches in width. the peel is thin, and remarkably free from eyes; the surface, very smooth and even; the flesh is very dry, mealy, and farinaceous, exceedingly well flavored, and, in general excellence, surpassed by few, if any, of the late varieties. it is also healthy, hardy, and very productive; but is much better towards spring than when used soon after being harvested. the variety originated near manchester, eng., about the year ; and appears to be a cross or hybrid between the lapstone kidney and pink-eye. in this country, the variety has never reached the degree of excellence it appears to have attained in england. with us the yield has been small, and it has suffered greatly from disease. the flesh is also yellow when cooked, and quite strong flavored. not recommended for cultivation. forty-fold. an english variety. plant healthy, ripening about the middle of september, rarely producing seed or blossoms; tubers white, of medium size, round; skin rough or netted; flesh white, comparatively dry, and well flavored. it yields abundantly; is a good kind for forcing; and, though the plants remain green until frost, the tubers attain a suitable size for use quite early in the season. an english sort, known as taylor's forty-fold, is quite distinct; the tubers being oval, much flattened, and of a reddish color. garnet chili. stem not long or tall, rather erect, sturdy, and branching; flowers abundant, pale purplish-white, and usually abortive; tubers red, or garnet-colored, very large, roundish, and comparatively smooth and regular; flesh white, dry, mealy, and, the size of the tuber considered, remarkably well flavored. the variety is healthy, yields abundantly, is greatly superior to the peach-blow and kindred sorts for table use, and might be profitably grown for farm-purposes. the plants survive till destroyed by frost. gillyflower. tubers large, oval, or oblong, flattened, white, and comparatively smooth; flesh white, dry, and of fair quality. the plants are healthy, and the variety is very productive: but it is inferior to many others for table use; though its uniform good size, and its fair form, and whiteness, make it attractive and salable in the market. it is similar to, if not identical with, the st. helena and the laplander. green-top. plant strong and vigorous; flowers dull white, generally abortive; tubers quite large, white, roundish, often irregular; eyes deep-set; flesh white, comparatively dry, and well flavored. the variety is productive, and of healthy, hardy habit; not early; the plants continuing green till destroyed by frost. introduced. hill's early. an old variety, very little, if at all, earlier than the white chenango. quality not much above mediocrity; its chief recommendation being its earliness. skin and flesh yellowish-white; eyes rather deeply sunk; size medium; form roundish; moderately productive. it does not ordinarily cook dry and mealy; and, though desirable as an early potato for a limited space in the garden, cannot be recommended for general cultivation. irish cups. tubers nearly round, yellowish-white; eyes deep-set; flesh yellow, and strong flavored when cooked. unfit for table use. aside from the difference in form, the variety somewhat resembles the rohan. jackson white. this comparatively new but very excellent variety originated in maine; and is supposed to be a seedling from the celebrated carter, which it much resembles. tubers yellowish-white, varying in size from medium to large; form somewhat irregular, but generally roundish, though sometimes oblong and a little flattened; eyes rather numerous, and deeply sunk; flesh perfectly white when cooked, remarkably dry, mealy, farinaceous, and well flavored. the variety unquestionably attains its greatest perfection when grown in maine, or the northern sections of vermont and new hampshire; but is nevertheless of good quality when raised in the warmer localities of new england and the middle states. it is earlier than the davis seedling; comparatively free from disease; a good keeper; commands the highest market-price; and, every thing considered, must be classed as one of the best, and recommended for general cultivation. the plants are very erect, the flowers nearly white; and the balls, or berries, are produced in remarkable abundance. jenny lind. rhode-island seedling. a variety of comparatively recent introduction. plant very strong and vigorous; tubers of extraordinary size when grown in strong soils, long and somewhat irregular in form, thickly set on the surface with small knobs, or protuberances, above which the eyes are placed in rather deep basins, or depressions; color red and white intermixed, in some specimens mostly red, while in others white is the prevailing color; flesh yellow when cooked, and quite coarse, but esteemed by many as of good quality for table use. one of the largest of all the varieties, remarkably productive, quite free from disease, keeps well, and, as an agricultural potato, rivals the rohan. requires the full season. it sports more than any potato; being exceedingly variable in size, form, and color. lady's finger. ruffort kidney. _law._ stem from one foot and a half to two feet high, of straggling habit of growth; leaves smooth, and of a light-green color; blossoms rarely if ever produced; tubers white, smooth, long, and slender, and of nearly the same diameter throughout; eyes very numerous, and slightly depressed. a very old variety, of pretty appearance, long cultivated, and much esteemed as a baking potato; its peculiar form being remarkably well adapted for the purpose. it is, however, very liable to disease; and as many of the recently introduced seedlings are quite as good for baking, as well as far more hardy and productive, it cannot now be considered as a variety to be recommended for general culture. lapstone kidney. _m'int._ nichol's early. a variety of english origin. m'intosh describes it as being "decidedly the best kidney potato grown, and an excellent cropper. tubers sometimes seven inches in length, and three inches in breadth. it is longer in coming through the ground in spring than most other varieties, and the stems at first appear weakly; but they soon lose this appearance, and grow most vigorously. it is a first-rate potato in august and september; and will keep in excellent condition till may following, without losing either its mealiness or flavor." long red. form long, often somewhat flattened,--its general appearance being not unlike that of the jenny lind, though of smaller size; color red; flesh marbled or clouded with red while crude, but, when cooked, becoming nearly white. the stem-end is often soggy, and unfit for use; and the numerous prongs and knobs which are often put forth on the sides of the tubers greatly impair their value for the table. a few years since, this variety was exceedingly abundant in the market, and was esteemed one of the best sorts for use late in spring and early in summer. it was also remarkably healthy and very productive, and was considered one of the most valuable kinds for general cultivation. it has somewhat improved in quality by age, although not now to be classed as a potato of first quality. the jenny lind and other varieties are now rapidly superseding it in most localities. mexican. a very handsome white variety, long and smooth, like the st. helena, but not quite so large; eyes very slightly depressed. it is of poor quality, quite unproductive, rots badly, and not worthy of cultivation. nova-scotia blue. this old variety, at one period, was very extensively cultivated, and for many years was considered the most profitable of all the sorts for raising for market or for family use. form nearly round, the larger specimens often somewhat flattened; color light blue; eyes moderately depressed; flesh white, dry, and good. it yields abundantly; but, in consequence of its great liability to disease, its cultivation is now nearly abandoned. old kidney. tubers kidney-shaped, white; flesh yellow, rather waxy, and of indifferent flavor. it is neither very productive, nor very valuable in other respects; and it is now little cultivated. peach-blow. tubers similar in form to the davis seedling, but rather more smooth and regular; color red, the eyes not deeply sunk; flesh yellow when cooked, dry and mealy, but only of medium quality, on account of its comparatively strong flavor. it is hardy and quite productive; keeps well; and is extensively cultivated for market in the northern parts of new england and the state of new york, as well as in the canadas. it is common to the markets of most of the large seaport cities; and, during the winter and spring, is shipped in large quantities to the interior and more southern sections of the united states. the davis seedling--which is quite as productive, and much superior in quality for table use--might be profitably grown as a substitute. pink-eyed. tubers nearly round; eyes rather large and deep; color mostly white, with spots and splashes of pink, particularly about the eyes; flesh yellow. the pink-eyed is an old but inferior variety, hardly superior in quality to the vermont white. though quite productive, it is generally esteemed unworthy of cultivation. poggy, or porgee. cow-horn. a dark-colored variety, extensively cultivated in the british provinces, particularly in nova scotia; and, during the autumn, imported in considerable quantities into the principal seaports of the united states. it is of excellent quality, and by some preferred to all others, especially for baking; for which purpose, on account of its size and remarkable form, it seems peculiarly adapted. it is moderately productive, and succeeds well if seed is procured every year or two from the east; but, if otherwise, it soon deteriorates, even under good cultivation. size above medium; form long, broadest, and somewhat flattened, at the stem-end, and tapering towards the opposite extremity, which is often more or less sharply pointed. it is also frequently bent, or curved; whence the name "cow-horn," in some localities. skin smooth; eyes not depressed; color dark-blue outside, white within when cooked. not very hardy; requiring a full season for its complete perfection. unless where well known, its color is objectionable; and it is generally less salable than the white-skinned varieties. quarry. a large, white, roundish, english potato, not unlike the variety universally known and cultivated many years since in this country as the orange potato. plant vigorous, and of strong, stocky habit; flowers purple, generally abortive; flesh yellowish-white, of fair quality for table use. a hardy, very productive sort, which might be profitably grown for marketing and for agricultural purposes. the plants survive till frost. not early. rohan. tubers very large, in form much resembling the jenny lind,--the full-developed specimens being long, and the smaller or immature tubers nearly round; eyes numerous and deep-set; color yellowish-white, with clouds or patches of pink or rose; flesh greenish-white when cooked, yellowish, watery, and strong flavored. the plant is strong and vigorous, and continues its growth till destroyed by frost. the flowers are generally abortive. mr. hyde describes it as a variety famous in history, but infamous as a table potato, and fit only for stock. it formerly gave an immense yield, but now produces only moderate crops; and its cultivation is nearly abandoned. shaw's early. _m'int._ an english variety, much employed for forcing, and extensively cultivated in the vicinity of london for early marketing. it is, for an early sort, a large, beautiful, oblong, white-skinned potato. its only fault is its hollow eyes. it is very productive. state of maine. this variety, as implied by its name, is of maine origin, and was introduced to general notice six or seven years ago. in form, the tubers are similar to the white chenango, being long, smooth, and somewhat flattened; though the smaller and undeveloped bulbs are often nearly round. eyes almost even with the surface, and quite numerous; color white, like the jackson white. when cooked, the flesh is white, very dry, mealy, and of good flavor. it is quite early, but more liable to disease than the davis seedling and some other varieties. in maine it is grown in great perfection, nearly equalling the jackson white and carter as a table potato. on light soil, it is only moderately productive; but on strong land, in high cultivation, yields abundantly. st. helena. laplander. an old and very productive variety. plant erect, and of a bushy habit, about two feet and a half in height; foliage light green; flowers pale reddish-purple. the tubers are of an oblong form, and remarkably large; specimens having been produced measuring ten inches in length. eyes numerous, but not deeply set; skin white and smooth; flesh white when cooked, mealy, and of fair quality. it is a very healthy variety, and not easily affected by disease; but belongs to that class of late field potatoes, the foliage of which does not in ordinary seasons decay until injured by frost, and the tubers of which generally require to be kept some time before they are fit for using to the greatest advantage. taylor's forty-fold. _law._ forty-fold. plant about one foot and a half high, slender, and spreading in habit; foliage light green; flowers very rarely produced; tubers oval, much flattened, and of medium size; skin rough, and of a dull, reddish color. this variety is very dry and starchy, well flavored, and suffers comparatively little from disease. it is also very productive, and a good early sort for the garden; but not well adapted for field culture, or for cultivation for agricultural purposes. tolon. plant quite low and dwarf, decaying with the season; flowers lilac-purple, large and handsome, generally abortive; tubers of medium size, roundish, of a pink or reddish color; flesh yellow, dry, but not of so mild a flavor as many of the more recent kinds. moderately productive. introduced. vermont white. a very fair and good-sized but poor variety, grown to a considerable extent in the northern and more interior portions of new england. color white outside; but the flesh, when cooked, is yellow, soft, not dry, and strong flavored. it is a strong grower, and very productive, but rots badly. it commands only a low price in the market, on account of its very inferior quality; and cannot be recommended for general cultivation. veto, or abington blue. tubers long, resembling in form those of the long red, and, like that variety, often watery at the stem-end after being cooked; color blue or purplish; flesh white; quality fair as a table potato. this variety originally was remarkably productive, and at one period was in very general cultivation; but now is rarely planted, as it is extremely liable to disease, and rots badly. white chenango. chenango. mercer, of new york. an old and familiar variety; at one period almost everywhere known, and generally acknowledged as the best of all varieties. as a potato for early planting, whether for family use or for the market, it was a general favorite; but, within a few years past, it has not only greatly deteriorated in quality and productiveness, but has been peculiarly liable to disease and premature decay of the plants. when well grown, the tubers are of good size, rather long, slightly flattened, and comparatively smooth; eyes slightly sunk; color white, with blotches of purple,--before cooking, somewhat purple under the skin; flesh, when cooked, often stained with pale purple; in its crude state, zoned with bright purple. quality good; dry, mealy, and well flavored. the variety is considerably affected by the soil in which it may be cultivated; in some localities, being much more colored than in others. it is now rapidly giving place to new seedling varieties, quite as good in quality, and more healthy and productive. white cups. tubers long and flattened, somewhat irregular; eyes deeply sunk; skin yellowish; flesh white. it is a very handsome variety, of maine origin, but is only moderately productive. it is also of ordinary quality, rots easily, and will probably never become popular. white mountain. tubers large, long, white, smooth, uniformly fair and perfect. appears to be nearly identical with the st. helena and laplander. it is very productive, and a good agricultural variety; but, for table use, can be considered only of second quality. worcester seedling. dover. riley. tubers of a pinkish-white color, and similar in form to the jackson white. eyes deep-set; flesh white, more so than that of the davis seedling. it keeps well, and is an excellent variety for cultivation for family use, but less profitable than many others for the market. stalks upright; blossoms pinkish, but not abundant. in quality, this comparatively old and well-known variety is nearly or quite equal to the carter; and, besides, is much more productive. as a garden potato, it deserves general cultivation. requires the full season. * * * * * the radish. raphanus sativus. the radish is a hardy annual plant, originally from china. the roots vary greatly in form; some being round or ovoid, some turbinate, and others fusiform, or long, slender, and tapering. when in flower, the plant rises from three to four feet in height, with an erect, smooth, and branching stem. the flowers are quite large, and, in the different kinds, vary in color from clear white to various shades of purple. the seed-pods are long, smooth, somewhat vesiculate, and terminate in a short spur, or beak. the seeds are round, often irregularly flattened or compressed: those of the smaller or spring and summer varieties being of a grayish-red color; and those of the winter or larger-rooted sorts, of a yellowish-red. an ounce contains from three thousand three hundred to three thousand six hundred seeds, and they retain their vitality five years. _soil, propagation, and cultivation._--all the varieties thrive best in a light, rich, sandy loam; dry for early spring sowings, moister for the summer. like all annuals, the radish is propagated by seeds, which may be sown either broadcast or in drills; but the latter method is preferable, as allowing the roots to be drawn regularly, with less waste. for the spindle-rooted kinds, mark out the drills half an inch deep, and five or six inches apart; for the small, turnip-rooted kinds, three-quarters of an inch deep, and six inches asunder. as the plants advance in growth, thin them so as to leave the spindle-rooted an inch apart, and the larger-growing sorts proportionally farther. "_for raising early radishes without a hot-bed._--sow in the open ground the last of march or early in april, arch the bed over with hoops or pliant rods, and cover constantly at night and during cold days with garden-matting. in moderate days, turn up the covering at the side next the sun; and, if the weather is very fine and mild, remove it entirely." _open culture._--sow in spring as soon as the ground can be worked. if space is limited, radishes may be sown with onions or lettuce. when grown with the former, they are said to be less affected by the maggot. for a succession, a small sowing should be made each fortnight until midsummer, as the early-sown plants are liable to become rank, and unfit for use, as they increase in size. radishes usually suffer from the drought and heat incident to the summer; and, when grown at this season, are generally fibrous and very pungent. to secure the requisite shade and moisture, they are sometimes sown in beds of asparagus, that the branching stems may afford shade for the young radishes, and render them more crisp and tender. a good criterion by which to judge of the quality of a radish is to break it asunder by bending it at right angles. if the parts divide squarely and freely, it is fit for use. _production and quantity of seed._--to raise seed of the spring or summer radishes, the best method is to transplant; which should be done in may, as the roots are then in their greatest perfection. take them up in moist weather; select plants with the shortest tops and the smoothest and best-formed roots; and set them, apart from all other varieties, in rows two feet and a half distant, inserting each root wholly into the ground, down to the leaves. with proper watering, they will soon strike, and shoot up in branching stalks, producing abundance of seeds, ripening in autumn. one ounce and a half of seed will sow a bed five feet in width and twelve feet in length. ten pounds are required for seeding an acre. the excellence of a radish consists in its being succulent, mild, crisp, and tender; but, as these qualities are secured only by rapid growth, the plants should be frequently and copiously watered in dry weather. the varieties are divided into two classes; viz., spring or summer, and autumn or winter, radishes. spring or summer radishes. these varieties are all comparatively hardy, and may be sown in the open ground as early in spring as the soil is in good working condition. the earliest spring radishes are grown as follows: "in january, february, or march, make a hot-bed three feet and a half wide, and of a length proportionate to the supply required. put upon the surface of the dung six inches of well-pulverized earth; sow the seeds broadcast, or in drills five inches apart; and cover half an inch deep with fine mould. when the plants have come up, admit the air every day in mild or tolerably good weather by tilting the upper end of the light, or sometimes the front, one, two, or three inches high, that the radishes may not draw up long, pale, and weak. if they have risen very thick, thin them, while young, to about one inch apart. be careful to cover the sashes at night with garden mats, woollen carpeting, or like material. water with tepid water, at noon, on sunny days. if the heat of the bed declines much, apply a moderate lining of warm dung or stable-litter to the sides, which, by gently renewing the heat, will soon forward the radishes for pulling. remember, as they advance in growth, to give more copious admissions of air daily, either by lifting the lights in front several inches, or, in fine, mild days, by drawing the lights mostly off; but be careful to draw them on early, before the sun has much declined and the air become cool." early black. noir hatif. _vil._ bulb nearly spherical, slightly elongated or tapering, nearly of the size and form of the gray turnip-rooted; skin dull black, rough, and wrinkled; flesh white, solid, crisp, and piquant; leaves of the size of those of the gray turnip-rooted. season intermediate between that of the last named and the black spanish. early long purple. rave violette hative. _vil._ a sub-variety of the long purple, earlier and of smaller size. early purple turnip-rooted. a few days earlier than the scarlet turnip-rooted. size, form, and flavor nearly the same. early scarlet turnip-rooted. rond rose hatif. _vil._ bulb spherical, or a little flattened,--often bursting or cracking longitudinally before attaining its full dimensions; skin deep scarlet; flesh rose-colored, crisp, mild, and pleasant; neck small; leaves few in number, and of smaller size than those of the common scarlet turnip-rooted. season quite early,--two or three days in advance of the last named. as a variety for forcing, it is considered one of the best; but the small size of the leaves renders it inconvenient for bunching, and it is consequently less cultivated for the market than many other sorts. extensively grown in the vicinity of paris. early white turnip-rooted. rond blanc hatif. _vil._ skin and flesh white; form similar to that of the scarlet turnip-rooted. it is, however, of smaller size, and somewhat earlier. an excellent sort, and much cultivated. gray olive-shaped. form similar to the scarlet olive-shaped. skin gray; flesh white, crisp, and well flavored. gray turnip-rooted. gray summer. round brown. _trans._ the form of this variety may be called round, though it is somewhat irregular in shape. it grows large, and often becomes hollow. it should, therefore, be used while young, or when not more than an inch or an inch and a half in diameter. the outside coat is mottled with greenish-brown, wrinkled, and often marked with transverse white lines. the flesh is mild, not so solid as that of many varieties, and of a greenish-white color. the leaves are similar to those of the yellow turnip-rooted, growing long and upright, with green footstalks. half early, and a good variety for summer use. long purple. _thomp._ root long, a large portion growing above ground; skin deep purple; flesh white, and of good flavor. the seed-leaves, which are quite large, are used as a small salad. the variety is early, and good for forcing. when the green tops are required for salading, the seeds should be sown in drills, as mustard or cress. long salmon. _trans._ long scarlet salmon. this variety has been considered synonymous with the long scarlet; but it is really a distinct sort. the neck of the root rises about an inch above the ground, like that of the scarlet, but it is of a paler red; and this color gradually becomes lighter towards the middle, where it is a pale-pink or salmon color. from the middle, the color grows paler downwards, and the extremity of the root is almost white. in shape and size, this radish differs nothing from the scarlet; nor does it appear to be earlier, or to possess any qualities superior to the scarlet radish, the beauty of which, when well grown, exceeds that of any other long radish. long scarlet. _thomp._ early scarlet short-top. early frame. [illustration: long scarlet radish.] root long, a considerable portion growing above the surface of the ground,--outside, of a beautiful, deep-pink color, becoming paler towards the lower extremity; flesh white, transparent, crisp, and of good flavor, having less pungency than that of the scarlet turnip; leaves small, but larger than those of the last-named variety. when of suitable size for use, the root measures seven or eight inches in length, and five-eighths or three-fourths of an inch in diameter at its largest part. the long scarlet radish, with its sub-varieties, is more generally cultivated for market in the eastern, middle, and western states, than any other, or perhaps even more than all other sorts. it is very extensively grown about london, and is everywhere prized, not only for its fine qualities, but for its rich, bright color. it is also one of the hardiest of the radishes; and is raised readily in any common frame, if planted as early as february. olive-shaped scarlet. oblong rose-colored. _thomp._ [illustration: olive scarlet radish.] bulb an inch and a half deep, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, oblong, somewhat in the form of an olive, terminating in a very slim tap-root; skin fine scarlet; neck small; leaves not very numerous, and of small size; flesh rose-colored, tender, and excellent. early, and well adapted for forcing and for the general crop. purple turnip-rooted. this is a variety of the scarlet turnip-rooted; the size, form, color, and quality being nearly the same. the skin is purple. it is considered a few days earlier than the last named. scarlet turnip-rooted. crimson turnip-rooted. [illustration: scarlet turnip-rooted.] bulb spherical; when in its greatest perfection, measuring about an inch in diameter; skin fine, deep scarlet; flesh white, sometimes stained with red; leaves rather large and numerous. the variety is early, and deserves more general cultivation, not only on account of its rich color, but for the crisp and tender properties of its flesh. it is much esteemed in england, and is grown extensively for the london market. small, early, yellow turnip-rooted. bulb of the size and form of the scarlet turnip-rooted; skin smooth, yellow; flesh white, fine-grained, crisp, and rather pungent; foliage similar to that of the scarlet variety; season ten or fifteen days later. white, crooked. tortillée du mans. _vil._ root very long; when suitable for use, measuring twelve inches and upwards in length, and an inch in diameter, nearly cylindrical, often irregular, and sometimes assuming a spiral or cork-screw form; skin white and smooth; flesh white, not so firm as that of most varieties, and considerably pungent; leaves very large. white turnip-rooted. bulb of the form and size of the scarlet turnip-rooted; skin white; flesh white and semi-transparent. it possesses less piquancy than the scarlet, but is some days later. yellow turnip-rooted. _trans._ yellow summer. bulb nearly spherical, but tapering slightly towards the tap-root, which is very slender. it grows large,--to full four inches in diameter, when old; but should be eaten young, when about an inch in diameter. the flesh is mild, crisp, solid, and quite white. the skin is of a yellowish-brown color; and the leaves grow long and upright, with green footstalks. half early, and well adapted for summer cultivation. long white. white italian. naples. white transparent. root long and slender, nearly of the size and form of the long scarlet; skin white,--when exposed to the light, tinged with green; flesh white, crisp, and mild. it is deserving of cultivation, not only on account of its excellent qualities, but as forming an agreeable contrast at table when served with the red varieties. long white purple-top. a sub-variety of the long white; the portion of the root exposed to the light being tinged with purple. in size and form, it differs little from the long scarlet. new london particular. wood's frame. this is but a sub-variety of the long scarlet; the difference between the sorts being immaterial. the color of the new london particular is more brilliant, and extends farther down the root. it is also said to be somewhat earlier. oblong brown. _trans._ the oblong brown radish has a pear-shaped bulb, with an elongated tap-root. it does not grow particularly large; and, being hardier than most varieties, is well adapted for use late in the season. the outside is rough and brown, marked with white circles; the flesh is piquant, firm, hard, and white; the leaves are dark green, and rather spread over the ground; the footstalks are stained with purple. autumn and winter radishes. these varieties may be sown from the th of july to the th of august; the soil being previously made rich, light, and friable. thin out the young plants from four to six inches apart; and, in the absence of rain, water freely. during september and october, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. for winter use, the roots should be harvested before freezing weather, and packed in earth or sand, out of danger from frost. before being used, they should be immersed for a short time in cold water. _to raise seed._--seeds of the winter radishes are raised by allowing the plants to remain where they were sown. as fast as they ripen, cut the stems; or gather the principal branches, and spread them in an open, airy situation, towards the sun, that the pods, which are quite tough in their texture, may become so dry and brittle as to break readily, and give out their seeds freely. _use._--all the kinds are used as salad, and are served in all the forms of the spring and summer radishes. _varieties._-- black spanish. _trans._ bulb ovoid, or rather regularly pear-shaped, with a long tap-root. at first the root is slender, and somewhat cylindrical in form: but it swells as it advances in age, and finally attains a large size; measuring eight or ten inches in length, and three or four inches in diameter. the outside is rough, and nearly black; the flesh is pungent, firm, solid, and white; the leaves are long, and inclined to grow horizontally; the leaf-stems are purple. it is one of the latest, as well as one of the hardiest, of the radishes; and is considered an excellent sort for winter use. large purple winter. _trans._ purple spanish. the large purple winter radish is a beautiful variety, derived, without doubt, from the black spanish; and may therefore be properly called the purple spanish. in shape and character, it much resembles the black spanish: but the outside, when cleaned, is of a beautiful purple, though it appears black when first drawn from the earth; and the coat, when cut through, shows the purple very finely. the footstalks of the leaves have a much deeper tinge of purple than those of the other kinds. long black winter. a sub-variety of the black spanish. root long and tapering. with the exception of its smaller size, much resembling a long orange carrot. long-leaved white chinese. _vil._ root fusiform, sometimes inversely turbinate, about five inches in length, and an inch in diameter; skin white, and of fine texture; flesh fine-grained, crisp, and though somewhat pungent, yet milder flavored than that of the black spanish; leaves large, differing from most other varieties in not being lobed, or in being nearly entire on the borders. its season is nearly the same as that of the rose-colored chinese. the plants produce but few seeds. purple chinese. a sub-variety of the scarlet, with little variation except in color; the size, quality, and manner of growth, being nearly the same. rose-colored chinese. _vil._ scarlet chinese winter. bulb rather elongated, somewhat cylindrical, contracted abruptly to a long, slender tap-root; size full medium,--average specimens measuring about five inches in length, and two inches in diameter at the broadest part; skin comparatively fine, and of a bright rose-color; flesh firm, and rather piquant; leaves large,--the leaf-stems washed with rose-red. season between that of the gray summer and that of the black spanish. winter white spanish. autumn white. blanc d'augsbourg. _vil._ root somewhat fusiform, retaining its diameter for two-thirds the length, sharply conical at the base, and, when well grown, measuring seven or eight inches in length by nearly three inches in its fullest diameter; skin white, slightly wrinkled, sometimes tinged with purple where exposed to the sun; flesh white, solid, and pungent, though milder than that of the black spanish. it succeeds best, and is of the best quality, when grown in light sandy soil. season intermediate. * * * * * rampion. campanula rapunculus. the rampion is a biennial plant, indigenous to the south of europe, and occasionally found in a wild state in england. the roots are white, fusiform, fleshy, and, in common with the other parts of the plant, abound in a milky juice; the lower or root leaves are oval, lanceolate, and waved on the borders; the upper leaves are long, narrow, and pointed. stem eighteen inches or two feet in height, branching; flowers blue, sometimes white, disposed in small, loose clusters about the top of the plant, on the ends of the branches. the seeds are oval, brownish, and exceedingly small; upwards of nine hundred thousand being contained in an ounce. they retain their germinative property five years. the plant flowers in july of the second year, and the seeds ripen in autumn. there is but one variety. _soil and cultivation._--"rampion prefers a rich, free, and rather light soil, in a shady situation. it is raised from seed, which should be sown where the plants are to remain, as they do not bear transplanting well. the sowing may be made in april, may, or the beginning of june: but sometimes plants from very early sowings are liable to run up to seed; and, when this is the case, the roots become tough, and unfit for use. the ground should be well dug, and raked as fine as possible. the seed may then be sown either broadcast or in drills, six inches apart, and about one-fourth of an inch deep. as the seeds are very small, it is advisable to mix them with fifteen or twenty times their bulk of fine sand, in order to secure their even distribution in the drills, and to prevent the plants from coming up too closely. the seed should only be very slightly covered with fine earth; and the seed-bed ought to be frequently watered with a fine-rosed watering-pot till the plants come up, which will be in about a fortnight. "when the young plants are about one inch high, they should be thinned out to four inches apart. after this, no further care is necessary than to water frequently, and to keep the ground free of weeds."--_thomp._ _taking the crop._--the roots will be fit for use from october till april. they may be taken from the ground for immediate use; or a quantity may be taken up in autumn, before the closing-up of the ground, and packed in sand, for use during the winter. _to raise seed._--leave or transplant some of the best yearling plants, and they will produce an abundance of seed in autumn. _use._--the roots have a pleasant, nut-like flavor; and are generally eaten in their crude state as a salad. "the leaves, as well as the roots, are occasionally used in winter salads." * * * * * ruta-baga, or swede turnip. russian turnip. french turnip. brassica campestris ruta-baga. _de cand._ the ruta-baga, or swede turnip, is supposed by de candolle to be analogous to the kohl rabi; the root being developed into a large, fleshy bulb, instead of the stem. in its natural state, the root is small and slender; and the stem smooth and branching,--not much exceeding two feet in height. the bulbs, or roots, are fully developed during the first year. the plant flowers, and produces its seeds, the second year, and then perishes. although considered hardy,--not being affected by even severe frosts,--none of the varieties will withstand the winters of the northern or middle states in the open ground. the crop should therefore be harvested in october or november, and stored for the winter, out of danger from freezing. most of the sorts now cultivated retain their freshness and solidity till spring, and some even into the summer; requiring no particular care in their preservation, other than that usually given to the carrot or the potato. _soil and cultivation._--all the varieties succeed best in a deep, well-enriched, mellow soil; which, previous to planting, should be very deeply ploughed, and thoroughly pulverized by harrowing or otherwise. some practise ridging, and others sow in simple drills. the ridges are usually formed by turning two furrows against each other; and, being thus made, are about two feet apart. if sown in simple drills, the surface should be raked smooth, and the drills made from sixteen to eighteen inches apart; the distance to be regulated by the strength of the soil. _seed and sowing._--about one pound of seed is usually allowed to an acre. where the rows are comparatively close, rather more than this quantity will be required; while three-fourths of a pound will be amply sufficient, if sown on ridges, or where the drills are eighteen inches apart. the sowing may be made from the middle of may to the th of july; the latter time being considered sufficiently early for growing for the table, and by some even for stock. early sowings will unquestionably give the greatest product; while the later-grown bulbs, though of smaller dimensions, will prove of quite as good quality for the table. _to raise seeds._--select the smoothest and most symmetrical bulbs, and transplant them in april, two feet asunder, sinking the crowns to a level with the surface of the ground. the seeds are very similar to those of the common garden and field turnip, and will keep from five to eight years. _varieties._--the varieties are as follow:-- ashcroft. bulb of medium size, ovoid, very smooth and symmetrical; neck very short, or wanting. above ground, the skin is purple; below the surface, yellow. flesh yellow, very solid, fine-grained, and of excellent flavor. it forms its bulb quickly and regularly; keeps in fresh and sound condition until may or june; and well deserves cultivation, either for agricultural purposes or for the table. common purple-top yellow. [illustration: common purple-top yellow.] an old and long-cultivated sort, from which, in connection with the green-top, have originated most of the more recent and improved yellow-fleshed varieties. form regularly egg-shaped, smooth, but usually sending out a few small, straggling roots at its base, near the tap-root; neck short; size rather large,--usually measuring six or seven inches in depth, and four or five inches in its largest diameter; skin purple above ground,--below the surface, yellow; flesh yellow, of close, firm texture, and of good quality. it is very hardy; forms its bulb promptly and uniformly; and in rich, deep soils, yields abundantly. for thin and light soils, some of the other varieties should be selected. early stubble. bulb round, smooth, and regular. the skin, where exposed to light and air, is of a brownish-green; but, where covered by the soil, yellow. the flesh is firm, and well flavored. the early stubble is recommended as forming its bulbs quickly and uniformly, and as being well adapted for late sowing. it yields abundantly; keeps well; is a good sort for the table; and, in some localities, is preferred to the common yellow for cultivation for farm purposes. green-top yellow. in form and foliage, this variety resembles the common purple-top; but usually attains a larger size when grown in similar situations. skin, above the surface of the soil, green; below ground, yellow. the flesh is solid, sweet, and well flavored, but inferior to that of the purple-top. it keeps well, is of fair quality for the table, and, on account of its great productiveness, one of the best of all varieties for growing for feeding stock. green-top white. bulb turbinate, smooth, and symmetrical. the skin above ground is of a fine, clear, pea-green; often browned or mellowed where exposed to the direct influence of the sun: below the surface of the ground, it is uniformly white. the flesh is also white, comparatively solid, very sweet, and of fair quality for table use. it differs from the purple-top white, not only in color, but in size and quality; the bulbs being larger, and the flesh not quite so firm or well flavored. the green-top white is productive; continues its growth till the season has far advanced; is little affected by severe weather; and, when sown in good soil, will yield an agricultural crop of twenty-five or thirty tons to an acre. laing's improved purple-top. _law. and gen. farmer._ this variety differs from most, if not all, of the varieties of swedish turnips, in having entire cabbage-like leaves, which, by their horizontal growth, often nearly cover the surface of the ground. in form, hardiness, and quality, it is fully equal to any of the other sorts. growing late in the autumn, it is not well adapted to a climate where the winter commences early. it has little or no tendency to run to seed in the fall; and even in the spring, when set out for seed, it is a fortnight later in commencing this function than other varieties of ruta-bagas. it requires good land, in high condition; and, under such circumstances, will yield abundantly, and is worthy of cultivation. the bulb, when well grown, has an almost spherical form; a fine, smooth skin, purple above ground, yellow below, with yellow, solid, and well-flavored flesh. purple-top white. bulb oblong, tapering toward the lower extremity, five or six inches in diameter, seven or eight inches in depth, and less smooth and regular than many of the yellow-fleshed varieties. the skin is of a clear rich purple, where it comes to air and light, but, below the ground, pure white; flesh white, very solid and fine-grained, sugary, and well flavored. the variety is hardy, productive, keeps remarkably well, is good for table use, and may be profitably grown for agricultural purposes. upwards of twenty-eight tons, or nine hundred and sixty bushels, have been raised from an acre. river's. root regularly turbinate, or fusiform, of full medium size, smooth, and with few small or fibrous roots; neck two inches long; skin, above ground, green, washed with purplish-red where most exposed to the sun,--below ground, yellow; flesh yellow, firm, sweet, and well flavored. esteemed one of the best, either for stock or the table. keeps fresh till may or june. skirving's purple-top. skirving's improved purple-top. skirving's liverpool. southold turnip, of some localities. bulb ovoid, or regularly turbinate, and rather deeper in proportion to its diameter than the common purple-top yellow; surface remarkably smooth and even, with few fibrous roots, and seldom deformed by larger accidental roots, although, in unfavorable soils or seasons, a few coarse roots are put forth in the vicinity of the tap-root; size full medium,--five to seven inches in length, and four or five inches in diameter. sometimes, when sown early in good soil, and harvested late, the average will considerably exceed these dimensions. neck short, but, when grown in poor soil, comparatively long; skin, above ground, fine, deep purple,--below ground, yellow,--the colors often richly blending together at the surface; flesh yellow, of solid texture, sweet, and well flavored. this variety was originated by mr. william skirving, of liverpool, eng. in this country it has been widely disseminated, and is now more generally cultivated for table use and for stock than any other of the swede varieties. the plants seldom fail to form good-sized bulbs. it is a good keeper; is of more than average quality for the table; and long experience has proved it one of the best sorts for cultivation on land that is naturally shallow and in poor condition. on soils in a high state of cultivation, upwards of nine hundred bushels have been obtained from an acre. in sowing, allow twenty inches between the rows, and thin to ten or twelve inches in the rows. sweet german. [illustration: sweet german.] bulb four or five inches in diameter, six or seven inches in depth, turbinate, sometimes nearly fusiform. in good soil and favorable seasons, it is comparatively smooth and regular; but, under opposite conditions, often branched and uneven. neck two or three inches in length; skin greenish-brown above ground, white beneath; flesh pure white, of extraordinary solidity, very sweet, mild, and well flavored. it retains its solidity and freshness till spring, and often at midsummer has no appearance of sponginess or decay. as a table variety, it must be classed as one of the best, and is recommended for general cultivation. white french. long white french. [illustration: white french.] the roots of this variety are produced entirely within the earth. they are invariably fusiform; and, if well grown, measure four or five inches in diameter, and from eight to ten inches in length. foliage not abundant, spreading; skin white; flesh white, solid, mild, sweet, and delicate. it is not so productive as some other varieties, and is therefore not so well adapted to field culture; but for table use it is surpassed by few, if any, of its class. a rough-leaved, fusiform-rooted variety of the common garden-turnip: is known by the name of "white french" in many localities; but, according to the most reliable authority, that name has not only long been used in connection with, but properly belongs to, the white turnip above described. * * * * * salsify, or oyster-plant. leek-leaved salsify. vegetable oyster. purple goat's beard. tragopogon porrifolius. the salsify is a hardy biennial plant, and is principally cultivated for its roots, the flavor of which resembles that of the oyster; whence the popular name. the leaves are long and grass-like, or leek-like; the roots are long and tapering, white within and without, and, when grown in good soil, measure twelve or fourteen inches in length, and rather more than an inch in diameter at the crown. _soil and cultivation._--the oyster-plant succeeds best in a light, well-enriched, mellow soil; which, previous to sowing the seeds, should be stirred to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches. the seeds should be sown annually, in the same manner and at the same time as the seeds of the carrot and parsnip. make the drills fourteen inches apart; cover the seeds an inch and a half in depth; and thin, while the plants are young, to four or five inches asunder. early sowings succeed best; as the seeds, which are generally more or less imperfect, vegetate much better when the earth is moist than when dry and parched, as it is liable to become when the season is more advanced. cultivate in the usual manner during the summer; and, by the last of september or beginning of october, the roots will have attained their full growth, and be ready for use. the plants will sustain no injury during the winter, though left entirely unprotected in the open ground; and the table may be supplied directly from the garden, whenever the frost will admit of their removal. a portion of the crop should, however, be taken up in autumn, and stored in the cellar, like other roots; or, which is perhaps preferable, packed in earth or sand. roots remaining in the ground may be drawn for use till april, or until the plants have begun to send up their stalks for flowering. _seeds,--production and quantity._--for the production of seeds, allow a few plants to remain during the winter in the open ground where they were sown. they will blossom in june and july. when fully developed, the stem is about three feet in height, cylindrical, and branching. the flowers are large, of a very rich violet-purple, and expand only by day and in comparatively sunny weather. as the flowers are put forth in gradual succession, so the heads of seeds are ripened at intervals, and should be cut as they assume a brownish color. the seeds are brownish,--lighter or darker as they are less or more perfectly matured,--long and slender, furrowed and rough on the sides, tapering to a long, smooth point at the top, often somewhat bent or curved, and measure about five-eighths of an inch in length. they will keep four years. an ounce contains three thousand two hundred seeds, and will sow a row eighty feet in length. some cultivators put this amount of seed into a drill of sixty feet; but if the seed is of average quality, and the season ordinarily favorable, one ounce of seed will produce an abundance of plants for eighty or a hundred feet. _use._--the roots are prepared in various forms; but, when simply boiled in the manner of beets and carrots, the flavor is sweet and delicate. the young flower-stalks, if cut in the spring of the second year and dressed like asparagus, resemble it in taste, and make an excellent dish. the roots are sometimes thinly sliced, and, with the addition of vinegar, salt, and pepper, served as a salad. they are also recommended as being remedial or alleviating in cases of consumptive tendency. there is but one species or variety now cultivated. * * * * * scolymus. spanish scolymus. spanish oyster-plant. scolymus hispanicus. in its natural state, this is a perennial plant; but, when cultivated, it is generally treated as an annual or as a biennial. the roots are nearly white, fleshy, long, and tapering in their general form, and, if well grown, measure twelve or fifteen inches in length, and an inch in diameter at the crown. when cut or bruised, or where the fibrous roots are broken or rubbed off, there exudes a thick, somewhat viscous fluid, nearly flavorless, and of a milk-white color. the leaf is large, often measuring a foot or more in length, and three inches in diameter, somewhat variegated with green and white, deeply lobed; the lobes or divisions toothed, and the teeth terminating in sharp spines, in the manner of the leaves of many species of thistles. when in flower, the plant is about three feet in height. the flowers, which are put forth singly, are of an orange-yellow, and measure an inch and a half in diameter. the seeds are flat, and very thin, membranous on the borders, of a yellowish color, and retain their vitality three years. an ounce contains nearly four thousand seeds. _soil and cultivation._--any good garden loam is adapted to the growth of the scolymus. it should be well and deeply stirred as for other deep-growing root crops. the seeds should be sown from the middle of april to the th of may, in drills an inch deep, and fourteen inches asunder. thin the young plants to five inches distant in the rows; and, during the summer, treat the growing crop as parsnips or carrots. _use._--it is cultivated exclusively for its roots, which are usually taken up in september or october, and served at table, and preserved during the winter, in the same manner as the salsify, or oyster-plant. they have a pleasant, delicate flavor; and are considered to be not only healthful, but remarkably nutritious. * * * * * scorzonera. black oyster-plant. black salsify. scorzonera hispanica. this is a hardy perennial plant, introduced from the south of europe, where it is indigenous. the root is tapering, and comparatively slender,--when well developed, measuring about a foot in length, and an inch in diameter near the crown, or at the broadest part; skin grayish-black, coarse, somewhat reticulated, resembling the roots of some species of trees; flesh white; leaves long, ovate, broadest near the end, and tapering sharply to the stem. they are also more or less distinctly ribbed, and have a few remote teeth, or serratures, at the extremities. when in flower, the plant measures about four feet in height; the stalk being nearly cylindrical, slightly grooved or furrowed, smooth, and branched towards the top. the flowers are large, terminal, yellow; the seeds are whitish, longer than broad, taper towards the top, and retain their vitality two years. an ounce contains about two thousand five hundred seeds. _soil and culture._--though a perennial, it is generally cultivated as an annual or biennial, in the manner of the carrot or parsnip. thompson says, "it succeeds best in a light, deep, free soil and an open situation. it is raised from seed, which may be sown in drills one foot apart, covering with soil to the depth of half an inch. as it is apt to run to seed the same year in which it is sown, and consequently to become tough and woody," the planting should not be made too early, particularly in the warmer sections of the country. a second sowing may be made about four weeks from the first, "as a precautionary measure, in case the plants of the first sowing should run. the young plants, when three or four inches high, should be thinned out to eight inches asunder in the rows. towards the middle or last of september, the roots will have attained sufficient size to be drawn for immediate use: others will come in for use in october and november. in the latter month, they will be in perfection; and, before the closing-up of the ground, a quantity may be taken up, and stored in sand for the winter. when the ground is open, the roots may be drawn from time to time, as required for immediate use. about the middle of april, the roots remaining in the ground will begin to run to flower; after which they soon become hard, woody, and unfit for the table. before this takes place, however, they may be taken up, and stored in sand, where they may be kept for use till may or june." _to raise seed._--allow a few well-grown plants to remain in the ground during winter; or select a few good-sized roots from those harvested in autumn, and reset them in april, about eighteen inches apart, covering them to the crowns. the seed will ripen at the close of the summer or early in autumn. seed saved from plants of the growth of two seasons is considered best; that produced from yearling plants being greatly inferior. _use._--it is cultivated exclusively for its roots; no other portion of the plant being employed in domestic economy. the flesh of these is white, tender, sugary, and well flavored. they are boiled in the manner of the parsnip, and served plain at the table; or they may be cooked in all the forms of salsify or scolymus. before cooking, the outer, coarse rind should be scraped off, and the roots soaked for a few hours in cold water for the purpose of extracting their bitter flavor. * * * * * skirret. crummock, of the scotch. sium sisarum. skirret is a hardy perennial, and is cultivated for its roots, which are produced in groups, or bunches, joined together at the crown or neck of the plant. they are oblong, fleshy, of a russet-brown color without, white within, very sugary, and, when well grown, measure six or eight inches in length, and nearly an inch in diameter. the leaves of the first year are pinnate, with seven or nine oblong, finely toothed leaflets. when fully developed, the plant measures from three to five feet in height; the stem being marked with fine, parallel, longitudinal grooves, or lines. the flowers are small, white, and are produced in umbels at the extremities of the branches. the seeds, eight thousand of which are contained in an ounce, are oblong, of a greenish-gray color, and closely resemble those of the common caraway. they will keep but two years; and, even when newly grown, sometimes remain in the ground four or five weeks before vegetating. _soil and culture._--skirret succeeds best in light, mellow soil, and is propagated by suckers, or seeds. the best method is to sow the seeds annually, as, when grown from slips, or suckers, the roots are liable to be dry and woody; the seeds, on the contrary, producing roots more tender, and in greater perfection. sow the seeds in april, in drills one foot apart, and about an inch in depth; thin to five or six inches; and, in september, some of the roots will be sufficiently grown for use. those required for winter should be drawn before the closing-up of the ground, and packed in sand. _to propagate by slips, or suckers._--in the spring, remove the required number of young shoots, or sprouts, from the side of the roots that have remained in the ground during winter, not taking any portion of the old root in connection with the slips; and set them in rows ten inches asunder, and six inches apart in the rows. they will soon strike, and produce roots of suitable size for use in august or september. _to raise seeds._--the plants that have remained in the ground during the winter, if not disturbed, will send up stalks as before described, and ripen their seeds at the close of the summer. two or three plants will yield all the seeds ordinarily required for a single garden. _use._--the roots were formerly much esteemed, but are now neglected for those greatly inferior. when cooked and served as salsify or scorzonera, they are the whitest and sweetest of esculent roots, and afford a considerable portion of nourishment. there are no varieties. * * * * * sweet potato. spanish potato. carolina potato. convolvulus batatus. ipomoea batatas. the sweet potato is indigenous to both the east and west indies. where its growth is natural, the plant is perennial; but, in cultivation, it is always treated as an annual. the stem is running or climbing, round and slender; the leaves are heart-shaped and smooth, with irregular, angular lobes; the flowers, which are produced in small groups of three or four, are large, bell-shaped, and of a violet or purple color; the seeds are black, triangular, and retain their vitality two or three years,--twenty-three hundred are contained in an ounce. the plants rarely blossom in the northern or middle states, and the perfect ripening of the seeds is of still more rare occurrence. the latter are, however, never employed in ordinary culture; and are sown only for the production of new varieties, as is sometimes practised with the common potato. _soil, planting, and cultivation._--in warm climates, the sweet potato is cultivated in much the same manner as the common potato is treated at the north. it succeeds best in light, warm, mellow soil, which should be deeply stirred and well enriched. the slips, or sprouts, may be set on ridges four feet apart, and fifteen inches from plant to plant; or in hills four or five feet apart in each direction, three plants being allowed to a hill. during the summer, give the vines ordinary culture; and late in september, or early in october, the tubers will have attained their growth, and be ready for harvesting. the slips, or sprouts, are generally obtained by setting the tubers in a hot-bed in march or april, and breaking off or separating the sprouts from the tubers as fast as they reach four or five inches in height or attain a suitable size for transplanting. in favorable seasons, the plucking may be repeated three or four times. in setting out the slips, the lower part should be sunk from one-third to one-half the entire length; and, if very dry weather occurs, water should be moderately applied. _keeping._--the essentials for the preservation of sweet potatoes are dryness and a warm and even temperature. where these conditions are not supplied, the tubers speedily decay. by packing in dry sand, and storing in a warm, dry room, they are sometimes preserved in the northern states until the time of starting the plants in spring. _varieties._--though numerous other varieties, less marked and distinctive, are described by different authors, and are catalogued by gardeners and seedsmen, the principal are as follow:-- kentucky early red. _murray._ red nansemond. tubers red, or purplish-red, of medium size; flesh yellow, dry, sweet, and of good quality. a very prolific, hardy variety; recommended as the best red sweet potato for northern culture. large white. patate-blanche of the french. tubers from six to ten inches in length,--thickest at the middle, where they measure from two to nearly three inches in diameter; weight from six ounces to a pound and upwards; skin dusky white; flesh nearly white, but with a shade of yellow. not so fine-grained or so sweet as the yellow or purple, but quite farinaceous and well flavored. it requires a long season in order to its full development; but, being remarkably hardy, it will succeed well in any of the middle states, and attain a fair size in the warmer sections of new england. nansemond. yellow nansemond. a variety said to have originated in nansemond county, va.; whence the name. tubers large, yellow, swollen at the middle, and tapering to the ends; flesh yellow, dry, unctuous, sweet, and well flavored. it is early fit for the table; matures in short seasons; is very productive; succeeds well in almost any tillable soil; and, having been long acclimated, is one of the best sorts for cultivation at the north,--very good crops having been obtained in maine and the canadas. purple-skinned. new-orleans purple. patate violette. _vil._ tubers swollen at the middle, and tapering in each direction to a point,--measuring, when well grown, from seven to nine inches in length, and from two to three inches in diameter; skin smooth, reddish-purple; flesh fine-grained, sugary, and of excellent quality. the plants attain a remarkable length, and the tubers are rarely united about the neck as in most other varieties. the purple-skinned is early and productive, but keeps badly. it would probably succeed much better in cool climates than either the white or the yellow. it is much grown in the vicinity of paris. red-skinned, or american red. tubers fusiform, long, and comparatively slender,--the length often exceeding twelve inches, and the diameter rarely above two inches; weight from three to ten ounces; skin purplish-red, smooth and shining; flesh yellow, very fine-grained, unctuous, sugary, and farinaceous; plant long and slender. this variety is early, quite hardy, very productive, and excellent, but does not keep so well as the yellow or white sorts. it is well adapted for cultivation in the cooler sections of the united states; where, in favorable seasons, the crop has proved as certain, and the yield nearly as abundant, as that of the common potato. rose-colored. _vil._ tubers somewhat ovoid, or egg-shaped, often grooved, or furrowed, and of extraordinary size. well-grown specimens will measure eight or nine inches in length, and four inches or more in diameter; frequently weighing two and a half, and sometimes greatly exceeding three pounds. skin rose-colored, shaded or variegated with yellow; flesh sweet, of a pleasant, nut-like flavor, but less soft or unctuous than that of the other varieties. it is hardy, remarkably productive, and, its excellent keeping properties considered, one of the best sorts for cultivation. yellow-skinned. yellow carolina. tubers from six to ten inches in length, thickest at the middle, where they measure from two to three inches in diameter, and pointed at the extremities; weight varying from four to twelve ounces and upwards; skin smooth, yellow; flesh yellow, fine-grained, unctuous, and remarkably sugary,--surpassing, in this last respect, nearly all other varieties. not so early as the red-skinned or the purple. when grown in the southern states, it yields well; perfectly matures its crop; and, in color and flavor, the tubers will accord with the description above given. when grown in the middle states, or in the warmer parts of new england, it decreases in size; the tubers become longer and more slender; the color, externally and internally, becomes much paler, or nearly white; and the flesh, to a great extent, loses the fine, dry, and sugary qualities which it possesses when grown in warm climates. * * * * * tuberous-rooted chickling vetch. tuberous-rooted pea. eatable-rooted pea. lathyrus tuberosus. perennial; stem about six feet high,--climbing, slender, four-sided, smooth, and of a clear green color; flowers rather large, in bunches, of a fine carmine rose-color, and somewhat fragrant; pod smooth; seeds rather large, oblong, a little angular, of a brown color, spotted with black; root spreading, furnished with numerous blackish, irregularly shaped tubers, which are generally from an ounce to three ounces in weight. the roots are very farinaceous, and, when cooked, are highly esteemed. in taste, they somewhat resemble roasted chestnuts. where the roots are uninjured by the winter, the plant increases rapidly, and is liable to become a troublesome inmate of the garden. * * * * * tuberous-rooted tropÆolum. _thomp._ ysano. tropæolum tuberosum. this is a perennial plant from peru, and deserves mention as a recently introduced esculent. it produces an abundance of handsome yellow and red tubers, about the size of small pears; the taste of which is not, however, very agreeable. on this account, a particular mode of treatment has been adopted in bolivia, where, according to m. decaisne, they are treated in the following manner:-- the tubers designated "ysano," at la paz, require to be prepared before they are edible. indeed, when prepared like potatoes, and immediately after being taken up, their taste is very disagreeable. but a mode of making them palatable was discovered in bolivia; and the ysano has there become, if not a common vegetable, at least one which is quite edible. the means of making them so consists in freezing them after they have been cooked, and they are eaten when frozen. in this state it is said that they constitute an agreeable dish, and that scarcely a day passes at la paz without two lines of dealers being engaged in selling the ysano, which they protect from the action of the sun by enveloping it in a woollen cloth, and straw. large quantities are eaten sopped in treacle, and taken as refreshment during the heat of the day. _propagation and culture._--the plant may be propagated by pieces of the tubers, in the same manner as potatoes; an eye being preserved on each piece. the sets should be planted in april or may, according to the season, about four feet apart, in light, rich soil. the stems may be allowed to trail along the ground, or pea-sticks may be placed for their support. in dry soils and seasons, the former method should be adopted; in those which are moist, the latter. the tubers are taken up in october, when the leaves begin to decay, and stored in sand. * * * * * the turnip. english turnip. brassica rapa. the common turnip is a hardy, biennial plant, indigenous to great britain, france, and other parts of europe. the roots of all the varieties attain their full size during the first year. the radical leaves are hairy and rough, and are usually lobed, or lyrate; but, in some of the sorts, nearly spatulate, with the borders almost entire. the flowers are produced in may and june of the second year, and the seeds ripen in july; the flower-stalk rises three feet or more in height, with numerous branches; the leaves are clasping, and much smoother and more glaucous than the radical leaves of the growth of the previous year; the flowers are yellow, and are produced in long, loose, upright, terminal spikes; the seeds are small, round, black, or reddish-brown, and are very similar, in size, form, and color, in the different varieties,--ten thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality from five to seven years. _propagation and culture._--all the sorts are propagated by seeds; which should be sown where the plants are to remain, as they do not generally succeed well when transplanted. sowings for early use may be made the last of april, or beginning of may; but as the bulbs are seldom produced in perfection in the early part of the season, or under the influence of extreme heat, the sowing should be confined to a limited space in the garden. the seeds may be sown broadcast or in drills: if sown in drills, they should be made about fourteen inches apart, and half an inch in depth. the young plants should be thinned to five or six inches asunder. for a succession, a few seeds may be sown, at intervals of a fortnight, until the last week in july; from which time, until the th of august, the principal sowing is usually made for the winter's supply. in the middle states, and the warmer portion of new england, if the season is favorable, a good crop will be obtained from seed sown as late as the last week in august. _harvesting._--turnips for the table may be drawn directly from the garden or field until november, but must be harvested before severe freezing weather; for, though comparatively very hardy, few of the varieties will survive the winters of the northern states in the open ground. _seed._--as the various kinds readily hybridize, or intermix, only one variety should be cultivated in the same neighborhood for seed. select the best-formed bulbs, and transplant them out in april, in rows two feet apart, and one foot apart in the rows, just covering the crowns with earth, or leaving the young shoots level with the surface of the ground. an ounce of seed will sow eight rods of land, and a pound will be sufficient for an acre. _varieties._--the varieties are numerous, as follow:-- altrincham. _law._ yellow altrincham. altringham. this is a yellow-fleshed, field variety, of rather less than average size. the bulb, however, is of a fine, globular shape, with a light-green top, very small neck and tap-root, and possessed of considerable solidity. border imperial. border imperial purple-top yellow. bulb five or six inches in diameter, nearly spherical, sometimes flattened, and usually very smooth and symmetrical; skin yellow, the upper surface of a bright purple; flesh yellow, firm, and sugary; leaves large. the variety is of english origin, and is recommended for its earliness and great productiveness. chivas's orange jelly. _thomp._ bulb of a handsome, round form, with a small top; the skin is pale orange; and the flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, and tender. it has very little fibre; so that, when boiled, it almost acquires the consistence of a jelly. it originated in cheshire, eng. cow-horn. long early white vertus. _vil._ [illustration: cow-horn turnip.] root produced much above ground, nearly cylindrical, rounded at the end, ten or twelve inches in length, nearly three inches in diameter, and weighing from one and a half to two pounds. the skin is smooth and shining,--white below the surface of the ground, and green at the top; the flesh is white, tender, and sugary. early, very productive, and remarkable for its regular form and good quality. as a field-turnip, it is one of the best; and, when pulled young, good for table use. during winter, the roots often become dry and spongy. dales's hybrid. _law._ this variety is of english origin, and is said to be a hybrid from the green-top swede and the common white globe. its prevailing traits are, however, those of the white globe; inasmuch as its roots are similar in form and texture. foliage strong and luxuriant; root large, oblong, pale yellow; the upper surface light green; neck and tap-root small. the form of the bulb, though generally oblong, is sometimes nearly globular; but its more material characteristics, large size, and luxuriance of growth, are uniformly the same. its reputation as a turnip of very superior quality has not been sustained in this country. early flat dutch. early white dutch. white dutch. an old and well-known early garden variety; bulb round, very much flattened, and produced mostly within the earth; skin white, somewhat washed with green at the insertion of the leaves, which are of medium size. before the bulb has attained its full dimensions, the flesh is fine-grained, tender, and sweet; but when ripe, especially in dry seasons, it often becomes spongy and juiceless: in which condition, it is of no value for the table; and, even for stock, is comparatively worthless. average specimens measure about four inches in diameter, and two inches and a half in depth. early yellow dutch. yellow dutch. this variety has a small, globular root, of a pale-yellow color throughout. it somewhat resembles the yellow malta, and is a good garden variety. the portion of the bulb above ground, and exposed to the sun, is washed with green. it is of medium size, early, tender, rather close-grained, and sugary; better suited for use in summer and autumn than for winter. by some, the variety is esteemed the best of the yellow garden turnips. finland. _law._ yellow finland. [illustration: finland turnip.] this is a beautiful, medium-sized turnip, of a bright yellow throughout, even to the neck; somewhat similar to a firm yellow malta, but of finer color. the under part of the bulb is singularly depressed: from this depression issues a small, mousetail-like root. it is somewhat earlier, and also hardier, than the yellow malta. the flesh is tender, close-grained, and of a sweet, sugary flavor; the leaves are small, and few in number; bulb about two inches in thickness by four inches in diameter, weighing eight or ten ounces. an excellent garden variety. freneuse. root produced within the earth,--long, tapering, and rather symmetrical; size small,--average specimens measuring five or six inches in length, an inch and a half in diameter at the crown, and weighing eight or ten ounces; skin white, or yellowish-white; flesh white, dry, very firm, and sugary; leaves small, deep green, spreading. half early, and one of the best of the dry-fleshed varieties. golden ball. _m'int._ _vil._ yellow globe. [illustration: golden ball.] bulb produced mostly within the earth, nearly globular, and very smooth and symmetrical; skin bright yellow below ground, greenish above; leaves comparatively small, spreading; flesh pale yellow, sweet, and well flavored, but not so fine-grained as that of many other varieties. it is a good table turnip; and with the robertson's golden stone, which it greatly resembles, the most valuable for cultivation, where large-sized garden turnips are required. its size is about that of the last named. average specimens measure four inches in diameter, nearly the same in depth, and weigh from twelve to fourteen ounces. green globe. _law._ green-top white globe. roots of a fine, globular shape, with a small neck and tap-root; very white below, and green above, the surface of the ground; of medium size, hardy, and firm in texture, but scarcely so much so as the green round; than which it arrives at maturity rather earlier. it is somewhat larger than the white norfolk; has large, deep-green foliage; grows strongly; and produces extraordinary crops: but it soon becomes spongy, and often decays in autumn or early in winter. a sub-variety, of larger size and with softer flesh, is known by the name of hungarian green-top globe. green norfolk. _law._ green-top norfolk. green round. a sub-variety of the white norfolk, of nearly the same form and size; the bulb differing principally in the color of the top, which is green. the norfolk turnips are all of a peculiar flattish form; rather hollowed towards their neck, as also on their under side. when grown to a large size, they become more or less irregular, or somewhat angular. the green-top variety possesses these characters in a less degree than the white-top; and is generally round, flattened, but not much hollowed, on the upper or under surface. it is hardier than the white or red varieties. green tankard. _law._ roots more than half above ground; oblong, or tankard-shaped; of a greenish color, except on the under surface, which is white; flesh white and sweet, but of coarse texture. the term "tankard" is applied to such common field turnips as are of an oblong shape, and the roots of which, in general, grow much above the surface of the ground. such oblong varieties, however, as approach nearest to a round or globular form, are sometimes termed "decanter," or "decanter-shaped turnips." in good soils, the green tankard sometimes attains a weight of eight or ten pounds. as a garden variety, it is of little value. green-top flat. similar in size, form, and quality to the common purple-top flat; skin, above ground, green. long grown in new england for feeding stock; and, in its young state, often used as a table turnip. now very little cultivated. green-top yellow aberdeen. _law._ green-top yellow bullock. an old and esteemed variety, similar in size and form to the purple-top yellow aberdeen: the color of the top is bright green. lincolnshire red globe. this variety is remarkable for its large, deep-green, luxuriant foliage. bulb very large, roundish; skin, below ground, white,--above the surface, purple; flesh white, firm, and, when young, well flavored, and adapted to table use. it yields abundantly; is uniformly fair, and free from small roots; an average keeper; and deserving of cultivation, especially for agricultural purposes. long black. except in the form of its roots, this variety much resembles the round black. it possesses the same peculiar, piquant, radish-like flavor; and is served at table in the same manner. long white maltese. long white clairfontaine. _vil._ roots eight or nine inches in length, an inch and a half in diameter, somewhat fusiform, and very smooth and symmetrical. the crown rises two or three inches above the surface of the ground, and is of a green color, except where exposed to the sun, when it often becomes purple or reddish-brown. below the surface of the soil, the skin is of a dull or dirty white. flesh white, moderately fine, tender, and of a sugary flavor. half early. the variety has some resemblance to the cow-horn; but is smaller, and the flesh not so white. petrosowoodsks. bulb of medium size, flattened,--comparatively smooth and regular; tap-root very slender, issuing from a basin; skin blackish-purple above and below ground, sometimes changing to yellow about the tap-root of large or overgrown bulbs; flesh yellow, fine-grained, and tender, if grown in cool weather, but liable to be fibrous and strong-flavored when grown during the summer months. the variety is early, and must be classed as a garden rather than as a field turnip. pomeranian globe. bulb globular, remarkably smooth and regular; the neck is small, and the skin white, smooth, and glossy; the flesh is white, close-grained, tender, and sweet; the leaves are large, and of a dark-green color, with paler or whitish nerves. half early. when in perfection, the bulbs measure three and a half or four inches in diameter, about the same in depth, and weigh from fourteen to eighteen ounces. if sown early in good soil, and allowed the full season for development, the roots sometimes attain a weight of eight or ten pounds. it is generally cultivated as a field turnip, but is also sown as a garden variety; the roots being of good quality for the table, if pulled when about half grown. preston, or liverpool yellow. _law._ an early sort, somewhat resembling the yellow malta: the bulbs attain a larger size, the foliage is stronger, and the basin, or depression, about the tap-root less deeply sunk. purple-top flat. red-top flat. bulb round, flattened, nearly one-half growing above ground; neck and tap-root small; skin reddish-purple where exposed to light and air, and white below the surface of the soil; flesh very white, close-grained while young, and of a sugary but often bitter taste. during winter, it usually becomes dry and spongy. average specimens measure two and a half inches in depth, four or five inches in diameter, and weigh from sixteen to twenty ounces. this old and well-known variety, at one period, was the principal field as well as garden turnip of the northern and middle states. it is now, however, very little cultivated; being superseded by the strap-leaved and other more desirable sorts. purple-top strap-leaved. [illustration: purple-top strap-leaved turnip.] bulb very flat, smooth, and regular in form, produced almost entirely above ground; tap-root slender; leaves few, upright, broad, rounded at the ends, and tapering to the neck, which is very small; skin above, clear, bright purple,--below, pure white, often finely clouded or shaded at the union of the colors; flesh clear white, firm, solid, sugary, mild, and remarkably well-flavored; size medium,--measuring about two inches and a half in depth by four or five inches in diameter, and weighing from ten to twelve ounces. field-grown roots, with the benefit of a long season and rich soil, attain much greater dimensions; often, however, greatly deteriorating in quality as they increase over the average size. this variety is unquestionably one of the best of the flat turnips, either for the garden or field. it is early, hardy, very prolific, will thrive in almost any description of soil, is of excellent quality, and rarely fails to yield a good crop. it is the best of all the flat turnips for sowing among corn or potatoes, or upon small patches of the garden from which early pease or beans have been harvested. purple-top yellow aberdeen. purple-top aberdeen. purple-top yellow bullock. bulb globular, reddish-purple above, and deep yellow below; tap-root very small; leaves deep green, comparatively short, and inclined to grow horizontally. in rich soil and long seasons, the bulbs sometimes attain a weight of eight or ten pounds; but specimens of average size measure about four inches in depth, nearly five inches in diameter, and weigh from sixteen to twenty ounces. the flesh is pale yellow, tender, sugary, and nearly equal to that of the swedes in solidity. the variety is very hardy, and, although generally grown for farm purposes, is really superior to many sorts cultivated exclusively for table use. red globe. _law._ an old, medium-sized, globular turnip, well suited for cultivation in light soil and on exposed or elevated situations. skin red, where exposed to the sun,--below ground, white; flesh white, and finer in texture than that of the white globe. it is not suited for table use; and is generally field-grown, and fed to stock. red norfolk. red-top norfolk. red round. this is a sub-variety of the white norfolk, the size and form being nearly the same. skin washed, or clouded with red where exposed to the light. it is firmer in texture, and more regular in its form, than the last named; and, if there be any difference in size, this is the smaller variety. red tankard. bulb produced partially above ground, pyriform, eight or nine inches in depth, four or five inches in diameter, and weighing about three pounds; below ground, the skin is white,--above, purple or violet; flesh white, rather firm, sugary, and well flavored; foliage large. it is recommended for its earliness and productiveness, but must be considered a field rather than a table variety. robertson's golden stone. _m'int._ _vil._ an excellent, half-early variety; form nearly globular; color deep orange throughout, sometimes tinged with green on the top; size above medium,--average specimens measuring nearly four inches in depth, four inches in diameter, and weighing from sixteen to eighteen ounces; flesh firm, and well flavored. the robertson's golden stone is remarkably hardy, keeps well, and is one of the best of the yellows for autumn or winter use. round black. _law._ leaves few, small, and comparatively smooth; bulb produced almost or altogether under ground, of an irregular, roundish form, often divided, or terminating in thick branches at its lower extremity; skin black, and very tough; flesh white. the variety is extensively cultivated in some parts of europe, and is much esteemed for its peculiar, piquant, somewhat radish-like flavor. it is sometimes served in its crude state as a salad. six weeks. _law._ autumn stubble. early dwarf. bulb produced much above ground, rather large, and of an irregular, globular form. it soon arrives at maturity; but, on account of its natural softness of texture, should always be sown late, and used before severe frosts. as descriptive of its earliness, it has received the above names; being suited for very late sowing, after the removal of early crops; or for making up blanks in turnip-fields, where the first sowing may have partially failed. it is well flavored, but soon becomes dry and spongy, and is unsuitable for use during winter. skin white below the surface of the ground, greenish above. field-grown specimens sometimes weigh three pounds and upwards. small long yellow. leaves very small, and spreading; root generally entirely under ground, small, and of an oblong or carrot shape, terminating abruptly at the point; skin pale yellow; flesh yellow, firm, dry, and sugary, with some degree of piquancy. it is a good variety for the table, and also a good keeper. snow-ball. navet boule de neige. _vil._ the bulb of this variety is nearly spherical, very smooth and regular; size medium,--the average dimensions being four inches in diameter, four and a half in depth, and the weight about a pound. the neck is small, and the skin white. the flesh of the young bulbs is white, fine-grained, tender, and sugary; but, if overgrown or long kept, it is liable to become dry and spongy. the variety is early, and, though classed by seedsmen as a garden turnip, is well adapted for field culture; as it not only yields abundantly, but succeeds well when sown late in the season on land from which early crops have been harvested. stone globe. bulb globular, and regularly formed, growing mostly beneath the surface of the ground. it belongs to the white-globe varieties, and is considered the hardiest and the best suited for winter use of any of its class. the leaves are larger, stronger, and deeper colored, than any of the white-globe sorts. skin and flesh white; texture moderately close; flavor sweet, and its keeping properties good; size rather large. teltow, or small berlin. teltau. this is said to be the smallest of turnips; its leaves not exceeding in number those of the radish. the root is fusiform or spindle-shaped, not very regular, and produced entirely under ground; skin dusky white; flesh dry, dull white, very fine-grained, piquant, and sugary; leaves erect, yellowish-green. early. the roots measure three inches long by about an inch and three-fourths at their largest diameter, and weigh from three to four ounces. the teltow turnip is much esteemed on account of its excellent qualities, and is one of the best early garden varieties. according to loudon, it is in high repute in france, germany, and holland; and is grown in the sandy fields around berlin, and also near altona, whence it is imported to the london market. it is, or was, grown in immense quantities in the neighborhood of moscow. the peculiar flavor is in the outer rind. when used, it should not be peeled. it bears transplanting well; and may be set in rows one foot apart, and nine inches apart in the rows. waite's hybrid eclipse. a recent variety, of english origin, introduced by mr. john g. waite, a seed-merchant of london. as figured and described, it is of large size, very richly colored, and remarkably smooth and symmetrical. at the crown, it is broad and round-shouldered, and measures about six inches in diameter; which size is nearly retained to a depth of eight or nine inches, when it contracts in a conical form to a tap-root. color of upper portion, clear purple, richly clouded, and contrasting finely with the yellow on the lower part. it is represented as a turnip of excellent quality, and as being very productive. when cultivated in this country, it has generally fallen short of the excellence it is represented as attaining in england. it is apparently not adapted to the dry and warm summers of the united states. white globe. _law._ common field globe. root globular; skin smooth, perfectly white; flesh also white; neck and tap-root small. although this description embraces the principal characters of the white globe, there is considerable variety in the turnips to which this name is applied, arising from the degree of care and attention bestowed by growers in selecting their seed-roots; and the shape is often not a little affected by the soil in which they are grown. thus globes of any kind, and particularly those of this variety, when grown on a very superior, rich soil, may be said to be forced beyond their natural size, and thereby acquire somewhat of a monstrous or overgrown appearance; losing, in a great measure, their natural symmetry. this variety is better adapted to field culture than to the garden, as it is altogether too coarse in texture for table use. it is a poor keeper, and, in unfavorable seasons, sometimes decays before the time of harvesting. specimens have been grown weighing fifteen and even eighteen pounds. white norfolk. white round. a large english variety, somewhat irregular in form, but usually more or less compressed, and sometimes pyriform; the upper portion of the root being produced four or five inches above ground. specimens sometimes measure ten or twelve inches in diameter. the leaves are large, and rather numerous; the skin white below the surface, and often white above, but sometimes washed with green; flesh white and coarse-grained, but sweet. very late. it is but a sub-variety of the common flat turnip, and oftentimes attains a most extraordinary size. for the garden, it possesses no value. it is grown exclusively as an agricultural or field turnip; but is very liable to rot; soon becomes spongy; and can only be classed as third-rate, even for feeding stock. white stone. early stone. white garden stone. this common and well-known garden turnip somewhat resembles the white dutch; but has stronger foliage, is rounder in form, and finer in texture. a carefully selected and improved variety of this is known by the name of mouse-tail turnip; and, in addition, some catalogues contain varieties under the name of red-topped mouse-tail, &c. skin and flesh white; size full medium, measuring three and a half to four inches in depth by four and a half or five inches in diameter. white tankard. navet gras d'alsace. _vil._ bulb pyriform, cylindrical at the crown, which, like that of the red tankard, rises two or three inches from the ground; skin white in the earth, green above; flesh white, tender, sweet, rather firm, and close-grained. early. vilmorin mentions two varieties; one having entire leaves, the other with lyrate or lobed leaves; giving preference, however, to the one with entire leaves. like most of the tankards, the variety seems better adapted to agricultural than to horticultural purposes. white-top flat. bulb similar in size and form to the green-top flat; leaves few and small; skin uniformly white; flesh white, firm, sugary, and well flavored. as a table variety, it is superior to the purple-top flat or the green-top. white-top strap-leaved. this is a sub-variety of the purple-top strap-leaved; differing little, except in color. the leaves are erect, few and small, somewhat lanceolate, and nearly entire on the borders; the bulb is of medium size, much flattened, green above ground, white below, and remarkably smooth and regular in form; tap-root very small; the flesh is white, very fine-grained, saccharine, mild, and excellent. early, productive, and recommended as one of the best varieties for field or garden culture. the strap-leaved turnips appear to be peculiarly adapted to the climate of the northern states, and are greatly superior in all respects to the common white and purple-top flat varieties. though of comparatively recent introduction, they have been widely disseminated; and, wherever grown, are highly esteemed. yellow malta. _m'int._ maltese. golden maltese. a beautiful, very symmetrical, small-bulbed, early variety, slightly flattened above, somewhat concave about, the tap-root, which, as well as the neck, is remarkably small; skin very smooth, bright orange-yellow; foliage small, and not abundant,--on which account the plants may be grown quite close to each other; flesh pale-yellow, fine-grained, and well flavored. it is a good garden variety, and one of the best of the yellows for summer use. average bulbs measure two inches in depth, four inches in diameter, and weigh about ten ounces. yellow scarisbrick. bulb flattened, smooth, and regular; neck small; skin pale yellow,--above ground, green; flesh yellowish-white, tender, and sweet; leaves of medium size, very pale-green. season late. well-grown specimens measure four inches in diameter, and about three inches in depth. yellow stone. very similar to the golden ball or yellow globe. compared with these varieties, the bulb of the yellow stone is produced more above ground, and the upper surface is more colored with green. one of the best of garden turnips. yellow tankard. _vil._ root somewhat fusiform, or of a long, irregular, tankard shape; the crown rising just above the ground. average specimens measure seven or eight inches in length, three inches and a half in diameter, and weigh about twenty-four ounces. skin yellowish-white below ground, green above; flesh pale yellow, firm, and sugary; leaves large. it is esteemed for the solidity of its flesh, and for its earliness and productiveness. a good variety for either field or garden. chapter ii. alliaceous plants. the cive. garlic. leek. onion. rocambole. shallot. welsh onion. * * * * * the cive. chive. allium schoenoprasum. the cive is a hardy, bulbous-rooted, perennial plant, indigenous to france and great britain. the leaves, which are produced in tufts, are seven or eight inches in length, erect and cylindrical, or awl-shaped. the bulbs are white, oval, and of small size; usually measuring about half an inch in diameter. the flower-stalk rises to the height of the leaves, and produces, at its extremity, a globular group of purplish, barren flowers. _propagation and culture._--as the plant seldom, if ever, produces seeds, it is always propagated by a division of the roots, or bulbs. these are produced in compact groups, or bunches, seven or eight inches in diameter. "one of these groups may be divided into a dozen or more parts, each of which will, in a short time, form a cluster equal in size to the original. they should be planted in spring or autumn, in rows eighteen inches apart, and twelve or fifteen inches asunder in the rows. all the cultivation they require is to be kept free from weeds; and they will thrive in any common garden soil. a planting will last many years; but it is well to renew it every third or fourth year." _use._--the young leaves are the parts of the plant used; but, whether used or not, to keep them in a fresh and tender condition, the plants should be frequently shorn to the ground. they possess the flavor peculiar to the onion family; and are principally used in flavoring soups, and as an ingredient in spring salads. the leaves and bulbs are sometimes taken together, and eaten crude, as a substitute for young onions. in omelets, the cive is considered almost indispensable. there are no varieties. * * * * * common garlic. allium sativum. this is a perennial plant, from the south of europe. the root is composed of from ten to fifteen small bulbs, called "cloves," which are enclosed in a thin, white, semi-transparent skin, or pellicle. the leaves are long and narrow. the flower-stem is cylindrical, about eighteen inches in height, and terminates in an umbel, or group, of pale-pink flowers, intermixed with small bulbs. the seeds are black, and, in form, irregular; but are seldom employed for propagation; the cloves, or small bulbs, succeeding better. _planting and cultivation._--garlic thrives best in a light, well-enriched soil; and the bulbs should be planted in april or may, an inch deep, in rows or on ridges, fourteen inches apart, and five or six inches apart in the rows. "all the culture necessary is confined to keeping the ground free from weeds. when the leaves turn yellow, the plants may be taken up; and, having been dried in the sun, they should be tied up in bunches by the stalks, and suspended in a dry, airy room, for use."--_thomp._ _use._--it is cultivated for its bulbs, or cloves, which possess more of the flavor of the onion than any other alliaceous plant. these are sometimes employed in soups, stews, and other dishes; and, in some parts of europe, are eaten in a crude state with bread. "it is not cultivated to any considerable extent in this country; its strong flavor, and the offensive odor it communicates to the breath, causing it to be sparingly used in our cookery. "where attention is paid to culture, the common garlic will attain a size of seven and a half inches in circumference, each bulb; whereas, when grown negligently and unskilfully, it does not attain half that size. twenty ordinary bulbs weigh one pound."--_m'int._ early rose garlic. early pink. this is a sub-variety of the common garlic. the pellicle in which the small bulbs are enclosed is rose-colored; and this is its principal distinguishing characteristic. it is, however, nearly a fortnight earlier. for culinary purposes, it is not considered superior to the common garlic. propagation and cultivation the same; though, in warm climates, the bulbs are sometimes planted in autumn. great-headed garlic. _vil._ allium ampeloprasum. this species is a hardy perennial, and is remarkable for the size of its bulbs; which, as in the foregoing species and variety, separate into smaller bulbs, or cloves. the leaves and stem somewhat resemble those of the leek; the flowers are rose-colored, and are produced at the extremity of the stalk, in large, regular, globular heads, or umbels; the seeds are similar to those of the common garlic, but are seldom used for reproduction; the cloves, or small bulbs, being generally employed for this purpose. it is used and cultivated as the common garlic. * * * * * the leek. allium porrum. the leek is a hardy biennial, and produces an oblong, tunicated bulb; from the base of which, rootlets are put forth in great numbers. the plant, when full grown, much resembles what are commonly known as "scallions;" the lower, blanched portion being the part eaten. this varies in length from four to eight inches, and in diameter from less than an inch to more than three inches. the leaves are long, narrow, smooth, and pointed; and spread in opposite directions, somewhat in the form of a fan. the flower-stem proceeds from the centre of this collection of leaves, and is about four feet in height. the flowers are white, with a stripe of red, and are produced in terminal, globular groups, or umbels; the seeds are black, irregular, but somewhat triangular in form, and, with the exception of their smaller size, are similar to those of the onion. about twelve thousand seeds are contained in an ounce; and they retain their vitality two years. _soil, sowing, and cultivation._--the leek is very hardy, and easily cultivated. it succeeds best in a light but well-enriched soil. when fine leeks are desired, it can hardly be made too rich. it should also be thoroughly spaded over, and well pulverized to the depth of at least twelve inches. the seed should be sown in april, at the bottom of drills made six or eight inches deep, and eighteen inches asunder. sow the seeds thinly, cover half an inch deep, and thin the young plants to nine inches distant in the drills. as the plants increase in size, draw the earth gradually into the drills, and around the stems of the leeks, until the drills are filled. by this process, the bulbs are blanched, and rendered tender and mild flavored. the seeds are sometimes sown broadcast, and in july transplanted to trenches, and subsequently cultivated, as before directed. the plants are also sometimes set on the surface, and afterwards earthed up to the height of six or eight inches in the process of cultivation. in october, the leeks will be suitable for use; and, until the closing-up of the ground, may be drawn from time to time as required for the table. for winter use, they should be preserved in earth or sand. early leeks may be obtained by sowing the seeds in a hot-bed in february or march, and transplanting to the open ground in june or july. _seed._--to obtain seed, some of the finest plants of the growth of the previous year should be set out in april, fifteen inches apart, and the stems sunk to the depth of three or four inches. "the seed ripens in autumn, and its maturity is known by the heads changing to a brown color. it is best preserved in the heads; and these should be cut off with a portion of the stalk a foot in length, tied in bunches, and hung in a dry, airy situation. in this manner, the seed will retain its vegetative powers for two or three years: after that time, it is not to be depended on."--_thomp._ _use._--"the whole plant, except the roots, is used in soups and stews. the white stems, which are blanched by being planted deep for the purpose, are boiled, served with toasted bread and white sauce, and eaten like asparagus." it has the flavor, and possesses the general properties, of the onion. _varieties._-- common flag. _vil._ long flag. the stem, or blanched portion, of this variety is about six inches in depth, and an inch in diameter. the leaves are put forth in opposite directions, are comparatively erect, and of a glaucous-green color. the variety is remarkably hardy, and well suited for open culture. large rouen. _thomp._ gros de rouen. _vil._ [illustration: rouen leek.] leaves very dark-green, broad, and of thick substance; stem rather short, but remarkably thick, sometimes measuring nearly four inches in diameter. it is now the variety most cultivated near paris; and, since its general dissemination, has been much approved by all who have grown it. it is found to be the best kind for forcing, as it acquires a sufficient thickness of stem sooner than any other. in england, it is pronounced one of the best, if not the best, of all varieties. little montagne. _vil._ stem very short and slender; foliage deeper green than that of the common flag. it is the smallest of the leeks. not much cultivated. london flag. large flag. broad flag. english flag. gros court. _vil._ stem about four inches in length, and nearly an inch and a half in diameter. the leaves are larger, of a paler color, and softer in their texture, than those of the common flag. the london-flag leek is hardy, and of good quality. it is more generally cultivated in this country than any other variety. musselburgh. _thomp._ scotch flag. edinburgh improved. stem somewhat shorter than that of the london flag, but of equal thickness. the swelling at the base has the same form. the leaves are broad and tall, and spread regularly in a fan-like manner. their color is deeper than that of the long flag or the large rouen, but paler than the london flag. hardy, and of excellent quality. it originated in england. proliferous leek. _trans._ this is a viviparous variety of the common leek, producing young plants on its flower-stalk instead of flowers. the leaves are similar to those of the london flag; and the plant, in its young state, before it runs to flower, exactly resembles it. the flower-scape is from two to three feet high, and supports a compact, irregular, globose umbel, composed of numerous small bulbs, intermixed with flowers. some of these bulbs occasionally produce a second umbel, on scapes of from six to eight inches in length, but of much smaller dimensions than the principal one. the variety is cultivated in rows, like other leeks; and the bulbs will remain sound several months after they have ripened. small early netherland. _thomp._ small summer brabant. leaves long, narrow, dark-green; stem small. on this account, it is not so valuable as many others for a main crop: besides, if sown at the same time, it is liable to run to seed before winter. a small sowing, however, may be made with advantage for early use. yellow poitou. _thomp._ jaune du poitou. _vil._ a remarkably large variety; the leaves having sometimes measured five feet in length, and six inches in breadth. they are of a yellowish-green color. the underground or blanched portion of the stem is yellowish-white, and is more tender than that of any other variety. on this account, and also for its large size, it deserves cultivation. the great length of the leaves makes it important that more space should be allowed between the plants than is usually allotted to other varieties. * * * * * the onion. allium cepa. the onion is a half-hardy biennial plant: the roots and leaves, however, are annual; as they usually perish during the first year. the bulbs, for which the plant is generally cultivated, are biennial, and differ to a considerable extent in their size, form, and color. the flower-stalk, which is developed the second year, is from three to four feet in height, leafless, hollow, swollen just below the middle, and tapers to the top. the flowers are either white or rose-colored, and are produced at the extremity of the stalk in a regular, globular group, or umbel. the seeds ripen in august. they are deep blue-black, somewhat triangular, and similar in size and form in all the varieties. an ounce contains about seventy-five hundred seeds, which retain their vitality two years. _soil and cultivation._--the onion requires a light, loamy, mellow soil; and, unlike most kinds of garden or field vegetables, succeeds well when cultivated on the same land for successive years. with the exception of the top and the potato onion, all the varieties are raised from seed. previous to sowing, the ground should be thoroughly spaded over or deeply ploughed, and the surface made smooth and even. the seed should be sown as early in spring as the soil may be in good working condition. sow in drills fourteen inches apart, and half an inch in depth. when the plants are three or four inches high, thin them to two inches asunder; and, in the process of culture, be careful not to stir the soil too deeply, or to collect it about the growing bulbs. the onions will ripen in august, or early in september; and their full maturity will be indicated by the perfect decay of the leaves, or tops. the bulbs may be drawn from the drills by the hand, or by the use of a common garden-rake. after being exposed for a few days to the sun for drying, they will be ready for storing or the market. _preservation._--the essentials for the preservation of the bulbs are a low temperature, freedom from frost, dryness, and thorough ventilation. _seed._--for the production of seed, select the ripest, firmest, and best-formed bulbs; and, in april, transplant them to lines two feet and a half or three feet distant, and from nine to twelve inches apart in the lines, sinking the crowns just below the surface of the ground. as the plants advance in height, tie them to stakes for support. the seeds ripen in august: and the heads, or umbels, should be cut off when they assume a brown color; for then the capsules begin to open, and shed their seeds. after being threshed out, the seed should be exposed to the action of the sun until it is thoroughly dried; for, when stored in a damp state, it is extremely liable to generate heat, and consequently to lose its vitality. _varieties._--few of the numerous varieties are cultivated to any extent in this country. many of the kinds succeed only in warm latitudes, and others are comparatively unimportant. the danvers, large red, silver-skin, and the yellow seem peculiarly adapted to our soil and climate. the annual product of these varieties greatly exceeds that of all the other sorts combined. blood-red. _thomp._ french blood-red. dutch blood-red. st. thomas. bulb middle-sized, or rather large, flattened; skin dull red,--the coating next within glossy, and very dark red. the internal layers are palest at the base; and, except at the top, are only colored on their outsides. each layer is paler than the one which surrounds it; till the centre is reached, which is white. it is a good keeper, but one of the strongest flavored of all varieties. it imparts to soups, or other dishes of which it may be an ingredient, a brownish or blackish color. brown portugal. _thomp._ brown spanish. cambrai. oporto. a medium-sized, roundish, or flattened onion; neck small; skin yellowish-brown,--next interior layer not tinged with red. it is a popular variety in some parts of france; and is remarkable for its productiveness, excellent quality, and keeping properties. danvers. danvers yellow. [illustration: danvers onion.] this comparatively recent variety was obtained by selection from the common yellow. it is somewhat above medium size, and inclined to globular in its form. average bulbs measure three inches in diameter, and two inches and three-fourths in depth. the skin is yellowish-brown, but becomes darker by age, and greenish-brown if long exposed to the sun; the flesh is similar to that of the yellow,--white, sugary, comparatively mild, and well flavored. the superiority of the danvers onion over the last named consists principally, if not solely, in its greater productiveness. when grown under like conditions, it yields, on the average, nearly one-fourth more; and, on this account, the variety is generally employed for field culture. it is, however, not so good a keeper; and, for shipping purposes, is decidedly inferior to the yellow,--its globular form rendering it more liable to decay, from the heat and dampness incident to sea voyages. when cultivated for the market, the land is thoroughly ploughed, and well enriched with fine decomposed manure. the surface is then harrowed, and next raked free of stones, and lumps of earth. the seed is sown in april, usually by machines, in rows fourteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch in depth; three pounds of seed being allowed to an acre. the crop is treated in the usual form during the summer; and ripens the last of august, or early in september. when the tops have entirely withered, the bulbs are raked from the drills, and spread a few days in the sun for drying; after which they are sorted, and barrelled for storing or the market. the yield varies from five to eight hundred bushels per acre. deptford. _thomp._ brown deptford. very similar to, if not identical with, the english strasburg. "it sometimes exactly agrees with the description of that variety: but it occasionally has a pale-brown skin, without any tinge of red; and, when this is the case, its flavor is milder than that of the last named." with the exception of its more globular form, the bulb much resembles the yellow onion of this country. early silver nocera. early small silver nocera. white nocera. _thomp._ blanc hatif de nocera. _vil._ this is a very small variety of the early silver-skin, with a small, occasionally roundish, but generally oblate bulb. the skin is white; but the layers beneath are striped with bright-green lines. the leaves are very small. sometimes the bulb has only a single leaf, frequently but two; and, if there are more than four, the plant has not its true character. it is an excellent sort for pickling; and is the smallest and earliest variety known,--being fifteen or twenty days earlier than the early silver-skin: but it is very liable to increase in size, and to degenerate. very little known or cultivated in this country. early red wethersfield. a sub-variety of the large red wethersfield, and the earliest of the red onions. form and color nearly the same as the large red; bulb small, measuring about two inches and a half in diameter, and about an inch and a half in depth. it is close-grained; mild; a good keeper; forms its bulbs, with few exceptions, and ripens, the last of july; being three or four weeks earlier than the large red. cultivated to a limited extent in various places on the coast of new england, for early consumption at home, and for shipment to the south and west. this variety and the intermediate are very liable to degenerate: they tend to grow larger and later, approaching the original variety; and can be preserved in a pure state only by a careful selection of the bulbs set for seed. early silver-skin. blanc hatif. _vil._ this is a small early variety of the silver-skin, measuring two inches and three-fourths in diameter, and an inch and three-fourths in depth. the neck is small, and the skin silvery-white. it is much esteemed for its earliness and mild flavor, and is one of the best of all varieties for pickling. when cultivated for the latter purpose, it should be sown and treated as directed for the silver-skin. fusiform, or cow-horn. corné de boeuf. _vil._ this is a large onion, growing from eight inches to a foot in length. it tapers rather regularly from the base to the top, and is frequently bent or curved in the form of a horn; whence the name. skin copper-red. it is late, lacks compactness, is very liable to degenerate, decays soon after being harvested, and must be considered more curious than useful. intermediate red wethersfield. an early variety of the common large red. bulb of medium size, flattened; neck small; color deep purple. it is rather pungent, yet milder than the large red; keeps well; and is grown to a considerable extent, in certain localities in new england, for shipping. james's keeping. james's long keeping. de james. _vil._ this is an english hybrid, said to have been originated by a mr. james, an extensive market-gardener in surrey, eng. the bulb is pyriform, or pear-shaped; and measures four inches and upwards in depth, and two inches or more at its broadest diameter. skin copper-yellow,--the coating next under it reddish-brown; flavor strong. it is not early, but is much prized for its long keeping; the bulbs not sprouting so early in spring as those of most varieties. large red. wethersfield large red. [illustration: wethersfield large red onion.] bulb sometimes roundish, but, when pure, comparatively flat. it is of very large size; and, when grown in favorable soil, often measures five inches or more in diameter, and three inches in depth. skin deep purplish-red; neck of medium size; flesh purplish-white, moderately fine-grained, and stronger flavored than that of the yellow and earlier red varieties. it is very productive; one of the best to keep; and is grown to a large extent, in many places on the seacoast of new england, for shipping to the south and west. it is almost everywhere seen in vegetable markets; and, with perhaps the exception of the yellow or danvers, is the most prominent of the sorts employed for commercial purposes. it derives its name from wethersfield, conn.; where it is extensively cultivated, and where it has the reputation of having originated. a sub-variety of the foregoing is cultivated in some localities, with nearly the same variation in form that exists between the danvers and common yellow. it will probably prove somewhat more productive; but it is neither better flavored, nor to be preferred for its superior keeping properties. madeira. large globe tripoli. romain. de madère rond. de belle garde. _vil._ this is a roundish, obovate onion, of remarkable size, often measuring six inches and a half in depth, and six inches in diameter; neck thick and large; skin reddish-brown,--the layer next within, pale red. the variety is much prized for its extraordinary size, and for its mild, sugary flavor. the plants, however, often fail to form good bulbs; and, even when well matured, the latter are liable to decay soon after being harvested. it requires a long, warm season for its greatest perfection. the seed should be sown early, in drills sixteen inches apart; and the plants should be thinned to eight inches apart in the rows. not suited to new england or the cooler sections of the united states. new deep blood-red. brunswick deep blood-red. rouge très foncé de brunswick. _vil._ bulb very small, flattened,--two inches and a quarter in diameter, and an inch and a half in depth; neck small; skin deep violet-red, approaching black. a half early variety, remarkable for its intense purplish-red color. pale red. rouge pale, de niort. _vil._ bulb roundish, flattened on the upper side, but not so much so as the blood-red, of which this may be considered a variety; size medium, two inches and a half in diameter, one inch and three-quarters in depth; neck small; skin copper-red, much paler than that of the blood-red. compared with the last named, it is earlier and of milder flavor. this and the blood-red are much esteemed by some for their extreme pungency and for their diuretic properties. paris straw-colored. jaune des vertus. _vil._ a large, somewhat flattened variety, much cultivated about paris; skin fine russet-yellow; neck small. it is not early, but very productive, and of excellent quality. pear-shaped. bulb pyriform, measuring four inches and a half in depth, and two inches in diameter at the broadest part; neck small; skin copper-red. it is quite late, but is of good quality, and keeps well. potato onion. underground onion. bulb flattened, from two and a half to three inches in diameter, and about two inches in depth; skin copper-yellow; flavor sugary, mild, and excellent. it does not keep so well as many other varieties; but remains sound longer, if the leaves are cut two or three inches above the top of the bulb at the time of harvesting. the potato onion produces no seeds, neither small bulbs upon its stalks, in the manner of many of the species of the onion family; but, if a full-grown bulb be set in spring, a number of bulbs of various sizes will be formed, beneath the surface of the ground, about the parent bulb. by means of these it is propagated, and an abundant supply often secured in localities where the varieties raised from seed frequently wholly fail, either from the maggot, effects of climate, or other causes. like the other kinds of onions, it requires a rich, deep soil, well manured, and dry at the bottom. this should be deeply and thoroughly stirred, and then raised in ridges of moderate height, fifteen inches apart. in april, select the large bulbs, and set them on the ridges, ten inches apart, with the crown of the bulbs just below the surface of the ground. the subsequent culture consists in keeping them clean from weeds, and gathering a little earth about them from time to time in the process of cultivation. as soon as the tops are entirely dead, they will be ready for harvesting. it is very prolific, yielding from four to six fold. such of the crop as may be too small for the table should be preserved during the winter, to be set in the following spring; planting them out in april, in drills one foot apart and three inches from each other in the drills, and sinking the crowns just below the surface of the ground. they attain their full size by september. silver-skin. white portugal, of new england. bulb of medium size, flattened,--average specimens measuring about three inches in diameter, and an inch and a half or two inches in thickness; neck very small; skin silvery-white. after the removal of the outer envelope, the upper part of the bulb is often veined and clouded with green, while the portion produced below ground is generally clear white. flesh white, fine-grained, sugary, and remarkably mild flavored. it forms its bulb early and regularly, ripens off well, and is quite productive; an average yield being about four hundred bushels per acre. it is a very poor keeper; and this is its most serious objection. it is always preserved through the winter with much difficulty, and almost invariably decays if kept from light and exposed to dampness. the best method for its preservation is to spread the roots in a dry, light, and airy situation. the silver-skin onion is much esteemed in the middle and southern sections of the united states, and is cultivated to a considerable extent in new england. it is well adapted for sowing in august, or the beginning of september, for early use, and for marketing during the ensuing spring. where the winter are mild, the crop, with slight protection, will sustain no injury in the open ground. in europe it is much esteemed, and extensively grown for pickling, as its "white color, in contrast with the fine green veins, or lines, gives it a very agreeable appearance. for pickling, the seed should be sown very thickly, then slightly covered with fine soil, and afterwards rolled. if the seed is covered more deeply, the bulb, from not being quite on the surface, has a larger and thicker neck; so that it loses its finely rounded form, and is, moreover, less compact." this variety, erroneously known in new england as the "white portugal," is unquestionably the true silver-skin, as described both by english and french authors. the application of the term "silver-skin" to the common yellow onion, as very extensively practised by seedsmen and market-men in the eastern states, is neither pertinent nor authorized. strasburg. _m'int._ yellow strasburg. flanders. dutch. essex. this is the variety most generally cultivated in great britain. its form varies from flat to globular, or oval; bulb large, three inches wide, and full two inches in depth; outside coating brown, of firm texture. divested of this, the color is reddish-brown, tinged with green. flavor comparatively mild. it is a very hardy sort, succeeds in cold localities, and keeps well. the strasburg and deptford onions much resemble the common yellow onion of new england; and the difference between the sorts is not great, when english-grown bulbs of the first-named varieties are compared with the bulbs of the yellow onion, american-grown: but seeds of the strasburg or deptford, raised in england and sown in this country, almost invariably fail to produce plants that form bulbs so generally or so perfectly as american-grown seeds of the yellow onion. top or tree onion. egyptian. bulb large, a little flattened; producing, instead of seeds, a number of small bulbs, or onions, about the size of a filbert, which serve as a substitute for seeds in propagation. the flesh is coarse; and the bulbs are very liable to decay during winter, unless kept in a cool and dry situation. the variety has been considered rather curious than useful. _planting and culture._--"either the bulbs formed in the ground, or the small ones upon the stems, may be planted out in april or may. the former are set one foot apart in each direction, and the stem-bulbs four inches apart in rows eight inches asunder. stems that bear heavily require to be supported. when ripe, the stem-bulbs should be dried, and kept free from damp in a cool place." tripoli. _thomp._ flat madeira. de madère plat. _vil._ this is one of the largest varieties. the bulb tapers abruptly from the middle to the neck, and almost equally so to the base. it is five inches and upwards in diameter; color light reddish-brown,--beneath the skin, pale brownish-red, tinged with green. it requires the whole season, and in some localities is considered excellent for a late crop. the flesh is soft, and the bulbs soon perish after being taken from the ground. in its season, it is much esteemed for its mild and delicate flavor. like the madeira onion, the plants fail to form bulbs so generally as other varieties. not adapted to the climate of the northern states. two-bladed. _thomp._ double tige. _vil._ this variety derives its name from the fact that the small bulbs have generally but two leaves. the larger ones have more; rarely, however, exceeding four: but, unless by far the greater portion have only two leaves, either the seed or the cultivation is at fault. the bulbs are small, flat, light-brown, very firm, and attain maturity early; the neck is small, and the top of the bulb is depressed or hollowed around the stem. it keeps well, and is an excellent variety. white globe. _thomp._ [illustration: white globe.] form nearly ovoid, very regular and symmetrical; skin greenish-yellow, marked with rose-colored lines,--the pellicle changing to white on drying. the bulb measures about four inches in depth, and two inches and three-fourths in its largest diameter. it keeps well, and is an excellent variety. yellow globe. nearly allied to the preceding variety; the size and form being the same. skin reddish-yellow. it is hardy, productive, of good flavor, keeps well, and deserves general cultivation. white lisbon. lisbon. _thomp._ early lisbon. white florence. a very large, globular onion, measuring four inches in diameter, and about four inches in depth; neck comparatively thick; skin smooth, thin, clear, and white. it is a late variety; and, although comparatively hardy, requires a long, warm season for its full development. under the most favorable conditions, both with regard to soil and exposure, many of the plants fail to form a good bulb. on account of its hardiness, it is a good sort for sowing in the autumn for a supply of young onions for spring salads; or, if these young bulbs be set in the open ground in april, fine, large onions will be formed towards the end of summer. the variety is better suited to the climate of the middle states than to that of the northern and eastern. white portugal, or spanish. _thomp._ white spanish. white reading. cambridge. soufre d'espagne. _vil._ a very large, flat onion, measuring three inches and upwards in width by about two inches in depth; skin loose, of a pale-brown or yellowish-brown, falling off spontaneously, and exhibiting the next coating, which is greenish-white. it has a small neck, and is particularly mild flavored. one of the best for early winter use, but early decays. very distinct from the white portugal of the new-england markets. yellow onion. silver-skin of new england. [illustration: yellow onion.] one of the oldest varieties, and, as a market onion, probably better known and more generally cultivated in this country than any other sort. the true yellow onion has a flattened form and a very small neck. its size is rather above medium,--measuring, when well grown, from three inches to three inches and a half in diameter, and from two inches to two inches and a half in depth. skin yellowish-brown, or copper-yellow,--becoming somewhat deeper by age, or if exposed long to the sun; flesh white, fine-grained, comparatively mild, sugary, and well flavored. it keeps well, and is very prolific: few of the plants, in good soils and seasons, fail to produce good-sized and well-ripened bulbs. for the vegetable garden, as well as for field culture, it may be considered a standard sort. the danvers onion, which is but a sub-variety of the common yellow, may prove somewhat more profitable for extensive cultivation, on account of its globular form; but neither in its flavor nor in its keeping properties can it be said to possess any superiority over the last named. the term "silver-skin," by which this onion is very generally though erroneously known throughout new england, has created great confusion between seedsmen and dealers. much perplexity might be avoided if its application to the yellow onion were entirely abandoned. the genuine silver-skin, as its name implies, has a skin of pure, silvery whiteness; and is, in other respects, very dissimilar to the present variety. when extensively cultivated for the market, it should be sown and subsequently treated as directed for the danvers onion. the yield per acre varies from four to six hundred bushels. * * * * * rocambole. allium scorodoprasum. this plant is a half-hardy perennial from denmark, partaking of the character of both the leek and garlic. bulbs or cloves similar to those of the common garlic, with much the same flavor, though somewhat milder; leaves large; flower-stalk about two feet high, contorted or coiled towards the top, and producing at its extremity a group of bulbs, or rocamboles, intermixed with flowers. _propagation and culture._--it is propagated by planting either the underground bulbs, or the small cloves, or bulbs, that are produced upon the stem of the plant. these should be set in april, in drills ten inches apart, and four or five inches asunder in the drills. in the following august they will have attained their full size, and may be used immediately; or they may be taken up, spread to dry, tied in bunches, and housed, for future consumption. all the culture required is the removal of weeds, and the occasional stirring of the soil. _use._--"the cloves, or small bulbs, as well those from the stem as those beneath the surface of the ground, are used in the manner of shallots and garlics, and nearly for the same purposes." there is but one variety. * * * * * shallot. allium ascalonicum. the shallot (sometimes written eschalot) is a native of palestine,--the specific term "ascalonicum" being derived from ascalon, a town in syria: hence also the popular english name, "scallion." the root of the plant is composed of numerous small bulbs, united at their base; the whole being enclosed in a thin skin, or pellicle, varying in color in the different varieties. leaves fistulous, or hollow, produced in tufts, or groups; flowers reddish, in terminal, compact, spherical bunches. the plants, however, very seldom blossom. _soil._--"the soil best adapted for growing the shallot is a light, rich, sandy loam; but, as such soils are scarce, any light, dry soil that has been cultivated and manured a year or two will answer." in wet soils, it is liable to be attacked by the maggot; and such location should, therefore, be avoided. _propagation and culture._--the roots of the shallot, which are bulbous, are very readily increased by offsets. the bulbs are oblong, but somewhat irregular in their form, and seldom attain a large size. as they increase into clusters, they do not swell like roots that grow singly. they are propagated by dividing these clustered roots into separate offsets, and planting the divisions in april, in very shallow drills one foot apart; placing them about six inches apart in the drills, and covering them lightly with earth. soot mixed with the surface-soil has been found of much service to prevent the maggot from committing extensive depredations upon this plant. the only after-culture required is that of keeping them clean from weeds, and occasionally stirring the ground. _harvesting._--"as soon as the leaves decay, the bulbs will have attained their growth, and should then be taken up, and spread out in some dry loft; when, after being thoroughly dried and picked, they may be put in bags, boxes, or tied in bundles by the stalks. if kept from frost, they will remain fit for use for several months." _use._--the largest of the bulbs are selected, and employed in the same manner as garlic or onions. "on account of the mildness of its flavor, when compared with that of other cultivated plants of the onion family, it is preferred in cookery as a seasoner in soups and stews. it is also much used in the raw state: the cloves, or sections of the root, cut up into small pieces, form an ingredient in french salads; and are also sprinkled over steaks, chops, &c. the true epicure, however, cuts a clove or bulb in two, and, by rubbing the inside of the plate, secures the amount of relish to suit his palate. "shallot vinegar is made by putting six cloves, or bulbs, into a quart bottle of that liquid; and, when sealed down, it will keep for years. the shallot also makes an excellent pickle."--_m'int._ _varieties._-- common or small shallot. Échalote ordinaire. _vil._ bulbs about three-fourths of an inch in diameter at the base, elongated, and enclosed in a reddish-yellow skin, or pellicle; leaves small, ten or twelve inches high. this variety is early, keeps well, and is one of the best for cultivation. jersey. _vil._ bulbs of large size, measuring two inches in length, and rather more than an inch in diameter at the base; grouped like the other varieties, and enclosed in a light-brown pellicle, as fine in texture as the skin of an onion, which this shallot much resembles in form and odor. compared with the common shallot, it is more round, the neck is smaller, and it is also more close or compact. leaves remarkably glaucous, not tall, but of good substance,--quite distinct in these respects from the small or the large sort. it also sometimes produces seeds; which is, perhaps, a recommendation, as these, when sown, frequently produce new varieties. it is one of the earliest of all the sorts; but is comparatively tender, and decays early. large alenÇon. Échalote grosse d'alençon. _vil._ bulb very large, exceeding in size that of the jersey shallot; which variety it much resembles in form and color, and in being tender, decaying early, and sometimes running to seed. it is, however, not quite so early; and the leaves are longer and more glaucous. flavor mild and pleasant. at the time of harvesting, the bulbs should be long exposed to the sun, in order that they may be thoroughly dried before packing away. "the bulbs are slow in forming, and the worst keepers, as, when stored, they soon begin to sprout." this variety, and also the jersey shallot, closely resemble the onion. it is possible they may constitute a distinct species. large shallot. Échalote grosse. _vil._ bulbs about two inches in diameter at the base, elongated, and enclosed in a brownish-yellow skin, or pellicle; leaves fifteen to eighteen inches high. this variety, in size, much exceeds that of the common or small shallot; and, though later in ripening, is nevertheless the first to be found in the market, as it forms its bulbs early in the season. its keeping properties are inferior to the last named. long keeping. this resembles the common shallot; but is considered superior to that variety in its keeping properties, and in being less subject to the attack of the maggot. it is said that the variety may be kept two years. * * * * * welsh onion. ciboule, of the french. allium fistulosum. the welsh onion is a hardy perennial from siberia. it is quite distinct from the common onion, as it forms no bulbs, but produces numerous elongated, angular, tunicated stems, not unlike scallions, or some of the smaller descriptions of leeks. the flower-stem is about eighteen inches high, swollen near the middle, and terminates in a globular umbel of greenish-white flowers. the seeds are small, black, somewhat irregular in form, and retain their vitality two years. about thirty-six thousand are contained in an ounce. _sowing and cultivation._--the seeds are sown in drills about half an inch in depth, and the crop subsequently treated as the common onion. there are two varieties:-- common or red welsh onion. skin, or pellicle, reddish-brown, changing to silvery-white about the base of the leaves; the latter being fistulous, and about a foot in height. its principal recommendation is its remarkable hardiness. the seeds are sometimes sown in july and august for the young stems and leaves, which are used during winter and early in spring as salad. white welsh onion. early white. ciboule blanche hative. _vil._ this is a sub-variety of the common red. the skin is rose-white, and, like that of the last named, changes to silvery-white about the upper portion of the stem, or bulb; the leaves are longer, deeper colored, firmer, and less subject to wither or decay at their extremities, than those of the common red. the white is generally considered the better variety; as it is more tender, and milder in flavor, though much less productive. the welsh onions are of little value, except in cold latitudes; and are rarely found in the vegetable gardens of this country. chapter iii. asparaginous plants. the artichoke. asparagus. cardoon. hop. oosung. phytolacca. * * * * * the artichoke. cynarus scolymus. [illustration: green globe artichoke.] the artichoke is a hardy perennial. the stem is from four to five feet in height, with numerous branches; the leaves are of remarkable size, frequently measuring three feet, and sometimes nearly four feet in length, pinnatifid, or deeply cut on the borders, and more or less invested with an ash-colored down; the mid-ribs are large, fleshy, and deeply grooved, or furrowed; the flowers are large, terminal, and consist of numerous blue florets, enclosed by fleshy-pointed scales; the seeds (eight hundred and fifty of which are contained in an ounce) are of a grayish color, variegated with deep brown, oblong, angular, somewhat flattened, and retain their vitality five years. _soil._--select a light, rich, and rather moist soil, and trench it well; incorporating in the process a liberal portion of old, well-decomposed compost. sea-weeds, kelp, rock-weed, and the like, where they can be obtained, are the best fertilizers; but, where these are not accessible, a slight application of salt will be beneficial. _propagation._--artichokes may be propagated either by seeds, or by slips, or suckers, from established plants. if by slips, they should be taken off in may, when they have grown five or six inches in height, and transplanted four or five inches deep, in rows four feet apart, and two feet apart in the rows. water freely, if dry weather occurs before the young plants are established. keep the ground loose by frequent hoeings; and in august or september the heads will be fit for use. before severe weather, the plants should be covered with straw or stable-litter. as plants of one year's growth produce but few heads, and are also later in their development of these than established plants, it is the practice of many cultivators to set a few young slips, and to destroy an equal part of the old plantation, yearly. _propagation by seeds._--"sow the seeds in april, in a nursery-bed; making the drills a foot apart, and covering the seeds an inch deep. when the plants are three inches high, transplant as before directed. plants from seeds will seldom flower the first year."--_m'int._ _to raise seeds._--allow a few of the largest central heads to remain; and, just as the flowers expand, bend over the stalk so as to allow the rain to run from the buds, as the seeds are often injured by wet weather. in favorable seasons, they will ripen in september. according to english authority, little dependence can be placed on seedling plants: many produce small and worthless heads, whilst others produce those of large size and of good quality. _taking the crop._--"all of the heads should be cut as fast as they are fit for use, whether wanted or not; as allowing them to flower greatly weakens the plants, as does also permitting the stems that produced the heads to remain after the heads are cut off. for pickling whole, the heads should be cut when about two inches in diameter; for other purposes, when they have nearly attained their full size, but before the scales of the calyx begin to open. for what is called 'bottoms,' they should be cut when they are at their largest size, and just as the scales begin to show symptoms of opening, which is an indication that the flowers are about to be formed; after which, the heads are comparatively useless."--_m'int._ _use._--the portions of the plant used are the lowest parts of the leaves, or scales, of the calyx; and also the fleshy receptacles of the flower, freed from the bristles and seed-down. the latter are commonly called the "choke," on account of their disagreeable character when eaten. sometimes, particularly in france, the central leaf-stalk is blanched, and eaten like cardoons. the bottom, which is the top of the receptacles, is fried in paste, and enters largely into fricassees and ragouts. they are sometimes pickled, and often used in a raw state as a salad. the french also cut them into thin slices; leaving one of the scales, or calyx leaves, attached, by which the slice is lifted, and dipped in oil and vinegar before using. the english present the head whole, or cut into quarters, upon a dry plate; the guests picking off the scales one by one, which have a fleshy substance at the base. these are eaten after being dipped in oil and vinegar. what is called "artichoke chard" is the tender leaf-stalks blanched, and cooked like cardoons. the italians and french often eat the heads raw with vinegar, oil, salt, and pepper; but they are generally preferred when boiled. _varieties._-- dark-red spined. bud very small. the variety is remarkable for the very long spines in which the scales terminate. for cultivation, it is inferior to the other sorts. early purple. purple. purple globe. artichaut violet. _vil._ heads rather small, obtusely conical; scales short and broad, pointed, green at the base, tinged with purplish-red on the outside, towards their extremities, moderately succulent, and of good quality. the variety is early, but not hardy. in france, it is considered excellent in its crude state, served with vinegar and oil; but not so good cooked. green globe. large round-headed. globe. a very large sort, much esteemed, and generally cultivated in england. heads, or buds, very large, nearly round, and with a dusky, purplish tint. the scales turn in at the top, and the receptacle is more fleshy than that of most varieties. it is generally preferred for the main crop, as the scales, or edible parts, are thicker, and higher flavored, than those of any other artichoke. it is not a hardy variety, and requires ample protection during winter. green, or common. french. bud very large, of a conical or oval form; scales deep-green, thick, and fleshy, pointed at the tips, and turned outwards. though it has not the same thickness of flesh as the green globe artichoke, it is much hardier, more prolific, and one of the best sorts for cultivation. green provence. bud large; scales comparatively long and narrow, of a lively green color, erect, fleshy at the base, and terminating in a sharp, brownish spine, or thorn; leaves of the plant deep-green. most esteemed in its crude state; eaten as a salad in vinegar and oil. laon. gros vert de laon. _vil._ similar to the common green artichoke, but of larger size. scales rather loose and open, very deep-green, fleshy, and pointed. much cultivated in the vicinity of paris, and there considered the best. large flat brittany. artichaut camus de bretagne. _vil._ bud of medium size, somewhat globular, but flattened at the top; scales closely set together, green, brownish on the borders,--short, thick, and fleshy at the base. earlier than the laon, but not so fleshy. much grown in anjou and brittany. purplish-red. bud conical; scales green towards their tips, and purplish-red at their base. not very fleshy, and in no respect superior to the other varieties. * * * * * asparagus. asparagus officinalis. asparagus is a hardy, perennial, maritime plant. it rises to the height of five feet and upwards, with an erect, branching stem; short, slender, nearly cylindrical leaves; and greenish, drooping flowers. the seeds, which are produced in globular, scarlet berries, are black, somewhat triangular, and retain their germinative powers four years. twelve hundred and fifty weigh an ounce. it is indigenous to the shores of various countries of europe and asia; and, since its introduction, has become naturalized to a considerable extent in this country. it is frequently seen in mowing-fields upon old farms; and, in some instances, has found its way to the beaches and marshes of the seacoast. _propagation._--it is propagated from seed, which may be sown either in autumn, just before the closing-up of the ground; or in spring, as soon as the soil is in good working condition. the nursery, or seed-bed, should be thoroughly spaded over, the surface levelled and raked smooth and fine, and the seed sown, not very thickly, in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart, and about an inch in depth. an ounce of seed is sufficient for fifty or sixty feet of drill. when the plants are well up, thin them to three inches asunder; as they will be much stronger, if grown at some distance apart, than if allowed to stand closely together. cultivate in the usual manner during the summer, and give the plants a light covering of stable-litter during the winter. good plants of one year's growth are preferred by experienced growers for setting; but some choose those of two years, and they may be used when three years old. _soil and planting._--"a rich, sandy, alluvial soil, impregnated with salt, is naturally best adapted to the growth of asparagus; and, in such soil, its cultivation is an easy matter. soils of a different character must be made rich by the application of fertilizing material, and light and friable by trenching. sand, in wet, heavy, clayey soil, is of permanent benefit. "the market-gardeners near london are aware of this; for, highly as they manure their ground for crops generally, they procure sand, or sandy mud, from certain parts of the thames, for asparagus plantations, where the soil is too heavy. "the ground should be thoroughly trenched to the depth of two and a half or three feet: and, in order to make it rich, a large quantity of manure should be incorporated, as well at the bottom as near the surface,--using either sandy mud; the scourings of ditches made into compost; rock-weed, or kelp, where they can be procured; decayed leaves, or leaf-mould; the remains of hot-beds, good peat, or almost any other manure not in too crude a state. "where the soil is not so deep, and the subsoil coarse and rather gravelly, the ground is not trenched so deep; the bottom of the trench being merely dug over. above this, however, a large quantity of manure is applied; and by this, with good after-management,--chiefly consisting in making the soil fine and light for the shoots to push through,--excellent crops are produced. "the ground should be divided into beds either three or five feet wide, with an alley or path of two feet in width between. the reason for having some of the beds so much narrower than the others is, that the narrow ones are sooner heated by the sun's rays, and consequently an earlier production is induced. "the distance between the rows in the beds may be regulated as follows: when the beds are three feet wide, two rows should be transplanted along them: each row should be a foot from the edge of the bed, and they will consequently be a foot apart. in beds that are five feet wide, three rows should be transplanted, also lengthwise,--one along the middle, and one on each side, a foot from the edge of the bed. the distance from plant to plant in the rows should not be less than one foot; at this distance, good-sized heads will be produced: but, if very large heads are desired for exhibition or competition, the plants should be fifteen, or even eighteen, inches asunder. "the transplanting may be performed either in april or may. the three-feet beds should be traced out to run east and west, or so as to present the side of the bed to the direct action of the sun's rays when they are most powerful. asparagus, in beds so formed, pushes earlier in the season than it does in beds running north and south. for all except the earliest beds, the direction is immaterial; and they may run east and west, or north and south, as may be most convenient. "in proceeding to transplant, the beds, and paths, or alleys, should be marked off at the required distance. a stout stake should be driven at each corner of the beds, and from these the distances for the rows should be measured. there are various ways of transplanting. some stretch a line, and cut out a trench only deep enough to allow the roots to be laid out without doubling; and they are spread out like a fan perpendicularly against the side of the cut, the crown of the plant being kept two inches below the surface of the ground. some dig out a trench, and form little hillocks of fine soil, over which the roots are spread, extending like the sticks of an umbrella. others make a ridge, astride which they set the plants, spreading their roots on each side of the ridge; and, again, some take off a portion of the soil on the bed, and, after the surface has been raked smooth, the roots of the plants are spread out nearly at right angles on the level. "the first method is the most expeditious, and is generally practised in setting extensive plantations: but, whatever plan be preferred, the crowns of the plants should all be on the same level; otherwise those that are too high would be liable to be injured by the knife in cutting." during the summer, nothing will be necessary but to keep the plants clear of weeds; and, in doing this, the hoe should be dispensed with as much as possible, to avoid injuring the roots. in the autumn, when the tops have completely withered, they should be cut down nearly level with the surface of the ground, and burned. the beds should then be lightly dug over, and three or four inches of rich loam, intermixed with well-digested compost, and salt at the rate of two quarts to the square rod, should be applied; which will leave the crowns of the roots about five inches below the surface. _second year._--early in spring, as soon as the frost leaves the ground, dig over the beds, taking care not to disturb the roots; rake the surface smooth; and, during the summer, cultivate as before directed: but none of the shoots should be cut for use. in the autumn, after the stalks have entirely withered, cut down and burn as in the previous year; stir the surface of the bed, and add an inch of soil and manure, which will bring the crowns six or seven inches below ground,--a depth preferred, by a majority of cultivators, for established plantations. _third year._--early in spring, stir the ground as directed for the two previous years. some cultivators make a slight cutting during this season; but the future strength of the plants will be increased by allowing the crop to grow naturally as during the first and second years. in autumn, cut and burn as before; dig over the surface; add a dressing of manure; and, in the ensuing spring, the beds may be cut freely for use. instead of transplanting the roots, asparagus-beds are sometimes formed by sowing the seeds where the plants are to remain. when this method is adopted, the beds should be laid out and trenched, as before directed, and about three inches of soil removed from the entire surface. the seed should then be sown in drills an inch deep, at the distances marked out for the rows, and covered with rich, light soil. when the seedlings are two or three inches high, they should be thinned to nine or twelve inches apart; and, in thinning, the weakest plants should be removed. in the autumn, cut down the plants after they have withered, stir and smooth the surface, and add a dressing of manure. in the spring of the second year, stir the surface again; and, during the summer, cultivate as before. in the autumn, the plants will be ready for the dressing; which consists of the soil previously taken from the bed, with sufficient well-digested compost added to cover the crowns of the roots five or six inches in depth. the after-culture is similar to that of beds from transplanted roots. "asparagus-beds should be enriched every autumn with a liberal application of good compost containing some mixture of salt; the benefit of which will be evident, not only in the quantity, but in the size and quality, of the produce. the dressing should be applied after the removal of the decayed stalks, and forked in, that its enriching properties may be washed to the roots of the plants by winter rains. "in general, transplanted asparagus comes up quite slender the first year; is larger the second; and, the third year, a few shoots may be fit for cutting. it is nearly in perfection the fourth year; and, if properly managed, will annually give an abundant supply during the life of the maker of a bed or plantation." _cutting._--"the shoots should be cut angularly, from two to three inches below the surface of the ground; taking care not to wound the younger buds. it is in the best condition for cutting when the shoots are four or five inches above ground, and while the head, or bud, remains close and firm. "it is the practice to cut off all the shoots as they appear, up to the period when it is thought best to leave off cutting altogether. the time for this depends on the climate, season, nature of the soil, and strength of the plants. where the climate is good, or when the season is an early one, cutting must be commenced early; and of course, in such a case, it ought not to be continued late, as the plants would thereby be weakened." in the middle states, the cutting should be discontinued from the th to the th of june; and from the th to the th of the same month in the eastern states and the canadas. "if the plants are weak, they should be allowed to grow up as early as possible, to make foliage, and consequently fresh roots, and thus to acquire more vigor for the ensuing year. it is also advisable to leave off at an early period the cutting of some of the best of the beds intended for early produce, in order that the buds may be well matured early in autumn, and thus be prepared to push vigorously early in spring." asparagus-beds will continue from twenty to thirty years; and there are instances of beds being regularly cut, and remaining in good condition for more than fifty years. _seed._--"select some of the finest and earliest heads as they make their appearance in the spring; tie them to stakes during the summer, taking care not to drive the stake through the crown of the plant. if for the market, or to be sent to a distance, wash out the seeds in autumn, and dry thoroughly; if for home-sowing, allow the seeds to remain in the berries till used." _use._--the young shoots are boiled twenty minutes or half an hour, until they become soft; and are principally served on toasted bread, with melted butter. it is the practice of some to boil the shoots entire; others cut or break the sprout just above the more tough or fibrous part, and cook only the part which is tender and eatable. this is snapped or cut into small sections, which are boiled, buttered, seasoned, and served on toast in the usual form. "the smaller sprouts are sometimes cut into pieces three-eighths of an inch long, and cooked and served as green pease." the sprouts are also excellent when made into soup. it is one of the most productive, economical, and healthful of all garden vegetables. _varieties._--"the names of numerous varieties occur in the catalogues of seedsmen: but there seems to be little permanency of character in the plants; such slight variations as appear from time to time being caused, to a considerable extent, by the nature of the soil, or by the situation in which the plants are grown. what are called the red-topped and green-topped may perhaps be somewhat distinct, and considered as varieties."--_glenny._ soil and location have unquestionably much influence, both as respects the quality and size of the sprouts. a bed of asparagus in one locality produced shoots seldom reaching a diameter of half an inch, and of a very tough and fibrous character; while a bed in another situation, formed of plants taken from the same nursery-bed, actually produced sprouts so large and fine as to obtain the prize of the massachusetts horticultural society. if any variety really exists peculiar in size, form, color, or quality, it cannot be propagated by seed. large sprouts may afford seeds, which, as a general rule, will produce finer asparagus than seeds from smaller plants; but a variety, when it occurs, can be propagated only by a division of the roots. mr. thompson states, that on one part of mr. grayson's extensive plantation, on the south side of the thames, near london, the so-called grayson's giant was produced; and in another section, the common sort: but, when both were made to change places, the common acquired the dimensions of the giant, whilst the latter diminished to the ordinary size. seeds of the following named and described sorts may be obtained of seedsmen, and will undoubtedly, in nearly all cases, afford fine asparagus; but they will not produce plants which will uniformly possess the character of the parent variety:-- battersea. _rog._ battersea is famed for producing fine asparagus, and the name is applied to the particular variety there grown. the heads are large, full, and close, and the tops tinted with a reddish-green color. it is probably intermediate between the green and purple-topped. gravesend. _rog._ originated and named under like circumstances with the battersea. the top is greener, and not generally so plump and close; but it is considered finer flavored. both varieties are, however, held in great estimation. grayson's giant. this variety, as also the deptford, mortlake, and reading, all originated and were named under the same conditions as the varieties before described. all are fine sorts; but the difference between them, and indeed between all of the kinds, if important, is certainly not permanent, so long as they are offered in the form of seeds for propagation. mr. grayson, the originator of this variety, produced a hundred sprouts, the aggregate weight of which was forty-two pounds,--the largest ever raised in britain. german. asperge d'allemagne. _vil._ this variety very nearly resembles the giant purple-topped. it is, however, considered a little earlier, and the top is deeper colored. giant purple-top. dutch. red-top. sprout white; the top, as it breaks ground, purple; size very large, sometimes measuring an inch and three-fourths in diameter, but greatly affected by soil and cultivation. a hundred sprouts of this variety have been produced which weighed twenty-five pounds. green-top. this variety, when grown under the same conditions as the giant purple-top, is generally smaller or more slender. the top of the sprout, and the scales on the sides, are often slightly tinged with purple. the plant, when full grown, is perceptibly more green than that of the giant purple-top. from most nursery-beds, plants of both varieties will probably be obtained, with every intervening grade of size and color. * * * * * cardoon. chardon. chardoon. cynara cardunculus. in its general character and appearance, the cardoon resembles the artichoke. its full size is not attained until the second year, when it is "truly a gigantic herbaceous plant," of five or six feet in height. the flowers, which are smaller than those of the artichoke, are produced in july and august of the second year, and are composed of numerous small blue florets, enclosed by somewhat fleshy, pointed scales. the seeds are oblong, a little flattened, of a grayish or grayish-green color, spotted and streaked with deep brown; and, when perfectly grown, are similar in size and form to those of the apple. about six hundred are contained in an ounce; and they retain their vitality seven years. _soil, propagation, and culture._--the best soil for the cardoon is a light and deep but not over-rich loam. it is raised from seed; which, as the plant is used in the first year of its growth and is liable to be injured by the winter, should be sown annually, although the cardoon is really a perennial. it succeeds best when sown where the plants are to remain; for, if removed, the plants recover slowly, are more liable to run to seed, and, besides, seldom attain the size of those that have not been transplanted. the seed should be sown as early in spring as the weather becomes warm and settled, in drills three feet apart, an inch and a half in depth, and the young plants afterwards thinned to twelve inches asunder in the drills. the leaves are blanched before being used. it is sometimes raised and blanched as follows: sow the seed at the bottom of trenches made about six inches deep, twelve inches wide, three feet apart, and of a length according to the supply required. at the bottom of the trench, thoroughly mix a small quantity of well-digested compost, and sow the seeds in small groups, or collections (three or four seeds together), at about twelve or fifteen inches apart, and cover them an inch or an inch and a half deep. when the young plants have acquired three or four leaves, they should be thinned out to single plants. during the summer, keep them free from weeds; and, as they require much moisture, it is well to water frequently, if the weather is very dry. in september, the plants will have attained their growth for the season, and be ready for blanching; which should be done in a dry day, and when the plants are entirely free from dampness. it is thus performed: the leaves of each plant are carefully and lightly tied together with strong matting; keeping the whole upright, and the ribs of the leaves closely together. the plant is then bound with twisted hay-bands, or bands of straw, about an inch and a half in diameter; beginning at the root, and continuing the winding until two-thirds or three-fourths of the height is covered. if there is no heavy frost, the leaves will blanch quickly and finely without further pains: but, if frosty weather occurs, it will be necessary to earth up about the plants, as is practised with celery; but care should be taken not to raise the earth higher than the hay-bands. one method of blanching is simply to tie the leaves together with matting, and then to earth up the plants from time to time like celery; beginning early in september, and adding gradually every week until they are sufficiently covered. those, however, blanched by the banding process, are superior, both in respect to color and in the greater length of the parts blanched. another practice is to earth up a little about the base of the plant, tie the leaves together with thread or matting, and then envelop the whole quite to the top with a quantity of long, clean wheat or rye straw, placed up and down the plant, and tied together with small cord or strong matting. the leaves will thus blanch without being earthed up, and speedily become white. this process is a good one, is economical, and presents a neat appearance. "in either of the methods, it is very necessary to be careful that the plants are perfectly dry before they are enveloped in their covering: they will otherwise rot." in about three weeks after being tied up, the cardoons will be fit for use. _harvesting._--when the stems and midribs of the leaves are thoroughly blanched, they are ready for use. until the occurrence of severe weather, the table may be supplied directly from the garden: but, before the closing-up of the ground, "the plants should be taken up, roots and leaves entire, and removed to the cellar; where they should be packed in sand, laying the plants down in rows, and packing the sand around them, one course over another, till finished. in this way, they not only keep well, but become more perfectly blanched." _to raise seed._--allow two or three plants to remain unblanched, and leave them in the ground during the winter, protected by straw or other convenient material. they will grow to the height, and flower and seed, as before described. one plant will afford sufficient seed for any common garden. _use._--"the stems of the leaves, as well as the mid-ribs, when blanched, are used for soups, stews, and even for salads, in autumn and winter. the longer these parts of the plant are, and the more rapidly they are grown, the more they are esteemed, on account of their greater crispness, tenderness, and color." the "gardener's chronicle" gives the following directions for dressing them:-- "when a cardoon is to be cooked, the solid stalks of the leaves are to be cut in pieces about six inches long, and boiled, like any other vegetable, in pure water (not salt and water), till they are tender. they are then to be carefully deprived of the slime and strings that will be found to cover them; and, having been thus thoroughly cleansed, are to be plunged in cold water, where they must remain until they are wanted for the table. they are then taken out, and heated with white sauce, or marrow. the process just described is for the purpose of rendering them white, and of depriving them of a bitterness which is peculiar to them. if this is neglected, the cardoons will be black, not white, as well as disagreeable." m'intosh remarks, that, when skilfully prepared, they form an excellent and wholesome dish, deserving far more general notice. in france, the flowers are gathered, and dried in the shade; and, when so preserved, are used as a substitute for rennet, to coagulate milk. _varieties._-- common, or large smooth. _trans._ smooth large solid. plein inerme. _vil._ this kind grows from four to five feet high. the leaves are large and strong, though somewhat smaller than those of the tours or prickly cardoon. they are of a shining-green color, with little appearance of hoariness on the upper surface, and generally destitute of spines; though some of the plants occasionally have a few small ones at the base of the leaflets. the cardon _plein inerme_ of the french, which is described in the "bon jardinier" as a novelty, corresponds nearly with the large smooth or common cardoon. large spanish. _trans._ d'espagne. _vil._ stem five or six feet high. the divisions of the leaflets are rather narrower, and somewhat more hoary, than those of the common cardoon. the ribs are longer, and the whole plant stronger and generally more spiny; though, on the whole, comparatively smooth. it is not, however, always very readily distinguished from the common or large smooth cardoon. it runs up to seed quicker than the other varieties. puvis. _thomp._ artichoke-leaved. lance-leaved. puvis de bourg. _vil._ the puvis cardoon is remarkable for its strong growth, the large size it attains, and the thickness of the mid-ribs of the leaves, which are almost solid. the leaves are thick, and not at all prickly, or very slightly so. the terminal lobe is very large, and lance-formed: whence the name. it is a fine variety, and of more tender substance than the tours cardoon. red. _trans._ blood-ribbed. red-stemmed. _thomp._ large purple. the leaves of this variety are green, without any hoariness; long, narrow, and more sharply pointed than those of most of the other kinds. the ribs are large, solid, and tinged with red. a recent sort, excellent in quality, but wanting in hardiness. tours. _trans._ large tours solid. cardon de tours. _vil._ the leaves of this variety are very hoary on the upper surface; the divisions are broad, sharply pointed, and terminate with rigid, sharp spines. spines also grow, in clusters of from three to five, at the base of the leaflets; and are very strong, and of a yellowish color. this variety is not so tall as the spanish or large smooth. the ribs are large and solid. the tours cardoon is cultivated by the market-gardeners around paris; and, notwithstanding the inconvenience arising from its numerous and rigid spines, it is considered by them as the best, because of its thick, tender, and delicate ribs. * * * * * the hop. humulus lupulus. the hop is considered a native of this continent, and is found wild in all parts of the united states. the root is perennial, but the stems are annual. the latter are from ten to twenty-five feet in length, angular, rough, and twine from right to left. the leaves are placed opposite each other on the stem, on long, winding footstalks: the smaller ones are heart-shaped; the larger ones three or five lobed, veiny, and rough. the barren and fertile flowers are produced on separate plants: the former being very numerous and paniculated; the latter in the form of an ament, or collection of small scales, which are more or less covered with a fine, yellow powder called "lupulin." while several distinct sorts of the fertile or hop-bearing plant have been long in cultivation, only one variety of the male or barren plant is known. _soil and location._--though it may be cultivated with success in a variety of soils, the hop prefers a rich, deep loam, which should be thoroughly ploughed, and, if necessary, enriched with well-digested compost. in general, it may be said that "good corn-land is good hop-land." hops, however, are reputed to be of better quality when raised on comparatively thin soils. _propagation and culture._--it is propagated by a division of the roots early in spring. when extensively cultivated, the plants are set in hills, five to seven feet apart, and three or four cuttings or slips allowed to a hill; but in garden culture, to procure the young shoots, the plants are set in rows about three feet apart, and one foot from plant to plant in the rows. _use._--the plant is principally cultivated for its flowers, which are largely employed in the manufacture of malt liquors. the young shoots are cut in spring, when they are five or six inches in height, and eaten as salad, or used as asparagus, which they somewhat resemble in taste. * * * * * hoosung, or oosung. _hov. mag._ a lettuce-like plant from shanghai. stems cylindrical, from two to three feet high, erect, light green, with a green, succulent pith; leaves oblong, tapering to the base, the uppermost clasping; the flowers are small, yellow, in panicles slightly drooping. if sown in april or may, the plants will ripen their seed in august. _sowing and cultivation._--sow in a cool frame, in either april or may, or continuously, for a succession, at intervals during may, and transplant into the open ground in the usual manner of treating lettuces; making the rows about eighteen inches apart, and placing the plants about the same distance apart in the rows. the plants will be fit for use early in june. _use._--the succulent stem is the part used. this is divested of its outer rind, and either simply boiled, with a little salt in the water, and dressed as asparagus, or stewed in soy, with salt, pepper, and butter added, or boiled in soup as okra. it is a very agreeable and pleasant addition to the list of vegetable esculents, and worthy of trial. the plant is very little cultivated; and there are no described varieties. * * * * * perennial phytolacca. garget. poke. pigeon berry. phytolacca decandra. a hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, common by roadsides, in waste places, and springing up spontaneously on newly burned pine-lands. it has a branching, purplish stem, five to seven feet in height; and large, oval, pointed, entire leaves. the flowers are produced in july and august, in long clusters; and are of a dull-white color. the fruit consists of a flat, purple, juicy berry; and is sometimes used for dyeing purple. _soil and culture._--it will thrive in almost any soil or situation; and can be easily propagated from seed, or by dividing the roots. the plant requires little cultivation, and is so abundant in many localities as to afford an ample supply for the mere labor of gathering. _use._--the young shoots are eaten early in the season, as a substitute for asparagus, which they resemble in taste. when treated in the manner of sea-kale, the flavor of the sprouts is scarcely distinguishable from that of asparagus. the root has reputed important medicinal properties; and, when taken internally, acts as a violent emetic. annual phytolacca. phytolacca esculenta. an annual species, with foliage similar to the foregoing. it is much less vigorous and stocky in habit. the seed should be sown in april, in drills fifteen inches apart. the young shoots, or plants, are used in the manner of the species before described. chapter iv. cucurbitaceous plants. the cucumber. egyptian cucumber. globe cucumber. gourd, or calabash. the melon. musk-melon. persian melons. water-melon. papanjay, or sponge cucumber. prickly-fruited gherkin. pumpkin. snake cucumber. squash. * * * * * the cucumber. cucumis sativus. the cucumber is a tender, annual plant; and is a native of the east indies, or of tropical origin. it has an angular, creeping stem; large, somewhat heart-shaped, leaves; and axillary staminate or pistillate flowers. the fruit is cylindrical, generally elongated, often somewhat angular, smooth, or with scattering black or white spines; the flesh is white or greenish-white, and is divided at the centre of the fruit into three parts, in each of which the seeds are produced in great abundance. these seeds are of an elliptical or oval form, much flattened, and of a pale yellowish-white color. about twelve hundred are contained in an ounce; and they retain their vitality ten years. _soil and culture._--very dry and very wet soils should be avoided. cucumbers succeed decidedly best in warm, moist, rich, loamy ground. the essentials to their growth are heat, and a fair proportion of moisture. they should not be planted or set in the open air until there is a prospect of continued warm and pleasant weather; as, when planted early, not only are the seeds liable to decay in the ground, but the young plants are frequently cut off by frost. the hills should be five or six feet apart in each direction. make them fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, and a foot in depth; fill them three-fourths full of thoroughly digested compost, and then draw four or five inches of earth over the whole, raising the hill a little above the level of the ground; plant fifteen or twenty seeds in each, cover half an inch deep, and press the earth smoothly over with the back of the hoe. when all danger from bugs and worms is past, thin out the plants; leaving but three or four of the strongest or healthiest to a hill. _taking the crop._--as fast as the cucumbers attain a suitable size, they should be plucked, whether required for use or not. the imperfectly formed, as well as the symmetrical, should all be removed. fruit, however inferior, left to ripen on the vines, soon destroys their productiveness. _seed._--"cucumbers, from their natural proneness to impregnate each other when, grown together, are exceedingly difficult to keep true to their original points of merit;" and consequently, to retain any variety in its purity, it must be grown apart from all other sorts. when a few seeds are desired for the vegetable garden, two or three of the finest-formed cucumbers should be selected early in the season, and allowed to ripen on the plants. in september, or when fully ripe, cut them open, take out the seeds, and allow them to stand a day or two, or until the pulp attached to them begins to separate; when they should be washed clean, thoroughly dried, and packed away for future use. _for pickling._--the land for raising cucumbers for pickling may be either swarded or stubble; but it must be in good condition, and such as is not easily affected by drought. it should be deeply ploughed, and the surface afterwards made fine and friable by being thoroughly harrowed. the hills should be six feet apart, and are generally formed by furrowing the land at this distance in each direction. manure the hills with well-digested compost, level off, draw over a little fine earth, and the land is ready for planting. this may be done at any time from the middle of june to the first week in july. the quantity of seed allowed to an acre varies from three-fourths of a pound, upwards. in most cases, growers seed very liberally, to provide against the depredation of worms and bugs; usually putting six or eight times as many seeds in a hill as will be really required for the crop. when the plants are well established and beyond danger, the field is examined, and the hills thinned to three or four plants; or, where there is a deficiency of plants, replanted. as fast as the cucumbers attain the proper size, they should be plucked; the usual practice being to go over the plantation daily. in gathering, all the fruit should be removed,--the misshapen and unmarketable, as well as those which are well formed; for, when any portion of the crop is allowed to remain and ripen, the plants become much less productive. in favorable seasons, and under a high state of cultivation, a hundred and twenty-five thousand are obtained from an acre; while, under opposite conditions, the crop may not exceed fifty thousand. the average price is about a dollar and twenty-five cents per thousand. _varieties._-- early cluster. early green cluster. a very popular, early cucumber, producing its fruit in clusters near the root of the plant: whence the name. the plant is healthy, hardy, and vigorous; fruit comparatively short and thick. its usual length is about five inches, and its diameter about two inches; skin prickly, green,--at the blossom-end, often paler, or nearly white,--brownish-yellow when ripe; flesh white, seedy, tender, and well flavored, but less crispy or brittle than that of many other varieties. it is a good early garden sort, and is very productive; but is not well adapted for pickling, on account of the soft and seedy character of its flesh. early frame. short green. one of the oldest of the garden sorts, justly styled a standard variety. plant healthy and vigorous, six to ten feet in length; fruit straight and well formed, five inches and a half long, and two inches and a half in diameter; skin deep-green, paler at the blossom-end, changing to clear yellow as it approaches maturity, and, when fully ripe, of a yellowish, russet-brown color; flesh greenish-white, rather seedy, but tender, and of an agreeable flavor. it is a few days later than the early cluster. the variety is universally popular, and is found in almost every vegetable garden. it is also very productive; succeeds well, whether grown in open culture or under glass; and, if plucked while young and small, makes an excellent pickle. early russian. this comparatively new variety resembles, in some respects, the early cluster. fruit from three to four inches in length, an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, and generally produced in pairs; flesh tender, crisp, and well flavored. when ripe, the fruit is deep-yellow or yellowish-brown. its merits are its hardiness, extreme earliness, and great productiveness. it comes into use nearly ten days in advance of the early cluster, and is the earliest garden variety now cultivated. its small size is, however, considered an objection; and some of the larger kinds are generally preferred for the main crop. london long green. _m'int._ fruit about a foot in length, tapering towards the extremities; skin very deep-green while the fruit is young, yellow when it is ripe; flesh greenish-white, firm, and crisp; flavor good. this variety is nearly related to the numerous prize sorts which in england are cultivated under glass, and forced during the winter. there is little permanency in the slight variations of character by which they are distinguished; and old varieties are constantly being dropped from the catalogues, and others, with different names, substituted. amongst the most prominent of these sub-varieties are the following:-- _carter's superior._--recently introduced. represented as one of the largest and finest of the forcing varieties. _conqueror of the west._--eighteen to twenty inches in length. it is a fine prize sort, and succeeds well in open culture. _cuthill's black spine._--six to nine inches in length, hardy, early, and productive. an excellent sort for starting in a hot-bed. fruit very firm and attractive. _the doctor._--sixteen to eighteen inches in length, and contracted towards the stem in the form of a neck. in favorable seasons, it will attain a good size, if grown in the open ground. crisp, tender, and well flavored. _eggleston's conqueror._--"very prolific, good for forcing, of fine flavor, hardy, and a really useful sort. specimens have been grown measuring twenty-eight inches in length, nine inches and a half in circumference, and weighing five pounds." _flanigan's prize._--an old, established variety; having been grown in england upwards of thirty years. length fifteen inches. _hunter's prolific._--length eighteen inches. very crisp and excellent, but requires more heat than most other varieties. spines white; fruit covered with a good bloom, and not liable to turn yellow at the base. _improved sion house._--this variety has received many prizes in england. not only is it well adapted for the summer crop, but it succeeds remarkably well when grown under glass. _irishman._--length twenty-two to twenty-five inches. handsome, and excellent for exhibition. _lord kenyon's favorite._--length twelve to eighteen inches. a fine sort for winter forcing. _manchester prize._--this, like the nepal, is one of the largest of the english greenhouse prize varieties. it sometimes measures two feet in length, and weighs twelve pounds. in favorable seasons, it will attain a large size in open culture, and sometimes perfect its seed. _nepal._--one of the largest of all varieties; length about twenty-four inches; weight ten to twelve pounds. _norman's stitchworth-park hero._--a recently introduced variety, hardy, long, handsome, very prolific, and fine flavored. _old sion house._--length about nine inches. this is a well-tried, winter, forcing variety. like the improved sion house, it also succeeds well in open culture. quality good, though the extremities are sometimes bitter. _prize-fighter._--length about sixteen inches. good for the summer crop or for exhibition. _rifleman._--this variety is described as one of the best prize cucumbers. it has a black spine; always grows very even from stem to point, with scarcely any handle; carries its bloom well; keeps a good fresh color; and is not liable to turn yellow as many other sorts. length twenty-four to twenty-eight inches. an abundant bearer. _ringleader._--a prominent prize sort, about fifteen inches in length. it succeeds well, whether grown under glass or in the open ground. _roman emperor._--length twelve to fifteen inches. _southgate._--this variety has been pronounced the most productive, and the best for forcing, of all the prize sorts. it is not so late as many of the english varieties, and will frequently succeed well if grown in the open ground. _victory of bath._--length about seventeen inches. well adapted for forcing or for the general crop. long green prickly. long prickly. early long green prickly. this is a large-sized variety, and somewhat later than the white-spined. the plant is a strong grower, and the foliage of a deep-green color; the fruit is about seven inches in length, straight, and generally angular; skin dark-green, changing to yellow as the fruit approaches maturity,--when fully ripe, it is reddish-brown, and is often reticulated about the insertion of the stem; prickles black; flesh white, somewhat seedy, but crisp, tender, and well flavored. the long green prickly is hardy and productive; makes a good pickle, if plucked while young; and is well deserving of cultivation. it differs from the london long green and the long green turkey in its form, which is much thicker in proportion to its length; and also in the character of its flesh, which is more pulpy and seedy. long green turkey. extra long green turkey. a distinct and well-defined variety; when full grown, sometimes measuring nearly eighteen inches in length. form long and slender, contracted towards the stem in the form of a neck, and swollen towards the opposite extremity; seeds few, and usually produced nearest the blossom-end. the neck is generally solid. while the fruit is young, the skin is deep-green; afterwards it changes to clear yellow, and finally assumes a rusty-yellow or yellowish-brown. flesh remarkably firm and crisp; exceeding, in these respects, that of any other variety. very productive and excellent. its remarkably firm and crispy flesh, and the absence of seeds, render it serviceable for the table after it has reached a very considerable size. for the same reasons, it may be pickled at a stage of its growth when other more seedy and pulpy sorts would be comparatively worthless. short prickly. short green prickly. early short green prickly. this variety somewhat resembles the long prickly; but it is shorter, and proportionally thicker. its length, when suitable for use, is about four inches. skin prickly, green, changing to yellow at maturity; flesh transparent greenish-white, rather seedy, but tender, crisp, and fine flavored. the variety is very hardy and productive, comes early into fruit, and is one of the best for pickling. it is a few days later than the early cluster. underwood's short prickly. this is an improved variety of the common short prickly, and is the best of all the sorts for extensive cultivation for pickling. the plant is hardy and productive. the fruit, when young, is very symmetrical, and of a fine deep-green color. its flesh is characterized by extraordinary crispness and solidity. when more advanced, the color becomes paler, and the flesh more soft and seedy. the fruit, at maturity, is yellow. white spanish. the form of this variety is similar to that of the white-spined. the fruit measures about five inches in length, two inches in diameter, and is generally somewhat ribbed. when suitable for use, the skin is white; a characteristic by which the variety is readily distinguished from all others. the flesh is crisp, tender, and well flavored. at maturity, the fruit is yellow. white-spined. early white-spined. new-york market. this very distinct variety is extensively grown for marketing, both at the north and south. the plants grow from six to ten feet in length; and, like those of the early frame, are of a healthy, luxurious habit. the fruit is of full medium size, straight, and well formed; about six inches in length, and two inches and a half in diameter. skin deep-green; prickles white; flesh white, tender, crispy, and of remarkably fine flavor. as the fruit ripens, the skin gradually becomes paler; and, when fully ripe, is nearly white: by which peculiarity, in connection with its white spines, the variety is always readily distinguishable. the white-spined is one of the best sorts for the table; and is greatly prized by market-men on account of its color, which is never changed to yellow, though kept long after being plucked. it is generally thought to retain its freshness longer than any other variety, and consequently to be well fitted for transporting long distances; though, on account of its peculiar color, the freshness may be less real than apparent. for the very general dissemination of this variety, the public are, in a great degree, indebted to the late i. p. rand, esq., of boston, whose integrity as a merchant, and whose skill as a practical vegetable cultivator and horticulturist, will be long remembered. * * * * * egyptian cucumber. hairy cucumber. round-leaved egyptian. concombre chaté. _vil._ cucumis chate. this is a tender, annual plant, with an angular, creeping stem, and alternate, somewhat heart-shaped, leaves. the flowers are axillary, about an inch in diameter, and of a pale-yellow color; the fruit is small, oblong, and very hairy. it is of little value as an esculent, and is rarely cultivated. the fruit is sometimes eaten in its green state, and also when cooked. according to duchesne, the egyptians prepare from the pulp a very agreeable and refreshing beverage. plant and cultivate as directed for melons or cucumbers. * * * * * globe cucumber. concombre des prophètes. _vil._ cucumis prophetarum. a tender annual from arabia. stem slender, creeping, and furnished with tendrils, or claspers. the leaves are about three inches in diameter, five-lobed, and indented on the borders; the flowers are axillary, yellow, and nearly three-fourths of an inch in diameter; the fruit is round, and rarely measures an inch in thickness; skin striped with green and yellow, and thickly set with rigid hairs, or bristles; the seeds are small, oval, flattened, and of a yellowish color. _planting and culture._--the seeds should be planted at the time of planting cucumbers or melons, in hills four or five feet apart, and covered about half an inch deep. thin to two or three plants to a hill. _use._--the fruit is sometimes eaten boiled; but is generally pickled in its green state, like the common cucumber. as a table vegetable, it is comparatively unimportant, and not worthy of cultivation. * * * * * calabash, or common gourd. bottle gourd. cucurbita lagenaria. the calabash, or common gourd, is a climbing or creeping annual plant, frequently more than twenty feet in height or length. the leaves are large, round, heart-shaped, very soft and velvety to the touch, and emit a peculiar, musky odor, when bruised or roughly handled. the flowers, which are produced on very long stems, are white, and nearly three inches in diameter. they expand towards evening, and remain in perfection only a few hours; as they are generally found drooping and withering on the ensuing morning. the young fruit is hairy, and quite soft and tender; but, when ripe, the surface becomes hard, smooth, and glossy. the seeds are five-eighths of an inch in length, somewhat quadrangular, of a fawn-yellow color, and retain their vitality five years. about three hundred are contained in an ounce. _cultivation._--the seeds are planted at the same time and in the same manner as those of the squash. the gourd succeeds best when provided with a trellis, or other support, to keep the plant from the ground; as the fruit is best developed in a pendent or hanging position. _use._--the fruit, while still young and tender, is sometimes pickled in vinegar, like cucumbers. at maturity, the flesh is worthless: but the shells, which are very hard, light, and comparatively strong, are used as substitutes for baskets; and are also formed into water-dippers, and various other articles both useful and ornamental. the varieties are as follow:-- bottle gourd. _vil._ fruit about a foot in length, contracted at the middle, largest at the blossom-end, but swollen also at the part next the stem. there is a sub-variety, very much larger; but it is also later. hercules club. courge massue d'hercule. _vil._ fruit very long. specimens are frequently produced measuring upwards of five feet in length. it is smallest towards the stem, and increases gradually in size towards the opposite extremity, which is rounded, and near which, in its largest diameter, it measures from four to five inches. its form is quite peculiar, and is not unlike that of a massive club: whence the name. it is frequently seen at horticultural and agricultural shows; and, though sometimes exhibited as a "cucumber," has little or no value as an esculent, and must be considered much more curious than useful. it is of a pea-green color while growing, and the skin is then quite soft and tender; but, like the other varieties, the surface becomes smooth, and the skin very hard and shell-like, at maturity. powder-horn. courge poire à poudre. _vil._ fruit long and slender, broadest at the base, tapering towards the stem, and often more or less curved. in its general form, it resembles a common horn, as implied by the name. its usual length is twelve or fourteen inches; and its largest diameter, nearly three inches. siphon gourd. courge siphon. _vil._ fruit rounded, and flattened at the blossom-end; then suddenly contracted to a long, slender neck. the latter often bends or turns suddenly at nearly a right angle; and, in this form, the fruit very much resembles a siphon. pea-green while young, pale-green when mature. shell thick and hard. * * * * * the melon. of the melon, there are two species in general cultivation,--the musk-melon (_cucumis melo_) and the water-melon (_cucurbita citrullus_); each, however, including many varieties. like the squash, they are tender, annual plants, of tropical origin, and only thrive well in a warm temperature. "the climate of the middle and southern states is remarkably favorable for them; indeed, far more so than that of england, france, or any of the temperate portions of europe. consequently, melons are raised as field crops by market-gardeners: and, in the month of august, the finest citrons or green-fleshed melons may be seen in the markets of new york and philadelphia in immense quantities; so abundant, in most seasons, as frequently to be sold at half a dollar per basket, containing nearly a bushel of fruit. the warm, dry soils of long island and new jersey are peculiarly favorable to the growth of melons; and, even at low prices, the product is so large, that this crop is one of the most profitable."--_downing._ through the extraordinary facilities now afforded by railroads and ocean steam-navigation, the markets of all the cities and large towns of the northern portions of the united states, and even of the canadas, are abundantly supplied within two or three days from the time of gathering: and they are retailed at prices so low, as to allow of almost universal consumption; well-ripened and delicious green-fleshed citron-melons being often sold from six to ten cents each. _soil and cultivation._--both the musk and the water melon thrive best in a warm, mellow, rich, sandy loam, and in a sheltered exposure. after thoroughly stirring the soil by ploughing or spading, make the hills six or seven feet apart in each direction. previous to planting, these hills should be prepared as directed for the squash; making them a foot and a half or two feet in diameter, and twelve or fifteen inches in depth. thoroughly incorporate at the bottom of the hill a quantity of well-digested compost, equal to three-fourths of the earth removed; and then add sufficient fine loam to raise the hill two or three inches above the surrounding level. on the top of the hill thus formed, plant twelve or fifteen seeds; and, when the plants are well up, thin them out from time to time as they progress in size. finally, when all danger from bugs and other insect depredators is past, leave but two or three of the most stocky and promising plants to a hill. when the growth is too luxuriant, many practise pinching or cutting off the leading shoots; and, when the young fruit sets in too great numbers, a portion should be removed, both for the purpose of increasing the size and of hastening the maturity of those remaining. "keep the fruit from being injured by lying on the ground; and if slate, blackened shingles, or any dry, dark material, be placed beneath it, by attraction of the sun's rays, the fruit will ripen earlier and better." the striped bug (_galereuca vittata_) is the most serious enemy with which the young melon-plants have to contend. gauze vine-shields, though the most expensive, are unquestionably the most effectual preventive. boxes either round or square, twelve or fifteen inches in depth, and entirely uncovered at the top, if placed over the hills, will be found useful in protecting the plants. the flight of the bug being generally nearly parallel with the surface of the ground, very few will find their way within the boxes, if of the depth required. applications of guano, ashes, dilutions of oil-soap, and plaster of paris, applied while the plants are wet, will be found of greater or less efficacy in their protection. the pungent smell of guano is said to prevent the depredation of the flea-beetle, which, in many localities, seriously injures the plants early in the season, through its attacks on the seed-leaves. * * * * * the musk-melon. cucumis melo. plant running,--varying in length from five to eight feet; leaves large, angular, heart-shaped, and rough on the upper and under surface; flowers yellow, one-petaled, five-pointed, and about an inch in diameter; seeds oval, flat, generally yellow, but sometimes nearly white, about four-tenths of an inch in length, and three-sixteenths of an inch in breadth,--the size, however, varying to a considerable extent in the different varieties. an ounce contains from nine hundred to eleven hundred seeds; and they retain their germinative properties from eight to ten years. _varieties._--these are exceedingly numerous, in consequence of the great facility with which the various kinds intermix, or hybridize. varieties are, however, much more easily produced than retained: consequently, old names are almost annually discarded from the catalogues of seedsmen and gardeners; and new names, with superior recommendations, offered in their stead. the following list embraces most of the kinds of much prominence or value now cultivated either in europe or this country:-- beechwood. fruit nearly spherical, but rather longer than broad,--usually five or six inches in diameter; skin greenish-yellow, thickly and regularly netted; flesh green, melting, sugary, and excellent. an early and fine variety. black-rock cantaloupe. _loud._ a large-fruited, late variety; form variable, but generally round, and flattened at the ends; size large,--ten inches in diameter, eight inches deep, and weighing eight or ten pounds. the skin varies in color from grayish-green to deep-green; becomes yellow at maturity, and is thickly spread with knobby bunches, or small protuberances. rind very thick; flesh reddish-orange, melting, and sugary. it requires a long season for its full perfection. christiana. this variety was originated by the late capt. josiah lovett, of beverly, mass. form roundish; size rather small,--average specimens measuring nearly the same as the green citron; skin yellowish-green; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, and of good quality. its early maturity is its principal recommendation; the green citron, nutmeg, and many other varieties, surpassing it in firmness of flesh, sweetness, and general excellence. it would probably ripen at the north, or in short seasons, when other sorts generally fail. citron. green-fleshed citron. green citron. [illustration: green citron melon.] fruit nearly round, but flattened slightly at the ends,--deeply and very regularly ribbed; size medium, or rather small,--average specimens measuring about six inches in diameter, and five inches and a half in depth; skin green, and thickly netted,--when fully mature, the green becomes more soft and mellow, or of a yellowish shade; flesh green, quite thick, very juicy, and of the richest and most sugary flavor. it is an abundant bearer, quite hardy, and remarkably uniform in its quality. it is deservedly the most popular as a market sort; and for cultivation for family use, every thing considered, has few superiors. in common with the carolina water-melon, the green citron is extensively grown at the south for shipping to the northern portions of the united states; appearing in the markets of new york and boston three or four weeks in advance of the season of those raised in the same vicinity in the open ground. early cantaloupe. this variety possesses little merit aside from its very early maturity. it is a roundish melon, flattened a little at the ends, ribbed, and of comparatively small size; usually measuring about five inches in diameter. skin yellowish, often spotted with green, and sometimes a little warty; rind quite thick; flesh reddish-orange, sweet, and of good flavor. it is exceedingly variable in size, form, and color. hardy ridge. _loud._ fruit rather small, round, depressed, strongly ribbed, and irregularly warted all over its surface; skin dull yellow, mottled with dull green; flesh an inch thick, bright orange-red, sweet, and well flavored; rind thick; weight from three to four pounds. not an early, but a productive variety. large-ribbed netted. common musk-melon. [illustration: large netted musk-melon.] fruit very large, oval, strongly ribbed; skin yellow, very thickly netted, sometimes so closely as to cover nearly the entire surface; flesh salmon-yellow, remarkably thick and sweet, but not fine-grained or melting, when compared with the more recent and improved varieties. hardy and productive. in good soil and favorable seasons, the fruit sometimes attains a length of fifteen inches, and weighs upwards of twenty pounds. munroe's green flesh. _vil._ a comparatively new variety. the fruit is nearly spherical, but tapers slightly towards the stem, and is rather regularly as well as distinctly ribbed. its diameter is about five inches. cicatrix large; skin greenish-yellow, thickly and finely netted over the entire surface; rind thin; flesh green, remarkably transparent, comparatively thick, very melting, and highly perfumed. nutmeg. fruit oval, regularly but faintly ribbed, eight or nine inches in length, and about six inches in its broadest diameter; skin pale-green, and very thickly netted; rind thin; flesh light-green, rich, sweet, melting, and highly perfumed. the nutmeg melon has been long in cultivation, and is almost everywhere to be found in the vegetable garden, though seldom in a perfectly unmixed state. when the variety is pure, and the fruit perfectly ripened, it is of most delicious excellence, and deservedly ranked as one of "the best." orange cantaloupe. an oval variety, about six inches in length by five inches in diameter, rather prominently ribbed. skin yellow, marbled with green, thickly netted about the stem, and sparsely so over the remainder of the surface; rind thick; flesh reddish-orange, sweet, highly perfumed, and of good flavor. very early and productive. pine-apple. form roundish, inclining to oval, either without ribs or with rib-marking, very faintly defined; size small,--the average diameter being about five inches and a half; skin olive-green, with net-markings more or less abundant; rind thin; flesh green, melting, sweet, and perfumed. season early. it is an excellent sort, easily grown, and very productive. prescott cantaloupe. _vil._ fruit generally somewhat flattened, but variable in form, deeply ribbed; size large,--well-grown specimens measuring eight or ten inches in diameter, and weighing from seven to nine pounds; skin thickly covered with small tubercles; color varying from grayish-green to clear-green, more or less deep, changing to yellow at maturity; rind very thick; flesh orange-red, sugary and melting, and of delicious flavor. there are numerous sub-varieties, as grown by different gardeners, varying somewhat in form, color, and time of maturity; all, however, corresponding nearly with the above description, though known by different names, as the "white," "gray," "black," "prescott," &c. much esteemed in france, and extensively grown by market-gardeners in the vicinity of paris. skillman's fine-netted. this variety much resembles the pine-apple. form rounded, flattened slightly at the ends; flesh green, sugary, melting, and excellent. it has been pronounced "the earliest of the green-fleshed sorts." victory of bath. a recently introduced variety of english origin. fruit egg-shaped, faintly ribbed, rounded at the blossom-end, and slightly contracted towards the stem,--at the insertion of which, it is flattened to a small, plane surface; size medium,--about six inches deep, and five inches in diameter; skin green, clouded with yellow, and sparsely covered with fine net-markings; skin thin; flesh green. * * * * * persian melons. _trans._ these differ remarkably from the varieties commonly cultivated. they are destitute of the thick, hard rind which characterizes the common sorts, and which renders so large a portion of the fruit useless. on the contrary, the persian melons are protected by a skin so thin and delicate, that they are subject to injury from causes that would produce no perceptible effect on the sorts in general cultivation. as a class, they are not only prolific, but their flesh is extremely tender, rich, and sweet, and flows copiously with a cool juice, which renders them still more grateful. they are, however, not early; and, for their complete perfection, require a long and warm season. _varieties._-- dampsha. _m'int._ flesh dark-green near the skin, rather whitish towards the centre, quite melting, and of excellent flavor. the first-produced fruit in the season is somewhat cylindrical, bluntly pointed at both ends; the whole surface being prominently netted, and of a pale-yellow or dark-olive color. the secondary crop has the fruit more pointed and less netted, and the skin becomes much darker. like the other varieties of winter melons, it may be preserved a long time after being taken from the vines, if suspended in a dry room. weight four to five pounds. daree. _trans._ this resembles the geree melon in color, as well as in many other respects. it is of the same form; but the rind, when netted, exhibits coarser reticulations. the flesh is white, thick, crisp, and melting; when fully ripened, very sweet, but rather insipid if imperfectly matured. it is always, however, cool and pleasant. geree. _trans._ a handsome green fruit. in shape, it is oval, or ovate; and measures eight inches in length by four inches and a half in breadth. the skin is closely mottled with dark sea-green upon a pale ground, and is either netted or not. in the former case, the meshes are very close; by which character, it may be readily distinguished from the daree. stalk very short; flesh an inch and a half or two inches thick, bright-green, melting, very sweet, and highly flavored. though perhaps equally rich, it is not so beautiful or so juicy as the melon of keiseng. a good bearer, but requires a warm, long season. germek. _trans._ large germek. a handsome large-sized, ribbed fruit, shaped like a compressed sphere; usually six inches in length, and from seven to nine inches in diameter. skin deep-green, closely netted; flesh from an inch and a half to two inches thick, clear green, firm, juicy, and high flavored. this is an excellent variety, an abundant bearer, ripens early, and exceeds in size any of the persian melons. green hoosainee. _trans._ a handsome egg-shaped fruit, five inches long by four inches broad: when unripe, of a very deep-green; but, in maturity, acquiring a fine, even, light-green, regularly netted surface, which, on the exposed side, becomes rather yellow. the flesh is pale-greenish white, tender and delicate, full of a highly perfumed, pleasant, sweet juice; the rind is very thin; the seeds are unusually large. it is a variety of much excellence, a great bearer, and one of the hardiest of the persian melons. green valencia. _m'int._ a winter sort. although not rich in flavor, it is firm, saccharine, and juicy; and upon the whole, if fully ripened, a more desirable melon than many of the summer varieties. ispahan. _trans._ sweet ispahan. this has been pronounced "the most delicious of all melons." the fruit is egg-shaped, varying in length from eight to twelve inches, and weighing from six to eight pounds; skin nearly smooth, of a deep sulphur-yellow; flesh nearly white, extending about half way to its centre, crisp, sugary, and very rich. it is a variety of much excellence, but is fully perfected only in favorable seasons. melon of keiseng. _loud._ a beautiful egg-shaped fruit, eight inches long, five inches wide in the middle, six inches wide at the lower extremity; very regularly and handsomely formed. color pale lemon-yellow; flesh from an inch and a half to two inches and a quarter thick, nearly white, flowing copiously with juice, extremely delicate, sweet, and high flavored, very similar in texture to a well-ripened beurré pear; rind thin, but so firm that all the fleshy part of the fruit may be eaten. it differs from the sweet ispahan in being closely netted. melon of seen. a fruit of regular figure and handsome appearance, seven inches long by five inches wide. shape ovate, with a small mamelon at the apex; surface pale dusky yellow, regularly and closely netted, except the mamelon, which is but little marked; rind very thin; flesh from an inch and a half to two inches thick, pale-green, sometimes becoming reddish towards the inside, exceedingly tender and juicy; juice sweet, and delicately perfumed. a good bearer, but requires a long season. named from seen, a village near ispahan; where the variety was procured. small germek. _trans._ this ripens about a week earlier than the large germek, but is not so valuable a fruit. in form, it is a depressed sphere, with about eight rounded ribs. it measures four inches in depth by four inches and a half in width. the skin is even, yellowish, with a little green about the interstices, obscurely netted; the flesh is green, inclining to reddish in the inside, an inch and a half thick, juicy, and high flavored; skin very thin. the pulp in which the seeds are immersed is reddish. it is not a great bearer, and the vines are tender. striped hoosainee. _trans._ fruit oval and much netted, dark-green in broad stripes, with narrow intervals of dull white, which become faintly yellow as the fruit ripens; pulp externally green, but more internally pale-red, excessively juicy, and more perfectly melting than that of the famous ispahan melon. it is sweeter and higher flavored than any other persian variety, but requires a long, warm season for its full perfection. * * * * * the water-melon. cucurbita citrullus. plant running,--the length varying from eight to twelve feet; leaves bluish-green, five-lobed, the lobes rounded at the ends; flowers pale-yellow, about an inch in diameter; fruit large, roundish, green, or variegated with different shades of green; seeds oval, flattened, half an inch long, five-sixteenths of an inch broad,--the color varying according to the variety, being either red, white, black, yellowish or grayish brown. an ounce contains from a hundred and seventy-five to two hundred seeds, and they retain their vitality eight years. the water-melon is more vigorous in its habit than the musk-melon, and requires more space in cultivation; the hills being usually made eight feet apart in each direction. it is less liable to injury from insects, and the crop is consequently much more certain. the seed should not be planted till may, or before established warm weather; and but two good plants allowed to a hill. the varieties are as follow:-- apple-seeded. a rather small, nearly round sort, deriving its name from its small, peculiar seeds; which, in form, size, and color, are somewhat similar to those of the apple. skin deep, clear-green; rind very thin; flesh bright-red to the centre, sweet, tender, and well-flavored. it is hardy, bears abundantly, seldom fails to ripen perfectly in the shortest seasons, and keeps a long time after being gathered. black spanish. spanish. form oblong; size large; skin very dark or blackish green; rind half an inch thick; flesh deep-red (contrasting finely with the very deep-green color of the skin), fine-grained, very sugary, and of excellent flavor. the variety is hardy, productive, thrives well, matures its fruit in the northern and eastern states, and is decidedly one of the best for general cultivation. seeds dark-brown, or nearly black. bradford. _w. d. brinckle._ the bradford is a highly prized, south-carolina variety; size large; form oblong; skin dark-green, with gray, longitudinal stripes, mottled and reticulated with green; rind not exceeding half an inch in thickness; seed yellowish-white, slightly mottled, and with a yellowish-brown stripe around the edge; flesh fine red to the centre; flavor fine and sugary; quality "best." carolina. fruit of large size, and of an oblong form, usually somewhat swollen towards the blossom-end; skin deep-green, variegated with pale-green or white; flesh deep-red, not fine-grained, but crisp, sweet, and of fair quality; fruit frequently hollow at the centre; seeds black. this variety is extensively grown in the southern states for exportation to the north, where it appears in the markets about the beginning of august, and to some extent in july. many of the specimens are much less marked with stripes and variegations than the true carolina; and some shipments consist almost entirely of fruit of a uniform deep-green color, but of the form and quality of the carolina. downing mentions a sub-variety with pale-yellow flesh and white seeds. citron water-melon. form very nearly spherical; size rather small,--average specimens measuring six or seven inches in diameter; color pale-green, marbled with darker shades of green; flesh white, solid, tough, seedy, and very squashy and unpalatable in its crude state. it ripens late in the season, and will keep until december. "it is employed in the making of sweetmeats and preserves, by removing the rind or skin and seeds, cutting the flesh into convenient bits, and boiling in sirup which has been flavored with ginger, lemon, or some agreeable article. its cultivation is the same as that of other kinds of melons."--_new american cyclopædia._ clarendon. _w. d. brinckle._ dark-speckled. size large; form oblong; skin mottled-gray, with dark-green, interrupted, longitudinal stripes, irregular in their outline, and composed of a succession of peninsulas and isthmuses; rind thin, not exceeding half an inch; seed yellow, with a black stripe extending round the edge, and from one to three black spots on each side,--the form and number corresponding on the two sides; flesh scarlet to the centre; flavor sugary and exquisite, and quality "best." this fine melon originated in clarendon county, south carolina; and, when pure, may at all times be readily recognized by the peculiarly characteristic markings of the seeds. ice-cream. a large, very pale-green sort; when unmixed, readily distinguishable from all other varieties. form nearly round, but sometimes a little depressed at the extremities; rind thicker than in most varieties; flesh white, very sweet and tender, and of remarkably fine flavor; seeds white. it is prolific, and also early; and is remarkably well adapted for cultivation in cold localities, or where the seasons are too short for the successful culture of the more tender and late kinds. its pale-green skin, white flesh, and white seeds, are its prominent distinctive peculiarities. imperial. _down._ this variety is said to have been introduced from the mediterranean. fruit round, or oblate, and of medium size; skin pale-green, with stripes and variegations of white or paler green; rind thin; flesh pale-red, crisp, sweet, and of excellent flavor; seeds reddish-brown. very productive, but requiring a warm situation and a long season for its complete perfection. mountain sprout. this variety is similar to the mountain sweet. it is of large size, long, and of an oval form. skin striped and marbled with paler and deeper shades of green; rind thin,--measuring scarcely half an inch in thickness; flesh scarlet, a little hollow at the centre, crisp, sugary, and of excellent flavor. like the mountain sweet, it is a favorite market sort. it is not only of fine quality, but very productive. seeds russet-brown. mountain sweet. a large, long, oval variety, often contracted towards the stem in the form of a neck; skin striped and marbled with different shades of green; rind rather thin, measuring scarcely half an inch in thickness; flesh scarlet, and solid quite to the centre; seeds pale russet-brown, but often of greater depth of color in perfectly matured specimens of fruit. a popular and extensively cultivated variety, quite hardy, productive, and of good quality. "for many years, it was universally conceded to be the best market sort cultivated in the middle states, but of late has lost some of the properties that recommended it so highly to favor. this deterioration has probably been owing to the influence of pollen from inferior kinds grown in its vicinity." odell's large white. _w. d. brinckle._ size very large, sometimes weighing sixty pounds; form round; skin gray, with fine green network spread over its uneven surface; rind nearly three-fourths of an inch in thickness; seeds large, grayish-black, and not numerous; flesh pale-red; flavor fine; quality very good. productiveness said to exceed that of most other kinds. this remarkably large melon originated with a negro man on the property of col. a. g. sumner, of south carolina. its large size, and long-keeping quality after being separated from the vine, will recommend the variety, especially for the market. orange. form oval, of medium size; skin pale-green, marbled with shades of deeper green; rind half an inch in depth, or of medium thickness; flesh red, not fine-grained, but tender, sweet, and of good quality. when in its mature state, the rind separates readily from the flesh, in the manner of the peel from the flesh of an orange. when first introduced, the variety was considered one of the best quality; but it appears to have in some degree deteriorated, and now compares unfavorably with many other sorts. pie-melon. california pie-melon. plant running,--the foliage and general habit resembling the common water-melon, but yet distinguishable by its larger size, more hairy stem, and its more stocky and vigorous character; fruit oblong, very large, measuring sixteen inches and upwards in length, and from eight to ten inches in diameter; skin yellowish-green, often marbled with different shades of light-green or pea-green; flesh white, succulent, somewhat tender, but very unpalatable, or with a squash-like flavor, in its crude state. as intimated by the name, it is used only for culinary purposes. this melon should be cooked as follows: after removing the rind, cut the flesh into pieces of convenient size, and stew until soft and pulpy. lemon-juice, sugar, and spices should then be added; after which, proceed in the usual manner of making pies from the apple or any other fruit. if kept from freezing, or from dampness and extreme cold, the pie-melon may be preserved until march. ravenscroft. _w. d. brinckle._ size large; form oblong; skin dark-green, faintly striped and marked with green of a lighter shade, and divided longitudinally by sutures from an inch and a quarter to two inches apart; rind not more than half an inch in thickness; seed cream-color, tipped with brown at the eye, and having a brown stripe around the edge; flesh fine red, commencing abruptly at the rind, and extending to the centre; flavor delicious and sugary; quality "best." this valuable water-melon originated with col. a. g. sumner, of south carolina. souter. _w. d. brinckle._ size large, sometimes weighing twenty or thirty pounds; form oblong, occasionally roundish; skin peculiarly marked with finely reticulated, isolated, gray spots, surrounded by paler green, and having irregular, dark-green, longitudinal stripes extending from the base to the apex; rind thin, about half an inch thick; seed pure cream-white, with a faint russet stripe around the edge; flesh deep-red to the centre; flavor sugary and delicious; quality "best." productiveness said to be unusually great. this excellent variety originated in sumpter district, south carolina. * * * * * papanjay, or sponge cucumber. papangaye. _vil._ cucumis acutangulus. this is an east-indian plant, with a creeping stem, and angular, heart-shaped leaves. the flowers (several of which are produced on one stem) are yellow; the fruit is ten or twelve inches in length, about an inch and a half in diameter, deeply furrowed or grooved in the direction of its length, forming ten longitudinal, acute angles; the skin is hard, and of a russet-yellow color; the seeds are black, rough, and hard, and quite irregular in form,--about five hundred are contained in an ounce. _use._--the fruit is eaten while it is quite young and small; served in the manner of cucumbers, or like vegetable marrow. when fully ripened, it is exceedingly tough, fibrous, and porous, and is sometimes used as a substitute for sponge: whence the name. * * * * * prickly-fruited gherkin. gherkin. west-indian cucumber. jamaica cucumber. cucumis anguria. this species is said to be a native of jamaica. the habit of the plant is similar to that of the globe cucumber, and its season of maturity is nearly the same. the surface of the fruit is thickly set with spiny nipples, and has an appearance very unlike that of the common cucumber. it is comparatively of small size, and of a regular, oval form,--generally measuring about two inches in length by an inch and a third in its largest diameter; color pale-green; flesh greenish-white, very seedy and pulpy. the seeds are quite small, oval, flattened, yellowish-white, and retain their vitality five years. it is somewhat later than the common cucumber, and requires nearly the whole season for its full development. plant in hills about five feet apart; cover the seeds scarcely half an inch deep, and leave three plants to a hill. the prickly-fruited gherkin is seldom served at table sliced in its crude state. it is principally grown for pickling: for which purpose it should be plucked when about half grown, or while the skin is tender, and can be easily broken by the nail. as the season of maturity approaches, the rind gradually hardens, and the fruit becomes worthless. in all stages of its growth, the flesh is comparatively spongy; and, in the process of pickling, absorbs a large quantity of vinegar. * * * * * the pumpkin. cucurbita pepo. under this head, on the authority of the late dr. t. w. harris, should properly be included "the common new-england field-pumpkin, the bell-shaped and crook-necked winter squashes, the canada crook-necked, the custard squashes, and various others, all of which (whether rightly or not, cannot now be determined) have been generally referred by botanists to the _cucurbita pepo_ of linnæus." the term "pumpkin," as generally used in this country by writers on gardening and agriculture, and as popularly understood, includes only the few varieties of the common new-england pumpkin that have been long grown in fields in an extensive but somewhat neglectful manner; the usual practice being to plant a seed or two at certain intervals in fields of corn or potatoes, and afterwards to leave the growing vines to the care of themselves. even under these circumstances, a ton is frequently harvested from a single acre, in addition to a heavy crop of corn or potatoes. the pumpkin was formerly much used in domestic economy; but, since the introduction of the crook-necks, boston marrow, hubbard, and other improved varieties of squashes, it has gradually fallen into disuse, and is now cultivated principally for agricultural purposes. _varieties._--the following are the principal varieties, although numerous intermediate sorts occur, more or less distinct, as well as more or less permanent in character:-- canada pumpkin. vermont pumpkin. the canada pumpkin is of an oblate form, inclining to conic; and is deeply and regularly ribbed. when well grown, it is of comparatively large size, and measures thirteen or fourteen inches in diameter, and about ten inches in depth. color fine, deep orange-yellow; skin or shell rather thick and hard; flesh yellow, fine-grained, sweet, and well flavored. hardy, and very productive. compared with the common field variety, the canada is much more flattened in its form, more regularly and deeply ribbed, of a deeper and richer color; and the flesh is generally much sweeter, and less coarse and stringy in its texture. it seems adapted to every description of soil; thrives well in all climates; and is one of the best sorts for agricultural purposes, as well as of good quality for the table. cheese pumpkin. plant very vigorous; leaves large, deep-green; fruit much flattened, deeply and rather regularly ribbed, broadly dishing about the stem, and basin-like at the opposite extremity. it is of large size; and, when well grown, often measures fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter, and nine or ten inches in depth. skin fine, deep reddish-orange, and, if the fruit is perfectly matured, quite hard and shell-like; flesh very thick, yellow, fine-grained, sweet, and well flavored. the seeds are not distinguishable from those of the common field pumpkin. the cheese pumpkin is hardy, remarkably productive, and much superior in all respects to most of the field-grown sorts. whether the variety originated in this country, cannot probably now be determined; but it was extensively disseminated in the middle states at the time of the american revolution, and was introduced into certain parts of new england by the soldiers on their return from service. after a lapse of more than seventy-five years,--during which time it must have experienced great diversity of treatment and culture,--it still can be found in its original type; having the same form, color, size, and the same thickness, and quality of flesh, which it possessed at the time of its introduction. common yellow field pumpkin. plant of vigorous, stocky habit, extending twelve feet and upwards in length; fruit rounded, usually a little more deep than broad, flattened at the ends, and rather regularly, and more or less prominently, ribbed. its size is much affected by soil, season, and the purity of the seed. average specimens will measure about fourteen inches in length, and eleven or twelve inches in diameter. color rich, clear orange-yellow; skin, or rind, if the fruit is well matured, rather dense and hard; flesh variable in thickness, but averaging about an inch and a half, of a yellow color, generally coarse-grained, and often stringy, but sometimes of fine texture, dry, and of good quality; seeds of medium size, cream-yellow. the cultivation of the common yellow field pumpkin in this country is almost co-eval with its settlement. for a long period, few, if any, of the numerous varieties of squashes, now so generally disseminated, were known; and the pumpkin was not only extensively employed as a material for pies, but was much used as a vegetable, in the form of squash, at the table. during the struggle for national independence, when the excessively high prices of sugars and molasses prevented their general use, it was the practice to reduce by evaporation the liquid in which the pumpkin had been cooked, and to use the saccharine matter thus obtained as a substitute for the more costly but much more palatable sweetening ingredients. when served at table in the form of a vegetable, a well-ripened, fine-grained pumpkin was selected, divided either lengthwise or crosswise; the seeds extracted; the loose, stringy matter removed from the inner surface of the flesh; and the two sections, thus prepared, were baked, till soft, in a common oven. the flesh was then scooped from the shell, pressed, seasoned, and served in the usual form. by many, it is still highly esteemed, and even preferred for pies to the squash, or the more improved varieties of pumpkins; but its cultivation at present is rather for agricultural than for culinary purposes. connecticut field pumpkin. a large, yellow, field variety, not unlike the common yellow in form, but with a softer skin, or shell. it is very prolific, of fair quality as an esculent, and one of the best for cultivating for stock or for agricultural purposes. long yellow field pumpkin. plant hardy and vigorous, not distinguishable from that of the common yellow variety; fruit oval, much elongated, the length usually about twice the diameter; size large,--well-grown specimens measuring sixteen to twenty inches in length, and nine or ten inches in diameter; surface somewhat ribbed, but with the markings less distinct than those of the common yellow; color bright orange-yellow; skin of moderate thickness, generally easily broken by the nail; flesh about an inch and a half in thickness, yellow, of good but not fine quality, usually sweet, but watery, and of no great value for the table. it is very hardy and productive; well adapted for planting among corn or potatoes; may be profitably raised for feeding out to stock; keeps well when properly stored; and selected specimens will afford a tolerable substitute for the squash in the kitchen, particularly for pies. between this and the common yellow, there are various intermediate sorts; and, as they readily hybridize with each other, it is with difficulty that these varieties can be preserved in a pure state. only one of the sorts should be cultivated, unless there is sufficient territory to enable the cultivator to allow a large distance between the fields where the different varieties are grown. nantucket. hard-shell. "nigger-head." form flattened or depressed, but sometimes oblong or bell-shaped, often faintly ribbed; size medium or rather small; color deep-green, somewhat mellowed by exposure to the sun, or at full maturity; skin or shell thick and hard, and more or less thickly covered with prominent, wart-like excrescences; flesh comparatively thick, yellow, sweet, fine-grained, and of excellent flavor,--comparing favorably in all respects with that of the sugar pumpkin. it is a productive sort, and its flesh much dryer and more sugary than the peculiar, green, and warty appearance of the fruit would indicate. when cooked, it should be divided into pieces of convenient size; the seeds, and loose, stringy parts, removed from the inner surface of the flesh, and then boiled or baked in the skin or shell; afterwards scooping out the flesh, as is practised with the hubbard squash or other hard-shelled varieties of pumpkins. it is an excellent pie-variety, and selected specimens will be found of good quality when served as squash at the table. it will keep till february or march. striped field pumpkin. habit of the plant, and form of the fruit, very similar to the common yellow field pumpkin. the size, however, will average less; although specimens may sometimes be procured as large as the dimension given for the common yellow. color yellow, striped and variegated with green,--after being gathered, the green becomes gradually softer and paler, and the yellow deeper; flesh yellow, moderately thick, and, though by some considered of superior quality, has not the fine, dry, and well-flavored character essential for table use; seeds similar to the foregoing sorts. the striped field pumpkin is a hardy sort, and yields well. it is, however, exceedingly liable to hybridize with all the varieties of the family, and is with difficulty preserved in an unmixed condition. it should be grown as far apart as possible from all others, especially when the seed raised is designed for sale or for reproduction at home. sugar-pumpkin. small sugar-pumpkin. [illustration: sugar-pumkin.] plant similar in its character and general appearance to the common field pumpkin; fruit small, eight or nine inches at its broadest diameter, and about six inches in depth; form much depressed, usually broadest near the middle, and more or less distinctly ribbed; skin bright orange-yellow when the fruit is well ripened, hard, and shell-like, and not easily broken by the nail; stem quite long, greenish, furrowed, and somewhat reticulated; flesh of good thickness, light-yellow, very fine-grained, sweet, and well flavored; seeds of smaller size than, but in other respects similar to, those of the field pumpkin. the variety is the smallest of the sorts usually employed for field cultivation. it is, however, a most abundant bearer, rarely fails in maturing its crops perfectly, is of first-rate quality, and may be justly styled an acquisition. for pies, it is not surpassed by any of the family; and it is superior for table use to many of the garden squashes. the facility with which it hybridizes or mixes with other kinds renders it extremely difficult to keep the variety pure; the tendency being to increase in size, to grow longer or deeper, and to become warty: either of which conditions may be considered an infallible evidence of deterioration. varieties sometimes occur more or less marbled and spotted with green; the green, however, often changing to yellow after harvesting. * * * * * snake or serpent cucumber. cucumis flexuosus. though generally considered as a species of cucumber, this plant should properly be classed with the melons. in its manner of growth, foliage, flowering, and in the odor and taste of the ripened fruit, it strongly resembles the musk-melon. the fruit is slender and flexuous; frequently measures more than three feet in length; and is often gracefully coiled or folded in a serpent-like form. the skin is green; the flesh, while the fruit is forming, is greenish-white,--at maturity, yellow; the seeds are yellowish-white, oval, flattened, often twisted or contorted like those of some varieties of melons, and retain their vitality five years. _planting and cultivation._--the seeds should be planted in may, in hills six feet apart. cover half an inch deep, and allow three plants to a hill. _use._--the fruit is sometimes pickled in the manner of the common cucumber, but is seldom served at table sliced in its crude state. it is generally cultivated on account of its serpent-like form, rather than for its value as an esculent. well-grown specimens are quite attractive; and, as curious vegetable productions, contribute to the interest and variety of horticultural exhibitions. * * * * * the squash. all the varieties are tender annuals, and of tropical origin. they only thrive well in a warm temperature: and the seed should not be sown in spring until all danger from frost is past, and the ground is warm and thoroughly settled; as, aside from the tender nature of the plant, the seed is extremely liable to rot in the ground in continued damp and cold weather. any good, well-enriched soil is adapted to the growth of the squash. the hills should be made from eight to ten inches in depth, two feet in diameter, and then filled within three or four inches of the surface with well-digested compost; afterwards adding sufficient fine loam to raise the hill an inch or two above the surrounding level. on this, plant twelve or fifteen seeds; covering about three-fourths of an inch deep. keep the earth about the plants loose and clean; and from time to time remove the surplus vines, leaving the most stocky and vigorous. three plants are sufficient for a hill; to which number the hills should ultimately be thinned, making the final thinning when all danger from bugs and other vermin is past. the dwarfs may be planted four feet apart; but the running sorts should not be less than six or eight. the custom of cutting or nipping off the leading shoot of the running varieties is now practised to some extent, with the impression that it both facilitates the formation of fruitful laterals and the early maturing of the fruit. whether the amount of product is increased by the process, is not yet determined. in giving the following descriptions, no attempt has been made to present them under scientific divisions; but they have been arranged as they are in this country popularly understood:-- _summer varieties._-- apple squash. early apple. plant running, not of stocky habit, but healthy and vigorous; fruit obtusely conical, three inches broad at the stem, and two inches and a half in depth; skin yellowish-white, thin and tender while the fruit is young, hard and shell-like when ripe; flesh dry and well flavored in its green state, and often of good quality at full maturity. the fruit is comparatively small; and, on this account, the variety is very little cultivated. bush summer warted crookneck. early summer crookneck. yellow summer warted crookneck. cucurbita verrucosa. [illustration: bush summer warted crookneck squash.] plant dwarfish or bushy in habit, generally about two feet and a half in height or length; fruit largest at the blossom-end, and tapering gradually to a neck, which is solid, and more or less curved; size medium,--average specimens, when suitable for use, measuring about eight inches in length, and three inches in diameter at the broadest part; the neck is usually about two inches in thickness; color clear, bright-yellow; skin very warty, thin, and easily broken by the nail while the fruit is young, and suitable for use,--as the season of maturity approaches, the rind gradually becomes firmer, and, when fully ripe, is very hard and shell-like; flesh greenish-yellow, dry, and well flavored; seeds comparatively small, broad in proportion to the length, and of a pale-yellow color. about four hundred are contained in an ounce. the bush summer crookneck is generally esteemed the finest of the summer varieties. it is used only while young and tender, or when the skin can be easily pierced or broken by the nail. after the fruit hardens, the flesh becomes watery, coarse, strong flavored, and unfit for table use. on account of the dwarfish character of the plants, the hills may be made four feet apart. three plants will be sufficient for a hill. early white bush scolloped. white pattypan. cymbling. white summer scolloped. pattison blanc. _vil._ this is a sub-variety of the early yellow bush scolloped. the plant has the same dwarf habit, and the fruit is nearly of the same size and form. the principal distinction between the varieties consists in the difference of color. by some, the white variety is considered a little inferior in fineness of texture and in flavor to the yellow; though the white is much the more abundant in the markets. both of the varieties are hardy and productive; and there is but little difference in the season of their maturity. in the month of june, large quantities are shipped from the southern and middle states to the north and east, where they anticipate from two to three weeks the products of the home-market gardens; the facilities afforded by steam transportation rendering nearly profitless the efforts of gardeners to obtain an early crop. as the variety keeps well, and suffers little from transportation, the squashes are generally found fresh and in good order on their arrival. early yellow bush scolloped. cymbling. pattypan. yellow summer scollop. [illustration: early yellow bush scolloped.] plant dwarf, of rather erect habit, and about two feet and a half in height; leaves large, clear-green; fruit somewhat of a hemispherical form, expanded at the edge, which is deeply and very regularly scolloped. when suitable for use, it measures about five inches in diameter, and three inches in depth; but, when fully matured, the diameter is often ten or twelve inches, and even upwards. color yellow; skin, while young, thin, and easily pierced,--at maturity, hard and shell-like; flesh pale-yellow, tolerably fine-grained, and well flavored,--not, however, quite so dry and sweet as that of the summer crookneck; seeds broader in proportion to their length than the seeds of most varieties, and of comparatively small size. four hundred and twenty-five weigh an ounce. this variety has been common to the gardens of this country for upwards of a century; during which period, the form and general character have been very slightly, if at all, changed. when grown in the vicinity of the bush summer crookneck, the surface sometimes exhibits the same wart-like excrescences; but there is little difficulty in procuring seeds that will prove true to the description above given. like the summer crookneck, the scolloped squashes are used while young or in a green state. after the hardening of the skin, or shell, the flesh generally becomes coarse, watery, strong-flavored, and unfit for the table. the hills should be made about four feet apart, and three plants allowed to a hill. season from the beginning of july to the middle or last of august. egg-squash. cucurbita ovifera. an ornamental variety, generally cultivated for its peculiar, egg-like fruit, which usually measures about three inches in length, and two inches or two and a half in diameter. skin, or shell, white. it is seldom used as an esculent; though, in its young state, the flesh is quite similar in flavor and texture to that of the scolloped varieties. "if trained to a trellis, or when allowed to cover a dry, branching tree, it is quite ornamental; and, in its ripened state, is quite interesting, and attractive at public exhibitions." increase of size indicates mixture or deterioration. "it has been generally supposed, that the egg-squash was a native of astrachan, in tartary. dr. loroche included it in a list of plants not natives of astrachan, but cultivated only in gardens where it is associated with such exotics as indian corn, or maize, with which it was probably introduced directly or indirectly from america. we also learn from loroche that this species varied in form, being sometimes pear-shaped; that it was sometimes variegated in color with green and white, and the shell served instead of boxes. here we have plainly indicated the little gourd-like, hard-shelled, and variegated squashes that are often cultivated as ornamental plants. "from these and similar authorities, it is evident that summer squashes were originally natives of america, where so many of them were found in use by the indians, when the country began to be settled by europeans."--_dr. t. w. harris, in pennsylvania farm journal._ green bush scolloped. pattison vert. _vil._ fruit similar in size and form to the yellow or white bush scolloped; skin or shell bottle-green, marbled or clouded with shades of lighter green. it is comparatively of poor quality, and is little cultivated. green-striped bergen. "plant dwarf, but of strong and vigorous habit; fruit of small size, bell-shaped; colors dark-green and white, striped. "an early but not productive sort, little cultivated at the north or east, but grown to a considerable extent for the new-york market. it is eaten both while green and when fully ripe." large summer warted crookneck. a large variety of the bush or dwarf summer crookneck. plant twelve feet and upwards in length, running; fruit of the form of the last named, but of much greater proportions,--sometimes attaining a length of nearly two feet; skin clear, bright yellow, and thickly covered with the prominent wart-like excrescences peculiar to the varieties; flesh greenish-yellow, and of coarser texture than that of the dwarf summer crookneck. hardy and very productive. the hills should be made six feet apart. orange. cucurbita aurantiaca. fruit of the size, form, and color of an orange. though generally cultivated for ornament, and considered more curious than useful, "some of them are the very best of the summer squashes for table use; far superior to either the scolloped or warted varieties." when trained as directed for the egg-squash, it is equally showy and attractive. variegated bush scolloped. pattison panaché. _vil._ pale yellow, or nearly white, variegated with green. very handsome, but of inferior quality. _autumn and winter varieties._-- autumnal marrow. _j. m. ives._ boston marrow. courge de l'ohio. _vil._ plant twelve feet or more in length, moderately vigorous; fruit ovoid, pointed at the extremities, eight or nine inches in length, and seven inches in diameter; stem very large, fleshy, and contracted a little at its junction with the fruit,--the summit, or blossom-end, often tipped with a small nipple or wart-like excrescence; skin remarkably thin, easily bruised or broken, cream-yellow at the time of ripening, but changing to red after harvesting, or by remaining on the plants after full maturity; flesh rich, salmon-yellow, remarkably dry, fine-grained, and, in sweetness and excellence, surpassed by few varieties. the seeds are large, thick, and pure white: the surface, in appearance and to the touch, resembles glove-leather or dressed goat-skin. about one hundred are contained in an ounce. in favorable seasons, the autumnal marrow squash will be sufficiently grown for use early in august; and, if kept from cold and dampness, may be preserved till march. mr. john m. ives, of salem, who was awarded a piece of silver plate by the massachusetts horticultural society for the introduction of this valuable variety, has furnished the following statement relative to its origin and dissemination:-- salem, mass., feb. , . dear sir,--as requested, i forward you a few facts relative to the introduction of the autumnal marrow squash, the cultivation of which has extended not only over our entire country, but throughout europe. it succeeds better in england than the crooknecks; and may be seen in great abundance every season at covent-garden market, in london. early in the spring of , a friend of mine from northampton, in this state, brought to my grounds a specimen of this vegetable, of five or six pounds' weight, which he called "vegetable marrow." as it bore no resemblance to the true vegetable marrow, either in its form or color, i planted the seeds, and was successful in raising eight or ten specimens. finding it a superior vegetable, with a skin as thin as the inner envelope of an egg, and the flesh of fine texture, and also that it was in eating early in the fall, i ventured to call it "autumnal marrow squash." soon a drawing was made, and forwarded, with a description, to the "horticultural register" of fessenden, and also to the "new-england farmer." in cultivating this vegetable, i found the fruit to average from eight to nine pounds, particularly if grown on newly broken-up sod or grass land. from its facility in hybridizing with the tribe of pumpkins, i consider it to be, properly speaking, a fine-grained pumpkin. the first indication of deterioration or mixture will be manifested in the thickening of the skin, or by a green circle or coloring of green at the blossom-end. more recently, i have been informed, by the gentleman to whom i was indebted for the first specimen, that the seeds came originally from buffalo, n.y., where they were supposed to have been introduced by a tribe of indians, who were accustomed to visit that city in the spring of the year. i have not been able to trace it beyond this. it is, unquestionably, an accidental hybrid. yours truly, john m. ives. mr. f. burr, jun. canada crookneck. the plants of this variety are similar in habit to those of the common winter crookneck; but the foliage is smaller, and the growth less luxuriant. in point of size, the canada crookneck is the smallest of its class. when the variety is unmixed, the weight seldom exceeds five or six pounds. it is sometimes bottle-formed; but the neck is generally small, solid, and curved in the form of the large winter crooknecks. the seeds are contained at the blossom-end, which expands somewhat abruptly, and is often slightly ribbed. skin of moderate thickness, and easily pierced by the nail; color, when fully ripened, cream-yellow, but, if long kept, becoming duller and darker; flesh salmon-red, very close-grained, dry, sweet, and fine-flavored; seeds comparatively small, of a grayish or dull-white color, with a rough and uneven yellowish-brown border; three hundred are contained in an ounce. [illustration] the canada is unquestionably the best of the crooknecked sorts. the vines are remarkably hardy and prolific; yielding almost a certain crop both north and south. the variety ripens early; the plants suffer but little from the depredations of bugs or worms; and the fruit, with trifling care, may be preserved throughout the year. it is also quite uniform in quality; being seldom of the coarse and stringy character so common to other varieties of this class. cashew. cushaw pumpkin. somewhat of the form and color of the common winter crookneck. two prominent varieties, however, occur. the first is nearly round; the other curved, or of the shape of a hunter's horn. the latter is the most desirable. it is not cultivated or generally known in new england or in the northern portions of the united states; for though well suited to louisiana and other portions of the south, where it is much esteemed, it is evidently too tender for cultivation where the seasons are comparatively short and cool. in an experimental trial by the late dr. harris, specimens raised from seed received from new jersey "did not ripen well, and many decayed before half ripe." the crooknecks of new england "may be distinguished from the cashew by the want of a persistent style, and by their furrowed and club-shaped fruit-stems." cocoa-nut squash. cocoa squash. fruit oval, elongated, sixteen to twenty inches in length, eight or ten inches in diameter, and weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds and upwards; skin thin, easily pierced or broken, of an ash-gray color, spotted, and marked with light drab and nankeen-brown,--the furrows dividing the ribs light drab; stem small; flesh deep orange-yellow, of medium thickness; seeds pure white, broader in proportion to their length than those of the hubbard or boston marrow. the quality of the cocoa-nut squash is extremely variable. sometimes the flesh is fine-grained, dry, sweet, and of a rich, nut-like flavor; but well-developed and apparently well-matured specimens are often coarse, fibrous, watery, and unfit for table use. the variety ripens in september, and will keep till march or april. custard squash. [illustration] plant healthy and of vigorous habit, often twenty feet and upwards in length; fruit oblong, gathered in deep folds or wrinkles at the stem, near which it is the smallest, abruptly shortened at the opposite extremity, prominently marked by large, rounded, lengthwise elevations, and corresponding deep furrows, or depressions; skin, or shell, cream-white; flesh pale-yellow, not remarkable for solidity, or fineness of texture, but well flavored; the seeds are yellowish-white, and readily distinguished from those of other varieties by their long and narrow form. under favorable conditions of soil and season, the custard squash attains a large size; often measuring twenty inches and upwards in length, eight or ten inches in diameter, and weighing from eighteen to twenty-five pounds. it is one of the hardiest and most productive of all varieties. crops are recorded of fourteen tons from an acre. it is esteemed by some for pies; but, as a table squash, is inferior to most other sorts. its great yield makes it worthy the attention of agriculturists, as it would doubtless prove a profitable variety to be cultivated for stock. from the habit of the plant, the form and character of the fruit, and its great hardiness and productiveness, it appears to be allied to the vegetable marrow. egg-shaped, or reeves. _thomp._ fruit large, weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds; but in rich, highly manured soil, and with only a few on each plant, it may be grown to upwards of fifty pounds' weight. it is short, ovate, sometimes tapering rather abruptly. skin, or shell, hard, of a reddish color; flesh firm, red, excellent in a ripe state cooked as a vegetable, or in any other way in which squashes are prepared. the stems run to a very great length, and bear all along most abundantly. altogether, it is a sort highly deserving of cultivation. it was brought into notice by john reeves, esq.; who has contributed to horticulture many valuable plants from china, where he resided for many years. plant in hills eight feet apart, and thin to two plants to a hill. honolulu. plant twelve feet or more in length, remarkably strong and vigorous; leaves very large,--the leaf-stems often three feet and upwards in length; fruit large, oblate, depressed about the stem, broadly, and sometimes deeply, but in general faintly, ribbed; skin moderately thick, but not shell-like, of an ash-green color, striped and variegated with drab or lighter shades of green; flesh reddish-orange, very thick, of good flavor, but less dry and sweet than that of the hubbard or boston marrow; seeds large, white. this recently introduced variety is hardy, productive, a good keeper, excellent for pies, and by some esteemed for table use. specimens frequently occur of a reddish cream-color, striped and marked with drab or pale-yellow. hubbard. _j. j. h. gregory._ [illustration: hubbard squash.] plant similar in character and appearance to that of the autumnal marrow; fruit irregularly oval, sometimes ribbed, but often without rib-markings, from eight to ten inches in length, seven or eight inches in diameter, and weighing from seven to nine pounds,--some specimens terminate quite obtusely, others taper sharply towards the extremities, which are frequently bent or curved; skin, or shell, dense and hard, nearly one-eighth of an inch thick, and overspread with numerous small protuberances; stem fleshy, but not large; color variable, always rather dull, and usually clay-blue or deep olive-green,--the upper surface, if long exposed to the sun, assuming a brownish cast, and the under surface, if deprived of light, becoming orange-yellow; flesh rich salmon-yellow, thicker than that of the autumnal marrow, very fine-grained, sweet, dry, and of most excellent flavor,--in this last respect, resembling that of roasted or boiled chestnuts; seeds white,--similar to those of the autumnal marrow. season from september to june; but the flesh is dryest and sweetest during autumn and the early part of winter. the hubbard squash should be grown in hills seven feet apart, and three plants allowed to a hill. it is essential that the planting be made as far as possible from similar varieties, as it mixes, or hybridizes, readily with all of its kind. in point of productiveness, it is about equal to the autumnal marrow. "the average yield from six acres was nearly five tons of marketable squashes to the acre." mr. j. j. h. gregory, of marblehead, mass., who introduced this variety to notice, and through whose exertions it has become widely disseminated, remarks in the "new-england farmer" as follows:-- "of its history i know next to nothing, farther than that the seed was given to me by an aged female, about twelve years since, in remembrance of whom i named it; and that the party from whom she received it cannot tell from whence the seed came. i infer that it is of foreign origin, partly from the fact that the gentleman to whom i traced it is a resident of a seaport town, and is largely connected with those who follow the seas." italian vegetable marrow. _thomp._ courge coucourzelle. this forms a dwarf bush, with short, reclining stems, and upright leaves, which are deeply five-lobed. the fruits are used when the flowers are about to drop from their ends. they are then from four to five inches long, and an inch and a half to two inches in diameter. when ripe, the fruit is from fifteen to eighteen inches in length, and about six inches in diameter. it is of a pale yellow, striped with green. it should, however, be used in the young, green state; for, when mature, it is not so good as many of the other sorts. it bears very abundantly; and, as it does not run, may be grown in smaller compass than the true vegetable marrow. mammoth. mammoth pumpkin. large yellow gourd, of the english. _thomp._ potiron jaune, of the french. cucurbita maxima. this is the largest-fruited variety known. in a very rich compost, and under favorable conditions of climate, it grows to an enormous size. fruit weighing a hundred and twenty pounds is not uncommon; and instances, though exceptional, are recorded of weights ranging from two hundred to nearly two hundred and fifty pounds. the leaves are very large, and the stems thick, running along the ground to the distance of twenty or thirty feet if not stopped, and readily striking root at the joints. the fruit is round, or oblate; sometimes flattened on the under side, owing to its great weight; sometimes obtusely ribbed, yellowish, or pale buff, and frequently covered to a considerable extent with a gray netting. flesh very deep yellow; seeds white. it is used only in its full-grown or ripe state, in which it will keep for several months; and even during the winter, if stored in a dry, warm situation. the flesh is sweet, though generally coarse-grained and watery. it is used in soups and stews, and also for pies; but is seldom served like squash at the table. neapolitan. courge pleine de naples. _vil._ plant running; leaves small, smooth, striped and marked with white along the nerves; fruit nearly two feet in length, and rather more than five inches in its smallest diameter, bent at the middle, and broadly but faintly ribbed,--it increases in size towards the extremities, but is largest at the blossom-end, where it reaches a diameter of eight or ten inches; skin bright green; stem small; flesh bright, clear yellow; the neck is entirely solid, and the seed-end has an unusually small cavity; seeds dull white. the late rev. a. r. pope, in a communication to the massachusetts horticultural society, describes it as follows: "new, very heavy; having a large, solid neck, and a small cavity for the seeds. flesh sweet, dry, and somewhat coarse, but not stringy. very superior for pies, and a good keeper." patagonian. a large, long squash, prominently ribbed. it differs little in form or size from the custard. skin very deep green; flesh pale yellow; seeds of medium size, yellowish-white. the plant is a vigorous grower, and the yield abundant; but its quality is inferior, and the variety can hardly be considered worthy of cultivation for table use. it may, however, prove a profitable sort for growing for agricultural purposes. puritan. [illustration: puritan squash.] plant running, ten feet and upwards in length; leaves clear green, of medium size; fruit bottle-formed, fourteen or fifteen inches long, and about ten inches in diameter at the broadest part; neck solid, four or five inches in diameter; average weight eight to ten pounds; skin thin, usually white or cream-white, striped and marked with green, though specimens sometimes occur, from unmixed seed, uniformly green; flesh pale yellow, dry, sweet, mild, and well flavored; seeds of medium size, white. season from august to january. this variety, long common to gardens in the vicinity of the old colony, retains its distinctive character to a very remarkable degree, even when grown under the most unfavorable circumstances. seeds, obtained from a gardener who had cultivated the variety indiscriminately among numerous summer and winter kinds for upwards of twenty years, produced specimens uniformly true to the normal form color, and quality. it is hardy and productive, good for table use, excellent for pies, and well deserving of cultivation. sweet-potato squash. plant very similar in character to that of the hubbard or autumnal marrow; fruit twelve or fourteen inches long, seven or eight inches thick, sometimes ribbed, but usually without rib-markings; oblong, tapering to the ends, which are often bent or curved in the manner of some of the types of the hubbard; stem of medium size, striated; skin ash-green, with a smooth, polished surface; flesh salmon-yellow, thick, fine-grained, dry, and sweet,--if the variety is pure, and the fruit well matured, its quality approaches that of the hubbard and autumnal marrow; seeds white. the variety is hardy and productive, keeps well, and is deserving of cultivation. when grown in the vicinity of the last-named sorts, it often becomes mixed, and rapidly degenerates. in its purity, it is uniformly of one color; with perhaps the exception of the under surface, which is sometimes paler or yellowish. it has been suggested that this variety and the hubbard may have originated under similar circumstances. turban. acorn. giraumon turban. turk's-cap. cucurbita piliformis. plant running; leaves small, soft, slightly lobed on the borders; fruit rounded, flattened, expanding about the stem to a broad, plain, brick-red surface, of ten or twelve inches in diameter. at the blossom-end, the fruit suddenly contracts to an irregular, cone-like point, or termination, of a greenish color, striped with white; and thus, in form and color, somewhat resembles a turban: whence the name. flesh orange-yellow, thick, fine-grained, sugary, and well flavored; seeds white, comparatively short, and small. the turban squash is not early, and should have the advantage of the whole season. "its specific gravity is said to exceed that of any other variety. its keeping properties are not particularly good; but its flavor, when grown on light, dry soil, will compare well with either the autumnal marrow or the hubbard." it mixes very readily when grown in the vicinity of other varieties, is not an abundant bearer, and cannot be recommended for general cultivation. dr. harris states that "this variety--sometimes called the 'acorn squash,' because, when the fruit is small, it resembles somewhat an acorn in its cup--seems to be the _cucurbita piliformis_ of duchesne;" and he further adds, that "it sometimes grows to a large size, measuring fourteen or fifteen inches in transverse diameter, and looks like an immense turkish turban in shape. specimens raised in my garden in were little more than ten inches in diameter, and weighed ten pounds or more; having very thick and firm flesh, and but a small cavity within. they proved excellent for table use,--equal in quality to the best autumnal marrows. they keep quite as well as the latter." valparaiso. porter's valparaiso. commodore porter. plant running; leaves large, not lobed, but cut in rounded angles on the borders; fruit oval, about sixteen inches in length, ten or eleven inches in diameter, slightly ribbed, and largest at the blossom-end, which often terminates in a wart-like excrescence; skin cream-white, sometimes smooth and polished, but often more or less reticulated, or netted; flesh comparatively thick, orange-yellow, generally dry, sweet, and well flavored, but sometimes fibrous and watery; seeds rather large, nankeen-yellow, smooth and glossy. the variety requires the whole season for its perfection. it hybridizes readily with the autumnal marrow and kindred sorts, and is kept pure with considerable difficulty. it is in use from september to spring. the variety, if obtained in its purity, will be found of comparative excellence, and well deserving of cultivation. stripes and clouds of green upon the surface are infallible evidences of mixture and deterioration. the late dr. harris, in a communication to the "pennsylvania farm journal," remarks as follows: "the valparaiso squashes (of which there seem to be several varieties, known to cultivators by many different names, some of them merely local in their application) belong to a peculiar group of the genus _cucurbita_, the distinguishing characters of which have not been fully described by botanists. the word 'squash,' as applied to these fruits, is a misnomer, as may be shown hereafter. it would be well to drop it entirely, and to call the fruits of this group 'pompions,' 'pumpkins,' or 'potirons.' it is my belief, that they were originally indigenous to the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the western coast of america. they are extensively cultivated from chili to california, and also in the west indies; whence enormous specimens are sometimes brought to the atlantic states. how much soever these valparaiso pumpkins may differ in form, size, color, and quality, they all agree in certain peculiarities that are found in no other species or varieties of _cucurbita_. their leaves are never deeply lobed like those of other pumpkins and squashes, but are more or less five-angled, or almost rounded and heart-shaped, at base: they are also softer than those of other pumpkins and squashes. the summit, or blossom-end, of the fruit has a nipple-like projection upon it, consisting of the permanent fleshy style. the fruit-stalk is short, nearly cylindrical, never deeply five-furrowed, but merely longitudinally striated or wrinkled, and never clavated, or enlarged with projecting angles, next to the fruit. with few exceptions, they contain four or five double rows of seeds. to this group belong mr. ives's autumnal marrow squash (or pumpkin); commodore porter's valparaiso squash (pumpkin); the so-called mammoth pumpkin, or _cucurbita maxima_ of the botanists; the turban or acorn squash; _cucurbita piliformis_ of duchesne; the cashew pumpkin; stetson's hybrid, called the 'wilder squash;' with various others." vegetable marrow. _thomp._ succade gourd. courge à la moëlle, of the french. plant twelve feet and upwards in length; leaves deeply five-lobed; fruit about nine inches long, and of an elliptic shape,--but it is sometimes grown to twice that length, and of an oblong form; surface slightly uneven, by irregular, longitudinal, obtuse ribs, which terminate in a projecting apex at the extremity of the fruit. when mature, it is of a uniform pale yellow or straw color. the skin, or shell, is very hard when the fruit is perfectly ripened; flesh white, tender, and succulent, even till the seeds are ripe. it may be used in every stage of its growth. some prefer it when the flower is still at the extremity of the fruit; others like it older. when well ripened, it will keep well throughout the winter, if stored in a perfectly dry place, out of the reach of frost, and not exposed to great changes of temperature. to have vegetable marrows large and fine for winter, the young fruit should be regularly taken off for use; and, when the plant has acquired strength, a moderate quantity should be allowed to set for maturity. sufficient for this purpose being reserved, the young fruit that may be subsequently formed should be removed for use in a very young state. the vines, or shoots, may be allowed to run along the surface of the ground; or they may be trained against a wall, or on palings or trellises. the seed should be planted at the same time and in the same manner as those of the winter crookneck or boston marrow. wilder. stetson's hybrid. the wilder squash was produced about twelve years since, from the valparaiso and the autumnal marrow, by mr. a. w. stetson, of braintree, mass.; and was named for the hon. marshall p. wilder, a gentleman widely known for his patriotic devotion to the advancement of agricultural and pomological science in the united states. the plant is a strong grower, and resembles that of the valparaiso. the fruit is somewhat ovoid, but rather irregular in form, broadly and faintly ribbed (sometimes, however, without rib-markings), and varies in weight from twelve to thirty pounds and upwards; stem very large, striated or reticulated, and often turned at right angles near its connection with the fruit,--the opposite extremity terminates in the wart-like excrescence peculiar to the class; skin reddish-yellow, not unlike that of the autumnal marrow; the flesh is remarkably thick, of a salmon-yellow color, sweet and well flavored. in some forms of cookery, and especially for pies, it is esteemed equal, if not superior, to any other variety. when served in the customary manner of serving squash at table, it is inferior to the hubbard or autumnal marrow. the seeds are white. winter crookneck. cuckaw. [illustration: winter crookneck.] this is one of the oldest and most familiar of the winter varieties. plant hardy and vigorous; fruit somewhat irregular in form, the neck solid and nearly cylindrical, and the blossom-end more or less swollen. in some specimens, the neck is nearly straight; in others, sweeping, or circular; and sometimes the extremities nearly or quite approach each other. size very variable, being affected greatly both by soil and season; the weight ranging from six pounds to forty pounds and upwards. a specimen was raised by capt. josiah lovett, of beverly, mass., and exhibited before the massachusetts horticultural society, the weight of which was nearly seventy pounds. color sometimes green; but, when fully mature, often cream-yellow. the color, like that of the canada crookneck, frequently changes after being harvested. if green when plucked, it gradually becomes paler; or, if yellow when taken from the vines, it becomes, during the winter, of a reddish cream-color. flesh salmon-yellow, not uniform in texture or solidity, sometimes close-grained, sweet, and fine flavored, and sometimes very coarse, stringy, and nearly worthless for the table; seeds of medium size, grayish-white, the border darker, or brownish. about two hundred are contained in an ounce. it is a very hardy and productive variety; ripens its crop with great certainty; suffers less from the depredations of insects than most of the winter sorts; and, if protected from cold and dampness during the winter months, will keep the entire year. winter striped crookneck. this is a sub-variety of the common winter crookneck. size large,--the weight varying from six to twenty-five pounds; neck large and solid; seed-end of medium size, and usually smooth; skin thin, very pale-green or light cream-white, diversified with lengthwise stripes and plashes of bright green,--the colors becoming gradually softer and paler after gathering; flesh bright orange, and, like that of the common winter crookneck, not uniform in texture or in flavor. different specimens vary greatly in these respects: some are tough and stringy, others very fine-grained and well flavored. seeds not distinguishable, in size, form, or color, from those of the winter crookneck. the variety is hardy, grows luxuriantly, is prolific, and keeps well. it is more uniform in shape, and generally more symmetrical, than the winter crookneck; though varieties occur of almost every form and color between this and the last named. as the plants require considerable space, the hills should not be less than eight feet apart. two or three plants are sufficient for a hill. "the 'crookneck squash,' as it is commonly but incorrectly called, is a kind of 'pumpkin,'--perhaps a genuine species; for it has preserved its identity, to our certain knowledge, ever since the year , when it was described by ray. before the introduction of the autumnal marrow, it was raised in large quantities for table use during the winter, in preference to pumpkins, which it almost entirely superseded. many farmers now use it instead of pumpkins for cattle; the vine being more productive, and the fruit containing much more nutriment in proportion to its size. it varies considerably in form and color. the best kinds are those which are very much curved,--nearly as large at the stem as at the blossom-end,--and of a rich cream-color. it is said to degenerate in the middle and southern states; where, probably, the valparaiso or some kindred variety may be better adapted to the climate."--_dr. harris._ chapter v. brassicaceous plants. borecole, or kale. broccoli. brussels sprouts. cabbage. cauliflower. colewort. couve tronchuda, or portugal cabbage. pak-chöi. pe-tsai, or chinese cabbage. savoy. sea-kale. * * * * * borecole, or kale. brassica oleracea sabellica. the term "borecole," or "kale," is applied to a class of plants, of the cabbage family, which form neither heads as the common cabbage, nor eatable flowers like the broccoli and cauliflower. some of the varieties attain a height of six or seven feet; but while a few are compact and symmetrical in their manner of growth, and of good quality for table use, many are "ill-colored, coarse, rambling-growing, and comparatively unpalatable and indigestible." most of the kinds are either annuals or biennials, and are raised from seeds, which, in size, form, and color, resemble those of the cabbage. _sowing._--the seeds are sown at the time of sowing the seeds of the cabbage or cauliflower, and in the same manner. early plants may be started in a hot-bed, or the seeds may be sown in the open ground in april or may. in transplanting, treat the plants like young cabbages; setting them more or less remote, according to the size or habit of the variety. though they are extremely hardy, and will endure quite a low temperature, they are generally harvested in autumn, before the closing-up of the ground. if reset in the following spring, they will furnish an abundance of tender sprouts, which, when cooked, are superior in flavor and delicacy to the cabbage, and resemble coleworts or brussels sprouts. _seeds._--"the plants for seed should be selected from those kept over winter, and in april set rather deeply in a spot well exposed to the sun, and in a sandy rather than stiff soil. the stems should be supported, to prevent breakage by the wind." j. e. teschemacher gives the following directions for culture and use:-- "sow, the middle or last of may, a small bed on a moderately rich soil, but in a well-exposed situation. strong plants cannot be obtained from seedlings grown in the shade. when the young plants have six or eight leaves, prepare a piece of well-manured, open soil, plant the young seedlings six or eight inches asunder, water well, and shade for a few days against the hot sun. about a hundred plants are enough for a family. towards the latter end of july, or middle of august, they should be thick, stocky plants, fit for final transplanting to the spots where they are to remain. they may be planted in the lines from which early crops of pease have been removed. the ground must be well manured, and the plants moved singly and carefully, with as much earth attached to the roots as possible. this last precaution is very necessary in all summer transplanting, as the only means of enabling the plants to bear the hot sun. in a garden, they should be well supplied with water for a few days; but in field-planting, where this is not possible, a moist time should be chosen. they will not show much signs of growth until the cool nights prevail: after that, they will grow rapidly. they will not boil tender or with much flavor until they have been frozen, or have experienced a temperature of about ° fahrenheit. _use._--"the tender, upper part alone is eaten. they are often, but not always, frozen when cut; and, when this is the case, they should be put into a cool cellar or in cold water until the frost is out of them. it will take one-half to three-quarters of an hour to boil them tender. put them into the boiling water; to which add a lump of soda. this rather softens them, and causes them to retain their green color. when done, press the water thoroughly out, chop them up with a knife, put them into a vessel to evaporate still more of the water, and serve with melted butter, pepper and salt. in germany, they frequently boil a few chestnuts, and chop up with the kale; between which and the stem and stalk of the kale it is difficult to perceive much difference in taste. the beautiful curled leaves are quite ornamental. "from one hundred plants, pluckings for the table were made twice a week, from the middle of november to the middle of january; and these fresh from the open garden, although the thermometer in the time had indicated a temperature approaching to zero."--_hov. mag._ _varieties._--the varieties, which are numerous, and in many instances not well marked or defined, are as follow:-- buda kale, or borecole. _thomp._ russian kale. asparagus kale. manchester borecole. dwarf feather kale. oak-leaved kale. the buda kale somewhat resembles the purple; but the stalk is shorter. the leaves are purplish, somewhat glaucous, cut and fringed. the variety is not only hardy and well flavored, but continues to produce sprouts longer than any other sort. it is sometimes blanched like sea-kale. cabbaging kale, or borecole. _thomp._ imperial hearting. this is a new variety, and very much resembles the dwarf green curled in the nature, color, and general appearance of the leaves: the heart-leaves, however, fold over each other, somewhat like those of a cabbage, but, on account of the curls of the margin, not so compactly. the quality is excellent. cock's-comb kale. curled proliferous kale. chou frisé prolifère. _vil._ stalk about twenty inches high. the leaves differ to a considerable extent in size, and are of a glaucous-green color. from the upper surface of the ribs and nerves, and also from other portions of the leaves, are developed numerous small tufts, or fascicles of leaves, which, in turn, give rise to other smaller but similar groups. the foliage thus exhibits a cock's-comb form: whence the name. the variety is hardy, but more curious than useful. cow-cabbage. tree-cabbage. _thomp._ cesarean borecole. cesarean cabbage. chou cavalier. this variety generally grows to the height of about six feet; although in some places it is reported as attaining a height of twelve feet, and even upwards. the leaves are large,--measuring from two and a half to nearly three feet in length,--smooth, or but slightly curled. it is generally grown for stock; but the young sprouts are tender and mild-flavored when cooked. its value for agricultural purposes appears to have been greatly overrated; for, when tried in this country against other varieties of cabbages, the produce was not extraordinary. the plants should be set three feet or three feet and a half apart. daubenton's creeping borecole. chou vivace de daubenton. _vil._ stalk four or five feet in height or length. the leaves are nearly two feet long, deep green; the leaf-stems are long and flexible. it sometimes takes root where the stem rests upon the surface of the ground; and, on this account, has been called perennial. the variety is hardy, and yields abundantly; though, in this last respect, it is inferior to the thousand-headed. dwarf green curled borecole. _thomp._ dwarf curled kale. green scotch kale. dwarf curlies. chou frisé à pied court. _vil._ canada dwarf curled. the dwarf green curled is a very hardy but comparatively low-growing variety; the stems seldom exceeding sixteen or eighteen inches in height. the leaves are finely curled; and the crowns of the plants, as well as the young shoots, are tender and delicate, especially after having been exposed to the action of frost. the plants may be set eighteen inches apart. field cabbage. field kale for mowing. chou à faucher. _vil._ leaves sixteen to eighteen inches in length, very dark green, deeply lobed, or lyrate, and hairy, or hispid, on the nerves and borders. the leaf-stems are nearly white. the variety produces small tufts, or collections of leaves, which are excellent for fodder, and which may be cut several times during the season. it is sometimes cultivated for stock; but, as a table vegetable, is of little value. flanders kale. _thomp._ chou caulet de flanders. _vil._ this is a sub-variety of the tree-cabbage, from which it is distinguished by the purplish color of its foliage. its height is nearly the same, and the plant has the same general appearance. it is, however, considered somewhat hardier. green marrow-stem borecole. chou moellier. _vil._ stem green, about five feet high, clavate, or club-formed; thickest at the top, where it measures nearly two inches, and a half in diameter. this stem, or stalk, is filled with a succulent pith, or marrow, which is much relished by cattle; and, for this quality, the plant is sometimes cultivated. the leaves are large, and nearly entire on the edges; the leaf-stems are thick, short, white, and fleshy. it is not so hardy as most of the other varieties. the plants should be grown about three feet apart in one direction, by two feet or two feet and a half in the opposite. lannilis borecole. chou de lannilis. _vil._ lannilis tree-cabbage. stem five feet high, thicker and shorter than that of the cow or tree cabbage; leaves long, entire on the borders, pale-green, and very thick and fleshy. the leaf-stems are also thicker and shorter than those of the last-named varieties. the stalk is largest towards the top, and has the form of that of the marrow-stem. it sometimes approaches so near that variety, as to be scarcely distinguishable from it. neapolitan borecole. _trans._ neapolitan curled kale. chou frisé de naples. _vil._ the neapolitan borecole is remarkable for its peculiar manner of growth, but is hardly worthy of cultivation as a table vegetable, or even for stock. the stem is short and thick, and terminates in an oval bulb, somewhat in the manner of the kohl rabi. from all parts of this bulb are put forth numerous erect, small leaves, finely curled on their edges. the whole plant does not exceed twenty inches in height. the leaves are attached to footstalks six or seven inches long. they are obovate, smooth on the surface, with an extraordinary number of white veins, nearly covering the whole leaf. the fringed edges are irregularly cut and finely curled, and so extended as nearly to conceal the other parts of the leaf. as the plant gets old, it throws out numerous small branches from the axils of the leaves on the sides of the bulb. the swollen portion of the stem is of a fleshy, succulent character, and is used in the manner of kohl rabi; between which and the cabbage it appears to be intermediate. palm kale. palm borecole. chou palmier. _vil._ stalk six feet in height, terminating at the top in a cluster of leaves, which are nearly entire on the borders, blistered on the surface like those of the savoys, and which sometimes measure three feet in length by four or five inches in width. as grown in france, the plant is remarkable for its fine appearance, and is considered quite ornamental; though, as an article of food, it is of little value. in england, it is said to have a tall, rambling habit, and to be little esteemed. the plants should be set three feet and a half apart in each direction. purple borecole. red borecole. tall purple kale. curled brown kale. chou frisé rouge grand. _vil._ with the exception of its color, the purple borecole much resembles the tall green curled. as the leaves increase in size, they often change to green; but the veins still retain their purple hue. when cooked, the color nearly or quite disappears. it is remarkably hardy, and is much cultivated in germany. red marrow-stem borecole. red-stalked kale. stalk purplish-red, four and a half or five feet high, and surmounted by a cluster of large, fleshy leaves, on short, thick stems. the stalk is much larger than that of the green marrow-stem, and sometimes measures more than three inches in diameter. it is cultivated in the same manner, and used for the same purposes, as the last-named variety. tall green curled. _thomp._ tall scotch kale. tall green borecole. tall german greens. chou frisé grand du nord. _vil._ this variety, if unmixed, may be known by its bright-green, deeply lobed, and curled leaves. its height is two feet and a half and upwards. very hardy and productive. the parts used are the crowns of the plants; and also the tender side-shoots, which are produced in great abundance. these boil well, and are sweet and delicate, especially after frost; though the quality is impaired by protracted, dry, freezing weather. thousand-headed borecole. _thomp._ chou branchu du poitou. _vil._ chou à mille têtes. the thousand-headed borecole much resembles the tree or cow cabbage, but is not so tall-growing. it sends out numerous side-shoots from the main stem, and is perhaps preferable to the last-named sort. it is chiefly valuable as an agricultural plant, but may occasionally be grown in gardens on account of its great hardiness; but its flavor is inferior to all other winter greens. variegated borecole. _thomp._ variegated kale. variegated canadian kale. chou frisé panaché. _vil._ this is a sub-variety of the purple borecole, growing about a foot and a half high. the leaves vary much in size, and are lobed and finely curled. they are also beautifully variegated, sometimes with green and yellowish-white or green and purple, and sometimes with bright-red and green. it is frequently grown as an ornamental plant, is occasionally employed for garnishing, and is sometimes put into bouquets. it is very good cooked after frost, but is not quite so hardy as the purple borecole. variegated cock's-comb kale. a variety of the common cock's-comb kale, with the leaves more or less variegated with purple and white. it is not of much value as an esculent. woburn perennial kale. _thomp._ this is a tall variety of the purple borecole, with foliage very finely divided or fringed. the plant lasts many years, and may be propagated by cuttings, as it neither flowers readily nor perfects well its seeds. its produce is stated to have been more than four times greater than that of either the green or purple borecole on the same extent of ground. the weight of produce from ten square yards was a hundred and forty-four pounds ten ounces; but some of the large kinds of cabbages and savoys will exceed this considerably, and prove of better quality. the woburn perennial kale can therefore only be recommended where the climate is too severe for the more tender kinds of the cabbage tribe. * * * * * broccoli. brassica oleracea var. in its structure and general habit, the broccoli resembles the cauliflower. between these vegetables the marks of distinction are so obscurely defined, that some of the white varieties of broccoli appear to be identical with the cauliflower. botanists divide them as follows:-- "the cauliflower has generally a short stalk, and white-ribbed, oblong leaves. the stem by which the flower is supported unites at the head of the primary branches into thick, short, irregular bundles, in the form of a corymb. it appears to be a degeneration of the _brassica oleracea costata_, or portugal cabbage. "in the broccoli, the stalk is more elevated; the leaf-nerves less prominent; the pedicles, or stems, connected with and supporting the flower, or head, less thick and close. they are also longer; so that, on becoming fleshy, they resemble in shape the young shoots of asparagus: hence the name of 'asparagoides,' given by ancient botanists to broccoli. it seems to be a degeneration of the 'chou cavalier,' or tall, open cabbage. "cultivation, by improving the finer kinds of white broccolis, is narrowing the distinctive marks: but, although so nearly alike, they must ever remain really distinct, inasmuch as they derive their origin from two very distinct types; viz., the portugal cabbage and the tall curled kale. the cauliflower also originated in the south of europe, and the broccoli in the north of europe, either in germany or britain." _seed._--broccoli-seeds are rarely raised in this country; most of the supply being received from france or england. in size, form, and color, they are similar to those of the cabbage or cauliflower. an ounce may be calculated to produce about five thousand plants, although it contains nearly twice that number of seeds. _sowing and cultivation._--in new england, as well as in the middle and western states, the seeds of the later sorts should be sown in march or april, in the manner of early cabbages; whilst the earlier varieties may be sown in the open ground, from the middle to the last of may. if the sowing be made in the open ground, prepare a small nursery-bed not too directly exposed to the sun, and sow in shallow drills six or eight inches apart. the last of june, or as soon as the plants have attained sufficient size, transplant them into soil that is well enriched, and has been deeply stirred; setting them at the distance directed for the variety. if possible, the setting should be performed when the weather is somewhat dull, for then the plants become sooner established; but, if planted out in dry weather, they should be immediately and thoroughly watered. if the plants have been started in a hot-bed, they should be set out at the time of transplanting cabbages. the after-culture consists in hoeing frequently to keep the ground loose and clean, and in earthing up slightly from time to time about the stem. some of the early varieties will be fit for use in september; whilst the later sorts, if properly treated, will supply the table till spring. the difficulties attending the growing of broccoli in this country arise mainly from the extreme heat and dryness of the summer and the intense cold of the winter. whatever will tend to counteract these will promote the growth of the plants, and tend to secure the development of large and well-formed heads. "when the heads of white broccoli are exposed to light, and especially to the direct influence of the sun, the color is soon changed to a dingy or yellowish hue. it is, therefore, necessary to guard against this as much as possible by frequently examining the plants; and, when any heads are not naturally screened, one or two of the adjoining side-leaves should be bent over the flower-head to shade it from the light, and likewise to protect it from the rain. some kinds are almost self-protecting; whilst the leaves of others spread, and consequently require more care in shading."--_thomp._ _taking the crop._--"broccoli should not be allowed to remain till the compactness of the head is broken, but should always be cut while the 'curd,' as the flowering mass is termed, is entire, or before bristly, leafy points make their appearance through it. in trimming the head, a portion of the stalk is left, and a few of the leaves immediately surrounding the head; the extremities being cut off a little below the top of the latter."--_thomp._ _preservation._--"they are sometimes preserved during winter as follows: immediately previous to the setting-in of hard frost in autumn, take up the plants on a dry day, with the roots entire, and turn their tops downwards for a few hours, to drain off any water that may be lodged between the leaves. then make choice of a ridge of dry earth, in a well-sheltered, warm exposure, and plant them down to their heads therein, close to one another; having previously taken off a few of the lower, loose leaves. immediately erect over them a low, temporary shed, of any kind that will keep them perfectly free from wet, and which can be opened to admit the air in mild, dry weather. in very severe freezing seasons, an extra covering of straw, or other description of dry litter, should be applied over and around the shed; but this should be removed on the recurrence of moderate weather." they will keep well in a light, dry cellar, if set in earth as far as the lower leaves. _seeds._--the seeds of broccoli are not distinguishable from those of the cauliflower. they, however, rarely ripen well in this country, and seedsmen are generally supplied from abroad. _use._--the heads, or flowers, are cooked and served in all the forms of the cauliflower. _varieties._--these are exceedingly numerous; although the distinctions, in many instances, are neither permanent nor well defined. in - , a hundred and three nominally distinct sorts were experimentally cultivated at the chiswick gardens, near london, eng., under the direction of robert hogg, esq. in reporting the result, he says, "it is quite evident that the varieties of broccoli, as now grown, are in a state of great confusion. the old varieties, such as grange's and the old early white, have entirely disappeared, or lost their original character; whilst the distinctive names of early white and late white seem now to be possessed of no value, as, in some cases, the one is used for the other, and _vice versâ_." the kinds catalogued by seedsmen, and recommended for cultivation, are the following; viz.:-- ambler's early white. _r. hogg._ similar to mitchinson's penzance, but easily distinguished by its winged leaves; those of the last named being interrupted. it is remarkably hardy, and produces a large, creamy-white head, very uniform in size. chappell's large cream-colored. chappell's new cream-colored. a very large and fine sort, earlier than the portsmouth; flower cream-yellow. sow in the open ground in may, and transplant three feet apart in each direction. danish, or late green. _late danish. siberian._ the leaves of this variety are long, narrow, and much undulated; the leaf-stems are tinged with purple; the heads are of medium size, compact, exposed, and of a greenish color. it is one of the latest and hardiest of all varieties. dwarf brown close-headed. _trans._ this variety resembles the sulphur-colored; from which it probably originated. it is, however, earlier, and differs in the form, as well as in the color, of the flower. the leaves are small, not much waved, dark-green, with white veins: they grow erect, and afford no protection to the head. most of the crowns are green at first; but they soon change to large, handsome, brown heads. the plants should be set two feet apart in each direction. early purple. _trans._ early purple sprouting. an excellent kind, of a deep-purple color. when the variety is unmixed, it is close-headed at first; afterwards it branches, but is liable to be too much branched, and to become green. the plant is from two to three feet high, and a strong grower; the leaves are comparatively short, spreading, and of a purplish-green color; the head is quite open from the leaves. small leaves are sometimes intermixed with the head, and the plant produces sprouts of flowers from the alæ of the leaves. it succeeds best in rich soil, and the plants should be set three feet apart. early sprouting. _m'int._ asparagus broccoli. north's early purple. italian sprouting. early branching. a strong-growing, hardy sort, from two to three feet high. the leaves are spreading, much indented, and of a purplish-green color. the flower is close-headed, and, in the genuine variety, of a rich purple on its first appearance. it is, however, liable to lose its color, and to become greenish; and sometimes produces numerous small, green leaves, intermixed with the flower, particularly if grown in soil too rich. the variety is extensively grown by the market-gardeners in the vicinity of london. elletson's gigantic late white. elletson's mammoth. one of the largest and latest of the white broccolis. leaves spreading; stem short. fine early white. _thomp._ early white. devonshire white. autumn white. plant tall, with erect, dark-green, nearly entire leaves. the heads are very white and close. this variety, in common with a few others, is sometimes cut in considerable quantities by market-gardeners previous to heavy frost, and preserved in cellars for the supply of the market. frogmore protecting. _hov. mag._ head pure white, scarcely distinguishable from the finest cauliflower; size large,--when well formed, measuring from seven to nine inches in diameter. a recently introduced sort, promising to be one of the best. the plants are extremely hardy and vigorous, and rarely fail to develop a large and fine head, having a rich, curdy appearance, and, as before observed, similar to a well-grown cauliflower. it is of dwarf growth; and the outer leaves, closing over the large head of flowers, protect it from the action of severe weather. gillespie's broccoli. _thomp._ a fine, white, early autumn variety, much grown about edinburgh. grange's early cauliflower broccoli. _m'int._ grange's early white. hopwood's early white. marshall's early white. bath white. invisible. this is an old variety, and, when pure, still stands in high estimation; having a head nearly as large and as white as a cauliflower. the leaf-stems are long and naked; the leaves are somewhat ovate, lobed at the base, very slightly waved, and, incurving a little over the flower, defend it from frost and wet. it is not a large grower; and, being upright in habit, may be grown at two feet distant. hardy, and well deserving of cultivation. the london market-gardeners cultivate four varieties, of which this is the principal. green cape. _thomp._ autumnal cape. maher's hardy cape. leaves long and narrow; the veins and midribs green; the head is greenish, and generally covered by the leaves. this variety and the purple cape often become intermixed, and are liable to degenerate. they are, however, quite distinct, and, when pure, very beautiful. green close-headed winter. _trans._ late green. siberian. dwarf roman. this new and excellent broccoli is apparently a seedling from the green cape. the plants are dwarf; the leaves are large and numerous, with white veins. the flower grows exposed, is not of large size, and resembles that of the green cape. its season immediately follows that of the last-named variety. hammond's white cape. an excellent, pure white variety, obtained in england by cultivation and selection. kent's late white.. _r. hogg._ a remarkably hardy, dwarf-growing variety, with very dark-green foliage. bouquet white, of good size, and well protected. kidderminster. _r. hogg._ head large and handsome, of pure whiteness, and much exposed. it is evidently a form of "willcove," and has, undoubtedly, emanated from that variety; but it is somewhat earlier. knight's protecting. _r. hogg._ _m'int._ early gem. the gem. lake's gem. waterloo late white. dilliston's late white. hampton court. invisible late white. when pure, this variety is of a dwarfish habit of growth, with long, pointed, and winged leaves, which have a spiral twist about the head, and turn in closely over it, so as effectually to protect it from the effect of frost, and preserve it of a fine white color. it is remarkably hardy; and as the plants are of small size, with comparatively large heads, a great product is realized from a small piece of ground. late dwarf purple. dwarf swedish. italian purple. dwarf danish. this is the latest purple broccoli. the plants seldom rise above a foot in height. the flower, at first, shows small and green; but soon enlarges, and changes to a close, conical, purple head. the leaves are short and small, dark-green, with white veins, much sinuated, deeply indented, and form a regular radius round the flower. the whole plant presents a singular and beautiful appearance. miller's late white. _thomp._ miller's dwarf. this is an old variety; but is considered by some to be the best late sort, if it can be obtained true. hardy. transplant two feet apart. mitchell's ne plus ultra. _thomp._ hardy, and of dwarf habit; leaves smooth, glaucous, protecting the head, which is cream-colored, large, and compact. transplant two feet apart. mitchinson's penzance. _r. hogg._ early white cornish. mitchinson's early white. one of the best of the spring whites. the leaves are much waved on the margin, and enclose large and fine heads, which are nearly of a pure white color. very hardy. portsmouth. _thomp._ cream-colored. southampton. maher's new dwarf. leaves large, broad, with white veins, spreading; although the central ones partially cover the flower, or head, which is buff, or cream-colored. it is a hardy sort; and the flower, which is produced near the ground, is said to exceed in size that of any other variety. the plants should be set three feet apart. purple cape. _trans._ early purple cape. purple silesian. howden's superb purple. grange's early cape. blue cape. this has a close, compact head, of a purple color, and, in favorable seasons, comes as large as a cauliflower. the plants grow from a foot to a foot and a half in height, with short, erect, concave leaves, regularly surrounding the head. the veins and midribs are stained with purple. the head is exposed to view in growing; and, as it enlarges, the projecting parts of the flower show a greenish-white mixed with the purple color. when boiled, the whole flower becomes green. excellent for general culture, as it is not only one of the finest varieties for the table, but the plants form their heads much more generally than many other kinds. it is the earliest of the purple broccolis. the seed should not be sown before the middle or last of may, and the plants will require a space of two feet and a half in each direction. snow's superb white winter. _thomp._ gill's yarmouth white. this variety is of dwarfish habit. the leaves are broad, with short stems; the heads are large, white, very compact, well protected by the incurved leaves, and equal in quality to those of the cauliflower. by many it is considered superior to grange's early cauliflower broccoli. snow's spring white or cauliflower broccoli. _trans._ naples white. early white. adam's early white. neapolitan white. imperial early white. grange's cauliflower. covent-garden market. plant about two feet high, robust, and a strong grower. the leaves are large, thick-veined, flat, and narrow; and generally compress the head, so as to render it invisible when ready for cutting, and thus protect it from rain and the effects of frost. head large, perfectly white. sulphur or brimstone broccoli. _trans._ late brimstone. fine late sulphur. edinburgh sulphur. leaves with long stems; heads large, compact, somewhat conical, sulphur-colored, sometimes tinged with purple. hardy. walcheren broccoli. _m'int._ comparatively new, and so closely resembling a cauliflower as to be scarcely distinguishable from it. the leaves, however, are more curled, and its constitution is of a hardier nature, enduring the cold, and also withstanding heat and drought better. much esteemed in england, where, by successive sowings, it is brought to the table at every season of the year. ward's superb. _r. hogg._ this is a form of knight's protecting, but is from two to three weeks later. it is of a dwarfish habit of growth, closely protected by the spirally compressed leaves, with a good-sized and perfectly white head. one of the best of the late white broccolis. white cape. _thomp._ heads of medium size, white, and compact. willcove. _r. hogg._ late willcove. the true willcove is a variety perfectly distinct from every other of its season. the heads are very large, firm, even, and fine, and of a pure whiteness. they are fully exposed, and not protected by the leaves as most other broccolis are. on this account, the variety is more liable to be injured by the weather than any other late sort; and therefore, in severe seasons, it must be regarded as deficient in hardiness. "it derives its name from a small village near devonport, eng.; where it originated, and where the broccoli is said to be grown in great perfection." * * * * * brussels sprouts. thousand-headed cabbage. brassica oleracea var. [illustration: brussels sprouts.] in its general character, this vegetable is not unlike some of the varieties of kale or borecole. its stem is from a foot to four feet in height, and from an inch and a half to upwards of two inches in diameter. it is remarkable for the production of numerous small axillary heads, or sprouts, which are arranged somewhat in a spiral manner, and which are often so closely set together as entirely to cover the sides of the stem. "these small heads are firm and compact like little cabbages, or rather like hearted savoys in miniature. a small head, resembling an open savoy, surmounts the stem of the plant, and maintains a circulation of sap to the extremity. most of the original side-leaves drop off as these small buds, or heads, enlarge."--_thomp._ _culture._--the plant is always raised from seeds, which, in size, form, or color, are scarcely distinguishable from the seeds of the common cabbage. these should be sown at the time and in the manner of the cabbage, either in hot-beds in march or april, or in the open ground in april or may. when three or four inches high, transplant two feet apart in each direction, and cultivate as directed for cabbages and cauliflowers. in september, the early plantings will be fit for gathering; whilst the later plants will afford a succession that will supply the table during the winter. for the latter purpose, they should be harvested before severe freezing weather, and preserved in the cellar as cauliflowers and broccolis. they are quite hardy, easily grown, thrive well in new england or in the middle states, and deserve more general cultivation. _to raise seeds._--in the autumn, select two or three of the finest plants; keep them in the cellar, or out of the reach of frost, during winter; and in the spring set them in the open ground, two feet apart, and as far as possible from all flowering plants of the cabbage family. cut off the top shoot, and save the branches of pods that proceed from the finest of the small heads on the sides of the main stem. _use._--the small heads are boiled and served in the manner of cabbages. they are also often used in the form of the cauliflower, boiled until soft, then drained, and afterwards stewed with milk, cream, or butter. _varieties._--two varieties are enumerated by gardeners and seedsmen; viz.:-- dwarf brussels sprouts. a low-growing sort, usually from eighteen inches to two feet in height. it differs from the following variety principally in size, though it is somewhat earlier. the dwarf stems are said to produce heads which are more tender and succulent when cooked than those obtained from taller plants. tall or giant brussels sprouts. stem nearly four feet in height; plant healthy and vigorous, producing the small heads peculiar to its class in great abundance. it is somewhat hardier than the foregoing variety; and, on account of its greater length of stalk, much more productive. there is, however, very little permanency to these sorts. much of the seed found in the market will not only produce plants corresponding with both of the varieties described, but also numerous intermediate kinds. * * * * * the cabbage. brassica oleracea capitata. the cabbage is a biennial plant; and, though comparatively hardy,--growing at all seasons unprotected in england,--will not withstand the winters of the northern states in the open ground. when fully developed, it is from four to five feet in height. the flowers are cruciform, generally yellow, but sometimes white or yellowish-white. the seeds, which ripen in july and august of the second year, are round, reddish-brown or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality five years. about ten thousand are contained in an ounce. _soil and situation._--"though not particularly nice as to soil or situation, cabbages do best when grown in well-manured ground. in such soil, they are generally earlier than when raised in cold and stiff ground. but manure need not be profusely applied, if the ground is naturally of a fertile and open kind; for the flavor is generally better in such soil than where a great quantity of fertilizer is used." _propagation._--all of the varieties are propagated from seed sown annually. for early use, a sowing may be made in a hot-bed in february or march; and, for winter use, the seed may be sown in a nursery-bed in the open ground in may or june. when five or six inches high, transplant to the distance directed in the description of the variety. in the hot-bed or nursery-bed, the plants should not be allowed to stand too thickly together, as this causes them to draw up weak and feeble. _to raise seed._--at the time of harvesting, select a few of the most compact and best-formed heads possessing the characters of the pure variety; and, in the following april, set the plants entire, three feet apart in each direction. as they progress in growth, remove all of the side-shoots, and encourage the main sprout, that will push up through the centre of the head. seeds from the side-shoots, as well as those produced from decapitated stems, are of little value. no cabbage-seed is really reliable that is not obtained from firm and symmetrical heads; and seed thus cultivated for a few successive seasons will produce plants, ninety per cent of which will yield well-formed and good-sized cabbages. american-grown seed is generally considered superior to that of foreign growth; and, when it can be obtained from a reliable seedsman or seeds-grower, the purchaser should not be induced by the difference in price to select the nominally cheaper, as there are few vegetables with which the character of the seed is of greater importance. _varieties._--the varieties are numerous, and the distinction, in many instances, well-defined and permanent. between some of the sorts, however, the variations are slight, and comparatively unimportant. atkins's matchless. _m'int._ this is a variety of the early york: the head, however, is smaller and more conical, and the leaves are more wrinkled,--somewhat similar to those of the savoys. it is of tender texture and delicate flavor; and, with the exception of its smaller size, is considered equal, if not superior, to the last-named variety. it is comparatively a recent sort, and seems to be desirable rather for its precocity and excellent quality than for its size or productiveness. transplant to rows fifteen inches apart, and twelve inches asunder in the rows. barnes's early. barnes's early dwarf. this variety, in respect to season, size, form, and general habit, seems to be intermediate between, or a hybrid from, the york and ox-heart. head ovate, rather compact; texture fine and tender; flavor mild and good. set in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. bergen drumhead. large bergen. great american. quintal. _vil._ large german drumhead. head remarkably large, round, flattened at the top, compact; the leaves are of a peculiar, glaucous-green color, of thick texture, firm, and rather erect; the nerves large and prominent; the outer leaves of the head are usually revoluted on the borders; the loose leaves are numerous, and rarely rise above a level with the summit of the head; the stalk is short. the bergen drumhead is one of the largest and latest of all the cabbages; and, when not fully perfected before being harvested, has the reputation, if reset in earth in the cellar, of heading, and increasing in size, during winter. it is a popular market sort; and, notwithstanding its extraordinary proportions, is tender, well flavored, and of more than average quality for family use. the plants should be set three feet apart. champion of america. one of the largest of the recently introduced sorts; the whole plant sometimes attaining a weight of forty pounds and upwards. head very large, flattened, somewhat resembling the drumheads; outer leaves very few, succulent, and tender; stalk short; quality tender, mild, and well flavored. as a market variety, it has few, if any, superiors. it heads with great uniformity, and bears transportation well; but its large size is objectionable when required for the use of families numbering but few members. early battersea. _thomp._ dwarf battersea. early dwarf battersea. the type of the early battersea is very old. when fully grown, the four outside or lower leaves are about sixteen inches in diameter; and, when taken off and spread out, their general outline is nearly circular. the stem is dwarfish, and the leaf-stalks come out quite close to each other; so that scarcely any portion of the stem is to be seen between them. the whole cabbage measures about three feet in circumference. the heart is shortly conical, with a broad base; near which it is about two feet in circumference, when divested of the outside leaves. the ribs boil tender. it is one of the best sorts for the general crop of early cabbages; is not liable to crack; and, when cut close to the stem, often puts forth a number of fresh heads, of fair size and good quality. early cornish. penton. paignton. pentonville. this is an intermediate sort, both in respect to size and season; and is said to derive its name from a village in devonshire, eng., where it has been cultivated for ages. the head is of full medium size, somewhat conical in form, and moderately firm and solid. the outside leaves are rather numerous, long, and of a pale or yellowish green color. its texture is fine and tender, and its flavor mild and agreeable. it is three or four weeks later than the early york. if reset in spring, this variety, like the yanack, will send out from the stalk abundant tender sprouts, which will supply the table with the best of coleworts, or greens, for several weeks of the early part of the season. the plants are somewhat leafy and spreading, and require full the average space. the rows should be two and a half or three feet apart, and the distance between the plants in the rows full two feet. early drumhead. this is an intermediate variety, about the size of the early york, and a little later. the head is round, flattened a little at the top, firm and well formed, tender in texture, and well flavored. it is a good sort for the garden, as it heads well, occupies but little space in cultivation, and comes to the table immediately after the earlier sorts. the plants should be set in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. early dutch twist. _m'int._ an excellent cabbage of the smallest size. it is very early and delicate, and may be planted almost as close together as a crop of cabbage-lettuce. the first sowing should be made early; afterwards, sowings should be made at intervals of two or three weeks, which will secure for the table a constant supply of fresh and tender heads from july till winter. early hope. a rather small, solid, oval-headed, early sort, nearly of the season of the early york. its color is bright-green, and its leaves rather erect and firm. in quality, it is not unlike the small early ox-heart, and requires the same space in cultivation. the variety is comparatively new; and, though found on the catalogues of seedsmen, is little disseminated. early low dutch. early dutch drumhead. this well-known and standard variety has a round, medium-sized, solid head, sometimes tinted with brown at its top. the outside and loose leaves are few in number, large, rounded, clasping, blistered, and of a glaucous-green color; the ribs and nerves are small; the stalk is thick and short. it is rather early, tender, and of good quality; heads well; and is one of the best sorts for growing in a small garden for early table use. the plants should be allowed a space of two feet and a half between the rows, and nearly two feet in the rows. early nonpareil. head of medium size, bright-green, rather ovoid or egg-shaped, solid; the leaves are generally erect, roundish, concave, and of thick, firm texture; the stalk is comparatively short, and the spare leaves few in number; flavor mild and pleasant. by some, it is considered the best of the intermediate varieties. in many respects, it resembles the small ox-heart. early sugar-loaf. the color of this variety, and the form of its head, distinguish it from all others. the plant, when well developed, has an appearance not unlike some of the varieties of cos lettuces; the head being round and full at the top, and tapering thence to the base, forming a tolerably regular, inverted cone. the leaves are erect, of a peculiar ashy or bluish-green hue, spoon-shaped, and clasp or cove over and around the head in the manner of a hood or cowl. though an early cabbage, it is thought to be more affected by heat than most of the early varieties; and is also said to lose some of its qualities, if kept late in the season. head of medium size, seldom compactly formed; and, when cut and cooked in its greatest perfection, tender and well flavored. transplant in rows two feet apart, and from eighteen to twenty-four inches apart in the rows. early wakefield. head of medium size, generally somewhat conical, but sometimes nearly round, compact; leaves very glaucous; stalk small. a fine, early variety, heading readily. as the plants occupy but little space, it is recommended as a desirable sort for early marketing. early york. according to rogers, the early york cabbage was introduced into england from flanders, more than a hundred years ago, by a private soldier named telford, who was there many years in the reign of queen anne. on his return to england, he settled as a seedsman in yorkshire: whence the name and celebrity of the variety. in this country, it is one of the oldest, most familiar, and, as an early market sort, one of the most popular, of all the kinds now cultivated. the head is of rather less than medium size, roundish-ovoid, close, and well-formed, of a deep or ash-green color, tender, and well flavored. the loose leaves are few in number, often revoluted on the border, and comparatively smooth on the surface; nerves greenish-white. the plants of the true variety have short stalks, occupy but little space, and seldom fail to produce a well-formed, and, for an early sort, a good-sized head. they require a distance of about eighteen inches between the rows, and fifteen or eighteen inches in the row. its earliness and its unfailing productiveness make it a favorite with market-gardeners; and it still retains its long-established popularity, notwithstanding the introduction of numerous new sorts, represented as being as early, equally prolific, and surpassing it in general excellence. east ham. from east ham, in essex, eng. it is not a large, but a fine, early sort, not unlike the ox-heart. the head is of an oval form, compact, and rather regular; the leaves are firm in texture, sometimes reflexed, or curved backward, but generally erect and concave; nerves pale greenish-white; stem very short. it is mild and delicate, and a desirable early variety. in setting the plants, allow two feet and a half between the rows, and two feet between the plants in the rows. green glazed. american green glazed. head large, rather loose and open; the leaves are numerous, large, rounded, waved on the borders, and slightly blistered on the surface; stalk comparatively long. its texture is coarse and hard, and the variety really possesses little merit; though it is somewhat extensively grown in warm latitudes, where it appears to be less liable to the attacks of the cabbage-worm than any other sort. a distinguishing characteristic of this cabbage is its deep, shining-green color; the plants being readily known from their peculiar, varnished, or glossy appearance. large late drumhead. american drumhead. head very large, round, sometimes flattened a little at the top, close and firm; the loose leaves are numerous, broad, round, and full, clasping, blistered, and of a sea-green color; the ribs and nerves are of medium size, and comparatively succulent and tender; stem short. the variety is hardy, seldom fails to form a head, keeps well, and is of good quality. in cultivation, it requires more than the average space, as the plants have a spreading habit of growth. the rows should not be less than three feet apart; and two feet and a half should be allowed between the plants in the rows. there are many varieties of this cabbage, introduced by different cultivators and seedsmen under various names, differing slightly, in some unimportant particulars, from the foregoing description, and also differing somewhat from each other, "but agreeing in being large, rounded, cabbaging uniformly, having a short stem, keeping well, and in being tender and good flavored." large york. this is a larger cabbage than the early york; which variety it somewhat resembles. the head, however, is broader in proportion to its depth, and more firm and solid; the leaves not connected with the head are more erect, of a firmer texture, not quite so smooth and polished, and the surface slightly bullated, or blistered. it also has a shorter stalk, and is two or three weeks later. the large york seems to be intermediate between the early york and the large late drumheads, as well in respect to form and general character as to its season of maturity. it is recommended as being less affected by heat than many other kinds, and, for this reason, well adapted for cultivation in warm climates. it seldom fails in forming its head, and is tender and well flavored. large ox-heart. large french ox-heart. this is a french variety, of the same form and general character as the small ox-heart, but of larger size. the stalk is short; the head firm and close, and of a light-green color; the spare leaves are few in number, generally erect, and concave. it is a week or ten days later than the small ox-heart, forms its head readily, and is tender and well flavored. one of the best of the intermediate sorts. the plants should be set two feet apart in each direction. marblehead mammoth drumhead. _j. j. h. gregory._ one of the largest of the cabbage family, produced from the mason, or stone-mason, by mr. alley, and introduced by mr. j. j. h. gregory, of marblehead, mass. heads not uniform in shape,--some being nearly flat, while others are almost hemispherical; size very large, varying from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter,--although specimens have been grown of the extraordinary dimensions of twenty-four inches. in good soil, and with proper culture, the variety is represented as attaining an average weight of thirty pounds. quality tender and sweet. cultivate in rows four feet apart, and allow four feet between the plants in the rows. for early use, start in a hot-bed; for winter, sow in the open ground from the first to the middle of may. sixty tons of this variety have been raised from a single acre. mason. _j. j. h. gregory._ the mason cabbage, in shape, is nearly hemispherical; the head standing well out from among the leaves, growing on a small and short stalk. under good cultivation, the heads will average about nine inches in diameter and seven inches in depth. it is characterized for its sweetness, and for its reliability for forming a solid head. it is also an excellent variety for cultivation in extreme northern latitudes, where, from the shortness of the season, or in those sections of the south, where, from excessive heat, plants rarely cabbage well. under good cultivation, nearly every plant will set a marketable head. originated by mr. john mason, of marblehead, mass. pomeranian. this variety is of comparatively recent introduction. the head, which is of medium size, has the form of an elongated cone, and is very regular and symmetrical. it is quite solid, of a pale or yellowish green color, tender and well flavored, and remarkable for the peculiar manner in which the leaves are collected, and twisted to a point, at its top. the loose, exterior leaves are numerous, large, and broad; stalk rather high. it is not early, but rather an intermediate variety, and excellent either as an autumnal or winter cabbage. as it heads promptly and almost invariably, and, besides, is of remarkable solidity, it makes a profitable market cabbage; keeping well, and bearing transportation with very little injury. premium flat dutch. large flat dutch. head large, bluish-green, round, solid, broad and flat on the top, and often tinted with red or brown. the exterior leaves are few in number, roundish, broad and large, clasping, blistered on the surface, bluish-green in the early part of the season, and tinged with purple towards the time of harvesting; stalk short. it is one of the largest of the cabbages, rather late, good for autumn use, and one of the best for winter or late keeping, as it not only remains sound, but retains its freshness and flavor till late in spring. the heads open white and crisp, and, when cooked, are tender and well flavored. it requires a good soil, and should be set in rows not less than three feet apart, and not nearer together than thirty inches in the rows. as a variety for the winter market, the premium flat dutch has no superior. it is also one of the best sorts for extensive culture, as it is remarkably hardy, and seldom fails in forming a good head. an acre of land, well set and cultivated, will yield about four thousand heads. st. denis. _vil._ head of large size, round, a little flattened, solid; the exterior leaves are numerous, glaucous-green, clasping at their base, and often reflexed at the ends; the ribs and nerves are large and prominent; stem long. this variety is of good quality, seldom fails to form a head, and yields a large crop in proportion to the quantity of land it occupies. the plants should be set two feet and a half apart in each direction. shilling's queen. a half-early variety, intermediate in form and size between the york and ox-heart. as a "second early," it is one of the best. it compares favorably with the early nonpareil, and is tender, mild, and delicate. transplant in rows two feet and a half apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. small ox-heart. coeur de boeuf petit, of the french. _vil._ head below medium size, ovate or egg-shaped, obtuse, broad at the base, compact. the leaves are of the same bright green as those of the york cabbage, round, of firm texture, sometimes revolute, but generally erect, and concave; the nerves are white, more numerous and less delicate than those of the last-named variety; the stalk is short, and the leaves not composing the head few in number. the ox-heart cabbages--with respect to character, and period of maturity--are intermediate between the yorks and drumheads; more nearly, however, resembling the former than the latter. the small ox-heart is about ten days later than the early york. as not only the heads, but the full-grown plants, of this variety are of small size, they may be grown in rows two feet apart, and sixteen inches apart in the rows. stone-mason. _j. j. h. gregory._ an improved variety of the mason, originated by mr. john stone, jun., of marblehead, mass. head larger than that of the original, varying in size from ten to fourteen inches in diameter, according to the strength of the soil and the cultivation given it. the form of the head is flatter than that of the mason, and but little, if any, inferior to it in solidity. stem very short and small. under good culture, the heads, exclusive of the outer foliage, will weigh about nine pounds. quality exceedingly sweet, tender, and rich. a profitable variety for market purposes; the gross returns per acre, in the vicinity of boston, mass., often reaching from two hundred dollars to three hundred and fifty. the mason, stone-mason, and the marblehead mammoth, severally originated from a package of seeds received from england, under the name of the "scotch drumhead," by mr. john m. ives, of salem, mass. sutton's dwarf comb. _m'int._ this is one of the earliest of all the cabbages. it is small and dwarfish in its habit, hearts well early in the season, and will afford a good supply of delicate sprouts throughout a large part of the summer. the plants require a space of only twelve inches between the rows, and the same distance between the plants in the rows. the seed of this variety, in common with other dwarfish and early sorts, should be sown more frequently than the larger growing kinds, so as to keep up a succession of young and delicate heads, much after the manner of sowing lettuce. vanack. _lind._ this variety was introduced into england from holland, more than a century ago, by a wealthy dutch farmer of the name of vanack. though often found upon the catalogues of our seedsmen, it has not been extensively grown in this country, and perhaps is really but little known. head somewhat irregular in shape, broad at the base, and terminating in rather a sharp point; color palish-green, the ribs and nerves of the leaves paler. the exterior leaves are large, spreading, deep-green, and strongly veined. it is tender in texture, sweet and delicate in flavor, cabbages early and uniformly, and, when kept through the winter and reset in spring, pushes abundant and fine sprouts, forming excellent early coleworts, or greens. lindley pronounces its quality inferior to none of the best cabbages. transplant to rows two feet and a half apart, and two feet apart in the rows. vaugirard cabbage. _thomp._ chou de vaugirard. _vil._ a large, late, but coarse, french variety. the head is generally round; leaves deep-green,--those of the outside having the veins sometimes tinged with red. the plants should be set three feet apart in each direction. waite's new dwarf. _hov. mag._ heads small, but solid and uniform in shape. it has little of the coarseness common to the larger varieties, and the flavor is superior. one of the finest early cabbages, and one of the best sorts for the market. it occupies but little space compared with some of the older kinds, and a large number of plants may be grown upon a small piece of ground. winnigstadt. pointed head. this is a german variety, somewhat similar to the ox-heart, but more regularly conical. head broad at the base, and tapering symmetrically to a point, solid, and of the size of the ox-heart; leaves of the head pale or yellowish green, with large nerves and ribs; the exterior leaves are large, short, and rounded, smooth, and of firm texture; the stalk is short. it is an intermediate sort, immediately following the early york. a large proportion of the plants will form good heads; and as these are not only of remarkable solidity, but retain their freshness well during winter, it is a good variety for marketing, though rather hard, and somewhat deficient in the qualities that constitute a good table-cabbage. it requires a space of about eighteen inches by two feet. _red varieties._--these are comparatively few in number, and generally used as salad or for pickling. when cooked, they are considered less mild and tender than the common varieties, besides retaining a portion of their color; which, by many, is considered an objection. early dwarf red. early blood red. small red. head nearly round, generally of a deep-red or dark-purple color. the leaves on the outside of the plant are not numerous, rather rigid or stiff, green, much washed or clouded with red; stalk short. it is about ten days earlier than the large red dutch, and is quite variable in form and color. the seed should be sown early; and, when transplanted, the rows should be about two feet apart, and the plants eighteen inches in the rows. the variety is seldom served at the table, cooked in the manner of other sorts; for, when boiled, it has a dark and unattractive appearance. it is almost invariably shredded, and with the addition of vinegar, olive-oil, mustard, or other seasoning, served as a salad. large red dutch. the most familiar as well as the most popular of the red varieties. the head is rather large, round, hard, and solid; the leaves composing-the head are of an intense purplish-red; the outer leaves are numerous, red, with some intermixture or shades of green, firm in texture, and often petioled at the union with the stalk of the plant, which is of medium height. on account of its dark color when cooked, it is seldom used in the manner of the common cabbages. it is chiefly used for pickling, or, like the other red sorts, cut in shreds, and served as a salad; though any solid, well-blanched, small-ribbed, white-headed sort will answer for the same purpose, and perhaps prove equally tender and palatable. the large red dutch is one of the latest of cabbages, and should receive the advantage of nearly the entire season. make the sowing, if in the open ground, as soon as the soil is in good working condition, and transplant or thin to rows two and a half or three feet apart, and two feet apart in the rows. the heads may be kept fresh and sound until may. superfine black. _thomp._ small, like the utrecht red, but of a still deeper color. when pickled, however, the dark coloring matter is greatly discharged, so that the substance is left paler than that of others originally not so dark. it is, therefore, not so good for pickling as other sorts which retain their color and brightness. utrecht red. _thomp._ chou noirâtre d'utrecht. a small but very fine dark-red cabbage. * * * * * the cauliflower. brassica oleracea var. the cauliflower, like the broccoli, is strictly an annual plant; as it blossoms and perfects its seed the year in which it is sown. when fully grown or in flower, it is about four feet in height, and in character and general appearance is similar to the cabbage or broccoli at a like stage of growth. the seeds resemble those of the cabbage in size, form, and color; although not generally so uniformly plump and fair. from ten to twelve thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their germinative properties five years. _soil._--"much of the delicacy and excellence of the cauliflower depends on the quickness of its growth: therefore, to promote this, the soil cannot be too highly enriched or too deeply cultivated; and, as all the tribe thrive best in new soil, the deeper the ground is dug, and the more new or rested matter that is turned up for the roots, the better." _sowing and culture._--the seed may be sown in a hot-bed in march, at the same time and in the same manner as early cabbages, and the plants set in the open ground late in may; or the seed may be sown in the open air in april or the beginning of may, in a common nursery-bed, in shallow drills six or eight inches apart; and, when sufficiently grown, the plants may be set where they are to remain. they need not all be transplanted at one time; nor is it important when, except that, as soon as they are large enough, the first opportunity should be improved for beginning the setting. "cauliflowers, after transplanting, require no particular skill during summer, and not much labor. the soil, however, must be kept free from weeds, and stirred with the hoe from time to time. as the plants increase in size, a little earth should be drawn about their roots from the middle of the row; and, in continued dry weather, an application of liquid manure will be very beneficial." the leaves are sometimes gathered, and tied loosely over the tops of the heads, to facilitate the blanching. _taking the crop._--cauliflowers raised by open culture will generally come to the table in october. such as have not fully perfected their heads, may, just as the ground is closing, be taken up by their roots, and suspended, with the top downward, in a light cellar, or other place secure from frost; by which process, the heads will increase in size, and be suitable for use the last of december or first of january. "cauliflowers are ready for cutting when the heads have attained a good size, and while they are close, firm, and white. they may even be cut before they have attained their full size; but it is always advisable to cut them before the heads begin to open, as the flavor is at this stage much more delicate and agreeable. in taking the crop, the stalks should be cut immediately under the lowest leaves, and the upper parts of these should be cut away near the flower-head. "it is not size that constitutes a good cauliflower, but its fine, white, or creamy color, its compactness, and what is technically called its 'curdy' appearance, from its resemblance to the curd of milk in its preparation for cheese. when the flower begins to open, or when it is of a frosty or wart-like appearance, it is less esteemed. in the summer season, it should not be cut long before using." _use._--"the heads, or flowers, are considered one of the greatest of vegetable delicacies, when served up at the table either plain boiled, to be eaten with meat, like other brassicæ, or dressed with white sauce, after the french manner. it is much used as a pickle, either by itself, or as forming an ingredient in what is called 'mixed pickles.' it may also be preserved a considerable time when pickled in the manner of 'sour-krout.' it also forms an excellent addition to vegetable soups."--_m'int._ _preservation during winter._--the best way to preserve them during winter is to take them up late in the fall, with as much earth as possible about their roots, and reset them in earth, in a light, dry cellar, or in any other light and dry location secure from frost. _varieties._--these are comparatively few in number; the distinctions, in many instances, being quite unimportant. in the color, foliage, general habit, and even in the quality, of the entire list, there is great similarity. early london cauliflower. london particular. fitch's early london. stem tall; leaves of medium size. it has a fine, white, compact "curd," as the unexpanded head is termed; and is the sort grown in the vicinity of london for the early crop. it is comparatively hardy, and succeeds well when grown in this country. the plants should be set two feet and a half apart. early paris cauliflower. head rather large, white, and compact; leaves large; stalk short. an early sort. in france, it is sown in june, and the heads come to table in autumn. erfurt's early cauliflower. erfurt's extra early. leaves large, long, waved, and serrated on the borders; stalk of medium height; head large,--measuring from seven to ten inches in diameter,--close, and compact. from the experience of a single season, this variety promises to be one of the best for cultivation in this country. specimens exhibited under this name, before the massachusetts horticultural society, measured fully ten inches in diameter; the surface being very close, and the heads possessing the peculiar white, curdy character so rarely attained in the climate of the united states. the plants seldom fail to form a good-sized and symmetrical head, or flower. large asiatic cauliflower. _thomp._ originally from holland. it is a fine, large, white, compact variety, taller and later than the early london cauliflower; it has also larger leaves. if sown at the same time, it will afford a succession. le normand. _r. hogg._ plant about fifteen inches high, with winged leaves, which are broad, and taper abruptly towards the base. they are toothed and waved on the margin, and expose a head which is about nine inches in diameter, and of a creamy color. it is earlier than the walcheren, and is readily distinguished from it by the waved and toothed margin of the foliage. mitchell's hardy early cauliflower. a new variety. bouquet not large, but handsome and compact. it is so firm, that it remains an unusual length of time without running to seed or becoming pithy. a desirable sort for private gardens and for forcing. stadthold. _vil._ a new variety, introduced from holland. flower fine white, and of large size. not early. waite's alma cauliflower. a new variety, represented as being of large size, and firm; surpassing in excellence the walcheren. walcheren cauliflower. _thomp._ early leyden. legge's walcheren broccoli. this has been cultivated as a broccoli for more than ten years; though originally introduced by the london horticultural society, under the name of early leyden cauliflower. stem comparatively short; leaves broad, less pointed and more undulated than those of the cauliflower usually are. the difference in constitution is, however, important; as it not only resists the cold in winter, but the drought in summer, much better than other cauliflowers. in hot, dry summers, when scarcely a head of these could be obtained, the walcheren cauliflower, planted under similar circumstances, formed beautiful heads,--large, white, firm, and of uniform closeness. wellington cauliflower. messrs. henderson and son describe this cauliflower as the finest kind in cultivation; pure white; size of the head over two feet; in growth, very dwarfish,--the stem not more than two or three inches from the soil. it is one of the hardiest varieties known, and is said to withstand the extreme variations of the climate of the united states. an excellent sort for early planting and for forcing. * * * * * colewort, or collards. _loud._ collet. the colewort, strictly speaking, is a plant distinct from the other varieties of cabbage. it is of small habit, and attains sufficient size for use in a few weeks. it is eatable from the time it has four or six leaves until it has a hard heart. loudon says the original colewort seems to be lost, and is now succeeded by what are called "cabbage coleworts." these are cabbage-plants in their young state; and, when cooked, are quite as tender and good as the true colewort. in growing these, all that is necessary is to sow the seed of almost any variety of the common green cabbages in drills a foot apart, and half an inch deep. for a succession, sowings may be made, at intervals of two weeks, from the last of april to the last of august. in the southern states, the sowings might be continued through the winter. when cultivated for sale, simply allow them to stand till there is enough to be worth bunching and eating. they are boiled and served at table as greens. rosette colewort. a small but remarkably neat variety; the whole plant, when well grown, measuring twelve inches in diameter, and having the form of a rose not completely expanded,--the head corresponding to the bud still remaining at the heart, or centre; stalk small and short. the plants may be grown twelve inches asunder. * * * * * couve tronchuda, or portugal cabbage. _trans._ portugal borecole. large-ribbed borecole. trauxuda kale. though a species of cabbage, the couve tronchuda is quite distinct from the common head varieties. the stalk is short and thick; the outer leaves are large, roundish, of a dark bluish-green, wrinkled on the surface, and slightly undulated on the borders; the mid-rib of the leaf is large, thick, nearly white, and branches into veins of the same color; the plant forms a loose, open head, and, when full grown, is nearly two feet high. _culture._--it should be planted and treated like the common cabbage. the seeds may be sown early in frames, and the plants afterwards set in the open ground; or the sowing may be made in the open ground in may. the plants require two feet and a half between the rows, and two feet between the plants in the rows. the seeds, in size, form, and color, resemble those of the cabbage, and will keep five years. one-fourth of an ounce will produce about a thousand plants. _to raise seed._--in the autumn, before severe weather, remove two or three plants entire to the cellar; and, in april following, reset them about two feet apart. cut off the lower and smaller side-sprouts as they may appear, and allow only the strong, central shoot to grow. the seeds will ripen in august. _use._--different parts of the couve tronchuda are applicable to culinary purposes. the ribs of the outer and larger leaves, when boiled, somewhat resemble sea-kale in texture and flavor. the heart, or middle of the plant, is, however, the best for use. it is peculiarly delicate, and agreeably flavored, without any of the coarseness which is so often found in plants of the cabbage tribe. dwarf couve tronchuda. _trans._ murcianâ. dwarf portugal cabbage. dwarf trauxuda kale. much earlier and smaller throughout than the common couve tronchuda. stem from fifteen to eighteen inches high. the leaves are of medium size, rounded, smooth, and collected at the centre of the plant into a loose heart, or head. when the lower leaves are taken off for use, the plant, unlike the former variety, throws out numerous sprouts, or shoots, from the base of the stem, which make excellent coleworts, or greens. it is, however, wanting in hardiness; and appears to be better adapted for early use than for late keeping. _soil and cultivation._--both of the varieties require a well-manured soil. the seeds of the dwarf couve tronchuda may be sown early in frames, and the plants afterwards set in the open ground; or the sowing may be made, in may or june, where the plants are to remain. they should be two feet apart in each direction. fringed tronchuda. stem short; leaf-stems thicker and larger than those of the common couve tronchuda, but not so fleshy and succulent. the leaves expand towards their extremities into a spatulate form, the edges being regularly lobed and curled. they are of a glaucous or bluish green color, and form a sort of loose heart, or head, at the centre of the plant. its only superiority over the common varieties consists in its more hardy character. the fringed tronchuda is, however, very succulent, and of good quality; and is cultivated to some extent in france, particularly in the vicinity of paris. white-ribbed tronchuda. white-ribbed avilès cabbage. white-ribbed portugal cabbage. chou à côtes blanches d'avilès. this variety nearly resembles the dwarf portugal cabbage, or dwarf couve tronchuda, if it is not identical. it has white ribs, and forms a close heart. it should be planted, and in all respects treated, as the dwarf portugal cabbage. * * * * * pak-chÖi. _vil._ chinese cabbage. brassica sp. an annual plant, introduced from china. the root-leaves are oval, regular, very smooth, deep-green, with long, naked, fleshy, white stems, somewhat similar to those of the swiss chards, or leaf-beets. when in blossom, the plant measures about four feet in height, and the stem is smooth and branching. the flowers are yellow; the seeds are small, round, blackish-brown, and, in their general appearance, resemble those of the turnip or cabbage. an ounce contains about ten thousand seeds, and they will keep five years. _sowing and cultivation._--the seed should be sown in april or may, and the plants may be grown in hills or drills. they are usually sown in rows, and thinned to twelve inches apart. _use._--the leaves are eaten boiled, like cabbage; but they are much more tender, and of a more agreeable flavor. * * * * * pe-tsai. chinese cabbage. brassica chinensis. the pe-tsai, like the pak-chöi, is an annual plant, originally from china. the leaves are of an oval form, rounded at the ends, somewhat blistered on the surface; and, at the centre, are collected together into a long and rather compact tuft, or head. the plant, when well grown and ready for use, has somewhat the appearance of a head of cos lettuce, and will weigh six or seven pounds; though, in its native country, it is said to reach a weight of upwards of twenty pounds. towards the end of the summer, the flower-stalk shoots from the centre of the head to the height of three feet, producing long and pointed leaves, and terminating in loose spikes of yellow flowers. the seeds are small, round, brownish-black, and resemble those of the common cabbage. they retain their vitality five years. an ounce contains eight thousand seeds. _cultivation._--sow in april or may, and thin or transplant to rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot apart in the rows. _use._--it is used like the common cabbage, and is sweet, mild-flavored, and easy of digestion. the young plants are also boiled like coleworts or spinach. * * * * * savoy. savoy cabbage. brassica oleracea, var. bullata. _dec._ this class of cabbages derives its popular name from savoy, a small district adjoining italy, where the variety originated, and from whence it was introduced into england and france more than a hundred and fifty years ago. the savoys are distinguished from the common head or close-hearted cabbages by their peculiar, wrinkled, or blistered leaves. according to decandole, this peculiarity is caused by the fact, that the pulp, or thin portion of the leaf, is developed more rapidly than the ribs and nerves. besides the distinction in the structure of the leaves, the savoys, when compared with the common cabbages, are slower in their development, and have more open or less compactly formed heads. in texture and flavor, they are thought to approach some of the broccolis or cauliflowers; having, generally, little of the peculiar musky odor and taste common to some of the coarser and larger varieties of cabbages. none of the family are hardier or more easily cultivated than the savoys; and though they will not quite survive the winter in the open ground, so far from being injured by cold and frosty weather, a certain degree of frost is considered necessary for the complete perfection of their texture and flavor. _soil._--they succeed best in strong, mellow loam, liberally enriched with well-digested compost. _sowing._--the first sowing may be made early in a hot-bed, and the plants set in the open ground in may, or as soon as the weather will admit. subsequent sowings may be made in drills, in the open ground, in may, or early in june. when the seedlings are five or six inches high, thin or transplant to about three feet apart. _harvesting._--during the autumn, take the heads directly from the garden, whenever they are required for the table; but they should all be taken in before the ground is deeply frozen, or covered with snow. no other treatment will be required during the winter than such as is usually given to the common cabbage. _to raise seed._--in april, select a few well-formed, good-sized heads, as near types of the variety as possible; and set them entire, about two feet apart. if small shoots start from the side of the stalk, they should be removed; as only the sprout that comes from the centre of the head produces seed that is really valuable. all varieties rapidly deteriorate, if grown from seeds produced by side-shoots, or suckers. the seeds, when ripe, in form, size, and color, are not distinguishable from those of the common cabbage. an ounce contains ten thousand seeds, which will generally produce about three thousand plants. _varieties._-- drumhead savoy. cape savoy. head large, round, compact, yellowish at the centre, and a little flattened, in the form of some of the common drumhead cabbages, which it nearly approaches in size. the exterior leaves of the plant are round and concave, clasping, sea-green or bluish-green, rise above a level with the top of the head, and are more finely and less distinctly fretted or blistered on the surface than the leaves of the green globe. stalk of medium length. the drumhead savoy seldom fails to heart well, affords a good quantity of produce, is hardy, and, when brought to the table, is of very tender substance, and finely flavored. it is considered one of the best of the large kinds; and, wherever cultivated, has become a standard sort. it keeps well during winter, and retains its freshness late into the spring. as it requires nearly all of the season for its complete development, the seed should be sown comparatively early. transplant to rows at least three feet apart, and allow nearly the same distance between the plants in the row. early dwarf savoy. early green savoy. head small, flattened, firm, and close; leaves rather numerous, but not large, deep-green, finely but distinctly blistered, broad and rounded at the top, and tapering towards the stalk or stem of the plant, which is short. it is not quite so early as the ulm savoy; but it hearts readily, is tender and of good quality, and a desirable sort for early use. it requires a space of about twenty inches in each direction. early flat green curled savoy. _thomp._ a middle-sized, very dwarf, and flat-headed variety; color deep-green; quality tender and good. the plants should be set fifteen or eighteen inches asunder. early long yellow savoy. chou de milan doré a tète longue. _vil._ similar to the golden savoy, and, like it, an early sort. it has, however, a longer head, and does not heart so firmly. in flavor and texture, as well as in its peculiar color, there is little difference between the varieties. cultivate in rows eighteen inches apart, and fifteen or eighteen inches apart in the rows. early ulm savoy. new ulm savoy. earliest ulm savoy. _m'int._ a dwarfish, early sort. head small, round, solid; leaves rather small, thick, fleshy, and somewhat rigid, of a fine, deep-green, with numerous prominent blister-like elevations. the loose leaves are remarkably few in number; nearly all of the leaves of the plant contributing to the formation of the head. it very quickly forms a heart, which, though not of large size, is of excellent quality. it is, however, too small a sort for market purposes; but, for private gardens, would, no doubt, be an acquisition. in the london horticultural society's garden, it proved the earliest variety in cultivation. being one of the smallest of the savoys, it requires but a small space for its cultivation. if fifteen inches between the rows, and about the same distance in the rows, be allowed, the plants will have ample room for their full development. feather-stem savoy. _m'int._ this curious and useful variety has been in existence for several years, and is said to be a cross between the savoy and the brussels sprouts. it is what may be called a sprouting savoy; producing numerous shoots, or sprouts, along the stem. a sowing should be made the last of april, and another from the middle to the th of may, and the plants set out as soon as they are of suitable size, in the usual manner of savoys and other winter greens. golden savoy. early yellow savoy. _m'int._ a middle-sized, roundish, rather loose-headed variety; changing during the winter to a clear, bright yellow. the exterior leaves, at the time of harvesting, are erect, clasping, of a pale-green color, and coarsely but not prominently blistered on the surface; stalk short. the golden savoy comes to the table early, hearts readily, is of very tender substance when cooked, and of excellent quality; though its peculiar color is objectionable to many. it requires a space of about eighteen inches between the rows, and fifteen to eighteen inches between the plants in the rows. green globe savoy. green curled savoy. large green savoy. one of the best and one of the most familiar of the savoys; having been long in cultivation, and become a standard sort. the head is of medium size, round, bluish or sea green on the outside, yellow towards the centre, and loosely formed. the interior leaves are fleshy and succulent, with large and prominent midribs,--the exterior leaves are round and large, of a glaucous or sea green color, and, in common with those of the head, thickly and distinctly blistered in the peculiar manner of the savoys; stalk of medium height. the variety possesses all the qualities of its class: the texture is fine, and the flavor mild and excellent. on account of its remarkably fleshy and tender character, the inner loose leaves about the head will be found good for the table, and to possess a flavor nearly as fine as the more central parts of the plant. it is remarkably hardy, and attains its greatest perfection only late in the season, or under the influence of cool or frosty weather. as the plants develop much less rapidly than those of the common cabbage, the seed should be sown early. transplant in rows two and a half or three feet apart, and allow a space of two feet and a half between the plants in the rows. long-headed savoy. _vil._ chou milan à tète longue. a comparatively small variety, with an oval, long, yellowish-green, but very compact head; leaves erect, inclining to bluish-green, long and narrow, revoluted on the borders, and finely fretted or blistered on the surface; stem rather high. it is hardy and of excellent quality, but yields less than many other sorts. it is, however, a good kind for gardens of limited size, as it occupies little space, and cabbages well. the plants may be set eighteen inches apart in one direction by about fifteen inches in the opposite. marcelin savoy. _thomp._ a new sort, allied to the early ulm, but growing somewhat larger. though not so early, it is next to it in point of earliness; and, if both sorts are sown at the same time, the marcelin will form a succession. it is a low grower; the leaves are dark-green, finely wrinkled and curled; the head is round, compact, and of excellent quality. when cut above the lower course of leaves, about four small heads, almost equal in delicacy to brussels sprouts, are generally formed. this sort is exceedingly hardy; and, on the whole, must be considered a valuable acquisition. the plants should be set eighteen inches by twelve inches apart. tour's savoy. dwarf green curled savoy. _m'int._ pancalier de tourraine. _vil._ head small, loose, and irregular; leaves numerous, bright-green, rigid, concave or spoon-shaped; the nerves and ribs large, and the entire surface thickly and finely covered with the blister-like swellings peculiar to the savoys. it has some resemblance to the early dwarf savoy; but is larger, less compact, and slower in its development. a useful, hardy, smallish sort, adapted to small gardens; requiring only eighteen or twenty inches' space each way. excellent for use before it becomes fully cabbaged. yellow curled savoy. _thomp._ large late yellow savoy. white savoy. dwarf, middle-sized, round; leaves pale-green at first, but quite yellow in winter; the heart is not so compact as some, but of tender quality, and by many preferred, as it is much sweeter than the other kinds. it is later and hardier than the yellow savoys, before described. * * * * * sea-kale. crambe maritima. sea-kale is a native of the southern shores of great britain, and is also abundant on the seacoasts of the south of europe. there is but one species cultivated, and this is perennial and perfectly hardy. the leaves are large, thick, oval or roundish, sometimes lobed on the borders, smooth, and of a peculiar bluish-green color; the stalk, when the plant is in flower, is solid and branching, and measures about four feet in height; the flowers, which are produced in groups, or clusters, are white, and have an odor very similar to that of honey. the seed is enclosed in a yellowish-brown shell, or pod, which, externally and internally, resembles a pit, or cobble, of the common cherry. about six hundred seeds, or pods, are contained in an ounce; and they retain their germinative powers three years. "they are large and light, and, when sold in the market, are often old, or imperfectly formed; but their quality is easily ascertained by cutting them through the middle: if sound, they will be found plump and solid." they are usually sown without being broken. _preparation of the ground, and sowing._--the ground should be trenched to the depth of from a foot to two feet, according to the depth of the soil, and well enriched throughout. the seeds may be sown in april, where the plants are to remain; or they may be sown at the same season in a nursery-bed, and transplanted the following spring. they should be set or planted out in rows three feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. _culture._--"after the piece is set, let the plants be kept very clean. the earth should be occasionally stirred, when the rains have run the surface together; and, when the plants come up, let them have their own way the first season. as the plants will blossom the second season if let alone, and the bearing of seed has a tendency to weaken every thing, take off the flower-buds as soon as they appear, and not allow the plants to seed. when the leaves begin to decay in autumn, clear them all off, and dig a complete trench between the rows, and earth up the ridges: that is, all the soil you take out must be laid on the plants, so as to pile or bank up eight inches above the crowns of the roots, thus forming a flat-topped bank a foot across; widening a little downwards, so that the edges shall not break away. in doing this, the piece is formed into alternate furrows and ridges; the plants being under the centre of the ridges. "as the weather gets warm in the spring, these banks should be watered; and, when the surface is broken by the rising plant, remove the earth, and cut off the white shoots close to their base: for these shoots form the eatable portion; and, being blanched under ground, they are tender and white, and from six to eight inches long. the shoots should be cut as soon as they reach the surface; because, if the shoot comes through, the top gets purple, and the plants become strong-flavored. as all of the shoots will not appear at once, the bed should be looked over frequently, and a shoot cut whenever it has broken the surface of the soil; for, if not taken early, it soon becomes nearly worthless. in the process of cutting the shoots, the earth becomes gradually removed; and the tops of the plants, coming to the surface again, put forth other shoots, which must be allowed to grow the remainder of the summer, only taking off the blossom-shoots as before. when, at the fall of the year, the leaves turn yellow, and decay, earth up again, after clearing the plants of their bad leaves and removing every weed. before earthing up, fork the surface a little, just to break it up, that the earth may better take hold, and form a regular mass."--_glenny._ _pot-forcing and blanching._--"the ground, once planted, is as good for pot-forcing as for any thing; except that, for pot-forcing, it is usual to plant three plants in a triangle, about nine inches apart. the plants are cleared when the leaves decay, and the ground is kept level instead of being earthed up. pots and covers (called 'sea-kale pots') are placed over the plants, or patches of plants, and the cover (which goes on and off at pleasure) put on. these pots are of various sizes; usually from ten to fourteen inches in diameter, and from a foot to twenty inches in height. if proper sea-kale pots cannot be procured, large-sized flower-pots will answer as substitutes; the pots being put over the plants as they are wanted, generally a few at a time, so as to keep up a succession. dung is placed all over them; or, if no dung can be had, leaves are used: and they ferment and give out heat as genial, but not so violent, nor do they command so much influence, as the dung. some may be placed on in february, and some in march. the dung is removed from the top to admit of seeing if the plant is started; and, by timely examination, it is easily seen when the plant is ready for use. the shoots are as white, when thus treated, as when grown by the other method, because of the total darkness that prevails while they are covered; but there is more air in the empty pots than there possibly could be in the solid earth, and it is considered that the vegetable is not so tender in consequence. however, the greater bulk of sea-kale is so produced."--_glenny._ _taking the crop._--"the blanched sprouts should be cut when they are from three to six inches in length, and while stiff, crisp, and compact. they should not be left till they are drawn up so as to bend, or hang down. the soil or other material used for excluding the light should be carefully removed, so as to expose the stem of the sprout; and the latter should be cut just below the base of the petioles or leaf-stem, and just enough to keep these attached."--_thomp._ the sea-kale season continues about six weeks. "cutting too much will finally destroy the plants. with one good cutting the cultivator should be satisfied, and should avoid the practice of covering and cutting a second time. the proper way is to cut the large, fine shoots, and leave the smaller ones that come afterwards to grow stronger during the summer." _use._--"the young shoots and stalks, when from the length of three to nine inches, are the parts used. these, however, unless blanched, are no better than the coarser kinds of borecole; but, when blanched, they become exceedingly delicate, and are much prized. the ribs of the leaves, even after they are nearly fully developed, are sometimes used; being peeled and eaten as asparagus. in either state, they are tied up in small bundles, boiled, and served as cauliflowers."--_m'int._ _to obtain seed._--"select some strong plants, and allow them to take their natural growth, without cutting off their crowns, or blanching. when the seed is ripe, collect the pods, dry them, and put them into open canvas-bags. the seeds keep best in the pods."--_thomp._ chapter vi. spinaceous plants. amaranthus. black nightshade. leaf-beet, or swiss chard. malabar nightshade. nettle. new-zealand spinach. orach. patience dock. quinoa. sea-beet. shepherd's purse. sorrel. spinach. wild or perennial spinach. * * * * * amaranthus. chinese amaranthus. chinese spinach. a hardy, annual plant, introduced from china; stem three feet in height, much branched, and generally stained with red; leaves variegated with green and red, long, and sharply pointed; the leaf-stems and nerves are red; the flowers, which are produced in axillary spikes, are greenish, and without beauty; the seeds are small, black, smooth, and shining,--twenty-three thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their power of germination four or five years. _soil and cultivation._--any good garden-soil is adapted to the growth of the amaranthus. before sowing, the ground should be thoroughly pulverized, and the surface made smooth and even. the seed may be sown in april, or at any time during the month of may. it should be sown in very shallow drills, fourteen to sixteen inches apart, and covered with fine, moist earth. when the plants are two inches high, thin to five or six inches apart, and cultivate in the usual manner. they will yield abundantly during most of the summer. _use._--the leaves are used in the manner of spinach, and resemble it in taste. _varieties._-- early amaranthus. amarante mirza. _vil._ this plant is a native of the east indies; and in height, color, and general habit, resembles the chinese amaranthus. it is, however, somewhat earlier, and ripens its seed perfectly in climates where the chinese almost invariably fails. its uses, and mode of cultivation, are the same. hantsi shanghai amaranthus. amarante hantsi shanghai. _vil._ introduced from china by mr. fortune, and disseminated by the london horticultural society. it differs little from the preceding species; and is cultivated in the same manner, and used for the same purposes. annual. * * * * * black nightshade. morelle, of the french. solanum nigrum. an unattractive, annual plant, growing spontaneously as a weed among rubbish, in rich, waste places. its stem is from two to three feet high, hairy and branching; the leaves are oval, angular, sinuate, and bluntly toothed; the flowers are white, in drooping clusters, and are succeeded by black, spherical berries, of the size of a small pea; the seeds are small, lens-shaped, pale yellow, and retain their vitality five years,--twenty-three thousand are contained in an ounce. _propagation and culture._--it is raised from seed, which may be sown in april or may, or in autumn. sow in shallow drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and thin to six or eight inches in the drills; afterwards keep the soil loose, and free from weeds, in the usual manner. _use._--the french, according to vilmorin, eat the leaves in the manner of spinach; while dr. bigelow asserts that it has the aspect and reputation of a poisonous plant. on the authority of american botanists, it was introduced into this country from europe. by european botanists, it is described as a plant of american origin. * * * * * leaf-beet, or swiss chard. sicilian beet. white beet. beta cicla. the leaf-beet is a native of the seacoasts of spain and portugal. it is a biennial plant, and is cultivated for its leaves and leaf-stalks. the roots are much branched or divided, hard, fibrous, and unfit for use. _propagation and cultivation._--it is propagated, like other beets, from seed sown annually, and will thrive in any good garden soil. the sowing may be made at any time in april or may, in drills eighteen inches apart, and an inch and a half deep. "when the plants are a few inches high, so that those likely to make the best growth can be distinguished, they should be thinned out to nine inches or a foot apart, according to the richness of the soil; more room being allowed in rich ground. some, however, should be left at half that distance, to make up by transplanting any vacancies that may occur. the ground should be kept clean, and occasionally stirred between the rows; taking care not to injure the roots. in dry weather, plenty of water should be given to promote the succulence of the leaves."--_thomp._ _taking the crop._--"the largest and fullest-grown leaves should be gathered first; others will follow. if grown for spinach, the leaves should be rinsed in clean water, and afterwards placed in a basket to drain dry; if for chard, or for the leaf-stalks and veins, these should be carefully preserved, and the entire leaves tied up in bundles of six or eight in each."--_m'int._ _seed._--during the first season, select a few vigorous plants, and allow them to grow unplucked. just before the closing-up of the ground in autumn, take up the roots; and, after removing the tops an inch above the crown, pack them in dry sand in the cellar. the following spring, as soon as the ground is in working order, set them out with the crowns level with the surface of the ground, and about two feet and a half apart. as the plants increase in height, tie them to stakes, to prevent injury from wind; and in august, when the seed is ripe, cut off the stems near the ground, and spread them entire, in an airy situation, till they are sufficiently dried for threshing out. the seed, or fruit, has the appearance peculiar to the family; although those of the different varieties, like the seeds of the red beet, vary somewhat in size, and shade of color. an ounce of seed will sow a hundred feet of drill, or be sufficient for a nursery-bed of fifty square feet. _use._--"this species of beet--for, botanically considered, it is a distinct species from _beta vulgaris_, the common or red beet--is cultivated exclusively for its leaves; whereas the red beet is grown for its roots. these leaves are boiled like spinach, and also put into soups. the midribs and stalks, which are separated from the lamina of the leaf, are stewed and eaten like asparagus, under the name of "chard." as a spinaceous plant, the white beet might be grown to great advantage in the vegetable garden, as it affords leaves fit for use during the whole summer."--_m'int._ the thin part of the leaves is sometimes put into soups, together with sorrel, to correct the acidity of the latter. the varieties are as follow:-- green or common leaf-beet. stalks and leaves large, green; the roots are tough and fibrous, and measure little more than an inch in diameter; leaves tender, and of good quality. if a sowing be made as soon in spring as the frost will permit, another in june, and a third the last of july, they will afford a constant supply of tender greens, nearly or quite equal to spinach. for this purpose, the rows need be but a foot apart. large-ribbed curled. curled leaf-beet. stalks white; leaves pale yellowish-green, with broad mid-ribs, large nerves, and a blistered surface like some of the savoys. it may be grown as a substitute for spinach, in the manner directed for the common or green-leaved variety. large-ribbed scarlet brazilian. red stalk leaf-beet. poirée à carde rouge. _vil._ leaf-stalks bright purplish-red; leaves green, blistered on the surface; nerves purplish-red. a beautiful sort, remarkable for the rich and brilliant color of the stems, and nerves of the leaves. large-ribbed yellow brazilian. yellow-stalked leaf-beet. poirée à carde jaune. _vil._ a variety with bright-yellow leaf-stalks and yellowish leaves. the nerves of the leaves are yellow, like the leaf-stalks. the color is peculiarly rich and clear; and the stalks are quite attractive, and even ornamental. quality tender and good. silver-leaf beet. great white-leaf beet. swiss chard. sea-kale beet. large-ribbed silver-leaf beet. stalks very large; leaves of medium size, erect, with strong, white ribs and veins. the leaf-stalks and nerves are cooked and served like asparagus, and somewhat resemble it in texture and flavor. it is considered the best of the leaf-beets. * * * * * malabar nightshade (white). climbing nightshade. white malabar spinach. baselle blanche. _vil._ basella alba. from the east indies. though a biennial plant, in cultivation it is generally treated as an annual. stem five feet and upwards in length, slender, climbing; leaves alternate, oval, entire on the borders, green and fleshy; flowers in clusters, small, greenish; seeds round, with portions of the pulp usually adhering,--eleven to twelve hundred weighing an ounce. they retain their vitality three years. large-leaved chinese malabar nightshade. large-leaved malabar spinach. baselle à très large feuille de chine. _vil._ basella cordifolia. a chinese species, more vigorous and much stronger in its general habit than the red or the white. leaves as large as those of lettuce,--green, round, very thick, and fleshy; flowers small, greenish; seeds round, nearly of the same form and color as those of the white variety, but rather larger. the species is slow in developing its flower-stem, and the best for cultivation. * * * * * red malabar nightshade. red malabar spinach. baselle rouge. _vil._ basella rubra. from china. properly a biennial plant, but, like the white species, usually cultivated as an annual. it is distinguished from the last named by its color; the whole plant being stained or tinted with purplish red. in the size and color of the seeds, and general habit of the plant, there are no marks of distinction, when compared with the white. _propagation and cultivation._--all of the species are easily grown from seeds; which may be sown in a hot-bed in march, or in the open ground in may. they take root readily when transplanted; and may be grown in rows like the taller descriptions of pease, or in hills like running beans. wherever grown, they require a trellis, or some kind of support; otherwise the plants will twist themselves about other plants, or whatever objects may be contiguous. all are comparatively tender, and thrive best, and yield the most produce, in the summer months. _use._--the leaves, which are put forth in great profusion, are used in the form of spinach. the juice of the fruit affords a beautiful but not permanent purple color. * * * * * common nettle. large stinging nettle. urtica dioica. the common nettle is a hardy, herbaceous perennial, growing naturally and abundantly by waysides and in waste places, "but is seldom seen where the hand of man has not been at work; and may, therefore, be considered a sort of domestic plant." it has an erect, branching, four-sided stem, from three to five feet in height; the leaves are opposite, heart-shaped at the base, toothed on the borders, and thickly set with small, stinging, hair-like bristles; the flowers are produced in july and august, and are small, green, and without beauty; the seeds are very small, and are produced in great abundance,--a single plant sometimes yielding nearly a hundred thousand. _propagation and culture._--the nettle will thrive in almost any soil or situation. though it may be propagated from seeds, it is generally increased by a division of the roots, which may be made in spring or autumn. these should be set in rows two feet apart, and a foot apart in the rows. _use._--"early in april, the tops will be found to have pushed three or four inches, furnished with tender leaves. in scotland, poland, and germany, these are gathered, as a pot-herb for soups or for dishes, like spinach; and their peculiar flavor is by many much esteemed. no plant is better adapted for forcing; and, in winter or spring, it may be made to form an excellent substitute for cabbage, coleworts, or spinach. collect the creeping roots, and plant them either on a hot-bed or in pots to be placed in the forcing-house, and they will soon send up an abundance of tender tops: these, if desired, may be blanched by covering with other pots. if planted close to a flue in the vinery, they will produce excellent nettle-kale or nettle-spinach in january and february." lawson states that "the common nettle has long been known as affording a large proportion of fibre, which has not only been made into ropes and cordage, but also into sewing-thread, and beautiful, white, linen-like cloth of very superior quality. it does not, however, appear that its cultivation for this purpose has ever been fairly attempted. the fibre is easily separated from other parts of the stalk, without their undergoing the processes of watering and bleaching; although, by such, the labor necessary for that purpose is considerably lessened. like those of many other common plants, the superior merits of this generally accounted troublesome weed have hitherto been much overlooked." * * * * * new-zealand spinach. _loud._ tetragonia expansa. this plant, botanically considered, is quite distinct from the common garden spinach; varying essentially in its foliage, flowers, seeds, and general habit. it is a hardy annual. the leaves are of a fine green color, large and broad, and remarkably thick and fleshy; the branches are numerous, round, succulent, pale-green, thick and strong,--the stalks recline upon the ground for a large proportion of their length, but are erect at the extremities; the flowers are produced in the axils of the leaves, are small, green, and, except that they show their yellow anthers when they expand, are quite inconspicuous; the fruit is of a dingy-brown color, three-eighths of an inch deep, three-eighths of an inch in diameter at the top or broadest part, hard and wood-like in texture, rude in form, but somewhat urn-shaped, with four or five horn-like points at the top. three hundred and twenty-five of these fruits are contained in an ounce; and they are generally sold and recognized as the seeds. they are, however, really the fruit; six or eight of the true seeds being contained in each. they retain their germinative powers five years. _propagation and culture._--it is always raised from seed, which may be sown in the open ground from april to july. select a rich, moist soil, pulverize it well, and rake the surface smooth. make the drills three feet apart, and an inch and a half or two inches deep; and sow the seed thinly, or so as to secure a plant for each foot of row. in five or six weeks from the planting, the branches will have grown sufficiently to allow the gathering of the leaves for use. if the season should be very dry, the plants will require watering. they grow vigorously, and, in good soil, will extend, before the end of the season, three feet in each direction. _gathering._--"the young leaves must be pinched or cut from the branches; taking care not to injure the ends, or leading shoots. these shoots, with the smaller ones that will spring out of the stalks at the points where the leaves have been gathered, will produce a supply until a late period in the season; for the plants are sufficiently hardy to withstand the effects of light frosts without essential injury. "its superiority over the common spinach consists in the fact, that it grows luxuriantly, and produces leaves of the greatest succulency, in the hottest weather." anderson, one of its first cultivators, had but nine plants, which furnished a gathering for the table every other day from the middle of june. a bed of a dozen healthy plants will afford a daily supply for the table of a large family. _seed._--to raise seed, leave two or three plants in the poorest soil of the garden, without cutting the leaves. the seeds will ripen successively, and should be gathered as they mature. _use._--it is cooked and served in the same manner as common spinach. there are no described varieties. * * * * * orach. arrach. french spinach. mountain spinach. atriplex hortensis. orach is a hardy, annual plant, with an erect, branching stem, varying in height from two to four feet, according to the variety. the leaves are variously shaped, tut somewhat oblong, comparatively thin in texture, and slightly acid to the taste; the flowers are small and obscure, greenish or reddish, corresponding in a degree with the color of the foliage of the plant; the seeds are small, black, and surrounded with a thin, pale-yellow membrane,--they retain their vitality three years. _soil and culture._--it is raised from seed sown annually. as its excellence depends on the size and succulent character of the leaves, orach is always best when grown in a rich, deep, and moist soil. the first sowing may be made as soon in spring as the ground is in proper condition; afterwards, for a succession, sowings may be made, at intervals of two weeks, until june. when the ground has been thoroughly dug over, and the surface made fine and smooth, sow the seed in drills eighteen inches or two feet apart, and cover three-fourths of an inch deep. when the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to ten or twelve inches apart, and cultivate in the usual manner. orach is sometimes transplanted, but generally succeeds best when sown where the plants are to remain. in dry, arid soil, it is comparatively worthless. _to raise seed._--leave a few of the best plants without cutting, and they will afford a plentiful supply of seeds in september. _use._--orach is rarely found in the vegetable gardens of this country. the leaves have a pleasant, slightly acid taste, and, with the tender stalks, are used boiled in the same manner as spinach or sorrel, and are often mixed with the latter to reduce the acidity. "the stalks are good only while the plants are young; but the larger leaves may be picked off in succession throughout the season, leaving the stalks and smaller leaves untouched, by which the latter will increase in size. the orach thus procured is very tender, and much esteemed." a few plants will afford an abundant supply. _varieties._-- green orach. _trans._ dark-green orach. deep-green orach. _mill._ the leaves of this variety are of a dark, grass-green color, broad, much wrinkled, slightly toothed, and bluntly pointed; the stalk of the plant and the leaf-stems are strong and sturdy, and of the same color as the leaves. it is the lowest growing of all the varieties. lurid orach. _trans._ pale-red orach. leaves pale-purple, tinged with dark-green,--the under surface light-purple, with green veins, slightly wrinkled, terminating rather pointedly, and toothed on the borders only toward the base, which forms two acute angles; the stalk of the plant and the stems of the leaves are bright-red, slightly streaked with white between the furrows,--height three feet and upwards. purple orach. _trans._ dark-purple orach. plant from three to four feet in height; leaves dull, dark-purple, more wrinkled and more deeply toothed than those of any other variety. they terminate somewhat obtusely, and form two acute angles at the base. the stalk of the plant and the stems of the leaves are deep-red, and slightly furrowed. the leaves change to green when boiled. red orach. _trans._ dark-red orach. bon jardinier. leaves oblong-heart-shaped, somewhat wrinkled, and slightly toothed on the margin: the upper surface is very dark, inclining to a dingy purple; the under surface is of a much brighter color. the stems are deep-red and slightly furrowed; height three feet and upwards. this is an earlier but a less vigorous sort than the white. the leaves of this variety, as also those of most of the colored sorts, change to green in boiling. red-stalked green orach. _trans._ leaves dark-green, tinged with dull-brown, much wrinkled, toothed, somewhat curled, terminating rather obtusely, and forming two acute angles at the base; the stalk and the stems of the leaves are deep-red, and slightly furrowed; the veins are very prominent. it is of tall growth. red-stalked white orach. _trans._ purple-bordered green orach. _miller._ leaves somewhat heart-shaped, of a yellowish-green, tinged with brown. their margin is stained with purple, and a little dentated or toothed in some cases, but not in all. the stalk and the stems of the leaves are of a palish-red, and are slightly furrowed, as well as streaked with pale-white between the furrows. the plant is of dwarfish growth. white orach. _trans._ pale-green orache. _neill._ white french spinach. yellow orach. leaves pale-green or yellowish-green, much wrinkled, with long, tapering points, strongly cut in the form of teeth towards the base, which forms two acute angles; the stalk of the plant and the stems of the leaves are of the same color as the foliage. it is comparatively of low growth. * * * * * patience. herb patience. patience dock. garden patience. rumex patientia. this plant is a native of the south of europe. it is a hardy perennial, and, when fully grown, from four to five feet in height. the leaves are large, long, broad, pointed; the leaf-stems are red; the flowers are numerous, small, axillary, and of a whitish-green color,--they are put forth in june and july, and the seeds ripen in august. the latter are triangular, of a pale-brownish color, and will keep three years. _soil and cultivation._--"the plant will grow well in almost any soil, but best in one that is rich and rather moist. it may easily be raised from seed sown in spring, in drills eighteen inches asunder; afterwards thinning out the young plants to a foot apart in the rows. it may also be sown broadcast in a seed-bed, and planted out; or the roots may be divided, and set at the above distances. "the plants should not be allowed to run up to flower, but should be cut over several times in the course of the season, to induce them to throw out young leaves in succession, and to prevent seed from being ripened, and scattered about in all directions; for, when this takes place, the plant becomes a troublesome weed."--_thomp._ it is perfectly hardy, and, if cut over regularly, will continue healthy and productive for several years. in the vicinity of gardens where it has been cultivated, it is frequently found growing spontaneously. _use._--"the leaves were formerly much used as spinach; and are still eaten in some parts of france, where they are also employed in the early part of the season as a substitute for sorrel; being produced several days sooner than the leaves of that plant."--_thomp._ its present neglect may arise from a want of the knowledge of the proper method of using it. the leaves are put forth quite early in spring. they should be cut while they are young and tender, and about a fourth part of common sorrel mixed with them. in this way, patience dock is much used in sweden, and may be recommended as forming an excellent spinach dish. * * * * * quinoa (white). _law._ white-seeded quinoa. goose-foot. chenopodium quinoa. an annual plant from mexico or peru. its stem is five or six feet in height, erect and branching; the leaves are triangular, obtusely toothed on the borders, pale-green, mealy while young, and comparatively smooth when old; flowers whitish, very small, produced in compact clusters; seeds small, yellowish-white, round, a little flattened, about a line in diameter, and, on a cursory glance, might be mistaken for those of millet; they retain their vegetative powers three years; about twelve thousand are contained in an ounce. _sowing and cultivation._--it is propagated from seeds which are sown in april or may, in shallow drills three feet apart. as the seedlings increase in size, they are gradually thinned to a foot apart in the rows. the seeds ripen in september. in good soil, the plants grow vigorously, and produce seeds and foliage in great abundance. _use._--the leaves are used as spinach or sorrel, or as greens. in some places, the seeds are employed as a substitute for corn or wheat in the making of bread, and are also raised for feeding poultry. _varieties._-- black-seeded quinoa. the stalks of this variety are more slender, and the leaves smaller, than those of the white-seeded. the plant is also stained with brownish-red in all its parts. seeds small, grayish-black. it is sown, and in all respects treated, like the white. the seeds and leaves are used in the same manner. red-seeded quinoa. _law._ chenopodium sp. this variety, or perhaps, more properly, species, is quite distinct from the white-seeded. it grows to the height of six or eight feet, and even more, with numerous long, spreading branches. the leaves are more succulent than those of the last named, and are produced in greater abundance. when sown at the same time, it ripens its seeds nearly a month later. its foliage and seeds are used for the same purposes as the white. sow in rows three feet apart, and thin to fifteen inches in the rows. * * * * * sea-beet. _trans._ beta maritima. the sea-beet is a hardy, perennial plant. the roots are not eaten; but the leaves, for which it is cultivated, are an excellent substitute for spinach, and are even preferred by many to that delicate vegetable. if planted in good soil, it will continue to supply the table with leaves for many years. the readiest method of increasing the plants is by seeds; but they may be multiplied to a small extent by dividing the roots. the early-produced leaves are the best, and these are fit for use from may until the plants begin to run to flower; but they may be continued in perfection through the whole summer and autumn by cutting off the flower-stems as they arise, and thus preventing the blossoming. there are two varieties:-- english sea-beet. the english sea-beet is a dwarfish, spreading or trailing plant, with numerous angular, leafy branches. the lower leaves are ovate, three or four inches in length, dark-green, waved on the margin, and of thick, fleshy texture; the upper leaves are smaller, and nearly sessile. sow in april or may, in rows sixteen or eighteen inches apart, and an inch in depth; thin to twelve inches in the rows. the leaves should not be cut from seedling plants during the first season, or until the roots are well established. irish sea-beet. this differs from the preceding variety in the greater size of its leaves, which are also of a paler green: the stems are not so numerous, and it appears to be earlier in running to flower. the external differences are, however, trifling; but the flavor of this, when dressed, is far superior to that of the last named. it requires the same treatment in cultivation as the english sea-beet. * * * * * shepherd's purse. thlaspi bursa pastoris. a hardy, annual plant, growing naturally and abundantly about gardens, roadsides, and in waste places. the root-leaves spread out from a common centre, are somewhat recumbent, pinnatifid-toothed, and, in good soil, attain a length of eight or ten inches; the stem-leaves are oval, arrow-shaped at the base, and rest closely upon the stalk. when in blossom, the plant is from twelve to fifteen inches in height; the flowers are small, white, and four-petaled; the seeds are small, of a reddish-brown color, and retain their vitality five years. _propagation and cultivation._--it is easily raised from seed, which should be sown in may, where the plants are to remain. sow in shallow drills twelve or fourteen inches apart, and cover with fine mould. thin the young plants to four inches asunder, and treat the growing crop in the usual manner during the summer. late in autumn, cover the bed with coarse stable-litter, and remove it the last of february. in march and april, the plants will be ready for the table. _use._--it is used in the manner of spinach. "when boiled, the taste approaches that of the cabbage, but is softer and milder. the plant varies wonderfully in size, and succulence of leaves, according to the nature and state of the soil where it grows. those from the gardens and highly cultivated spots near philadelphia come to a remarkable size, and succulence of leaf. it may be easily bleached by the common method; and, in that state, would be a valuable addition to our list of delicate culinary vegetables." in april and may it may be gathered, growing spontaneously about cultivated lands; and, though not so excellent as the cultivated plants, will yet be found of good quality. * * * * * sorrel. rumex. sp. et var. sorrel is a hardy perennial. the species, as well as varieties, differ to a considerable extent in height and general habit; yet their uses and culture are nearly alike. _soil and cultivation._--all of the sorts thrive best in rich, moist soil; but may be grown in almost any soil or situation. the seeds are sown in april or may, in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and covered half an inch in depth. the young plants should be thinned to twelve inches apart; and, in july and august, the leaves will be sufficiently large for gathering. the varieties are propagated by dividing the roots in april or may; and this method must be adopted in propagating the dioecious kinds, when male plants are required. "the best plants, however, are obtained from seed; but the varieties, when sown, are liable to return to their original type. all the care necessary is to hoe the ground between the rows, when needed to fork it over in spring and autumn, and to take up the plants, divide and reset them every three or four years, or less frequently, if they are growing vigorously and produce full-sized leaves." all of the sorts, whether produced from seeds or by parting the roots, will send up a flower-stalk in summer; and this it is necessary to cut out when first developed, in order to render the leaves larger and more tender. the plants will require no special protection or care during the winter; though a slight covering of strawy, stable litter may be applied after the forking-over of the bed in the autumn, just before the closing-up of the ground. _use._--it enters into most of the soups and sauces for which french cookery is so famed, and they preserve it in quantities for winter use. it forms as prominent an article in the markets of paris as does spinach in those of this country; and it has been asserted, that, amongst all the recent additions to our list of esculent plants, "we have not one so wholesome, so easy of cultivation, or one that would add so much to the sanitary condition of the community, particularly of that class who live much upon salt provisions." the species and varieties are as follow:-- alpine sorrel. oseille des neiges. _vil._ rumex nivalis. a new, perennial species, found upon the alps, near the line of perpetual snow. the root-leaves are somewhat heart-shaped, thick, and fleshy; stem simple, with verticillate branches; flower dioecious. it is one of the earliest as well as the hardiest of the species, propagates more readily than alpine plants in general, and is said to compare favorably in quality with the mountain sorrel or patience dock. common sorrel. r. acetosa. this is a hardy perennial, and, when fully grown, is about two feet in height. the flowers--which are small, very numerous, and of a reddish color--are dioecious, the fertile and barren blossoms being produced on separate plants; the seeds are small, triangular, smooth, of a brownish color, and retain their germinative properties two years. an ounce contains nearly thirty thousand seeds. of the common sorrel, there are five varieties, as follow:-- belleville sorrel. broad-leaved. oseille large de belleville. _vil._ leaves ten or twelve inches long by six inches in diameter; leaf-stems red at the base. compared with the common garden sorrel, the leaves are larger and less acid. the variety is considered much superior to the last-named sort, and is the kind usually grown by market-gardeners in the vicinity of paris. it should be planted in rows eighteen inches apart, and the plants thinned to a foot apart in the rows. blistered-leaf sorrel. _trans._ radical leaves nine inches long, four inches wide, oval-hastate or halberd-shaped, growing on long footstalks. the upper leaves are more blistered than those attached to the root; the flower-stems are short. the principal difference between this variety and the common, or broad-leaved, consists in its blistered foliage. it is slow in the development of its flower-stem, and consequently remains longer in season for use. the leaves are only slightly acid in comparison with those of the common sorrel. it is a perennial, and must be increased by a division of its roots; for being only a variety, and not permanently established, seedlings from it frequently return to the belleville, from whence it sprung. fervent's new large sorrel. oseille de fervent. _vil._ an excellent sort, with large, yellowish-green, blistered leaves and red leaf-stems. it is comparatively hardy, puts forth its leaves early, and produces abundantly. the rows should be eighteen inches apart. green or common garden sorrel. root-leaves large, halberd-shaped, and supported on stems six inches in length. the upper leaves are small, narrow, sessile, and clasping. a hardy sort; but, on account of its greater acidity, not so highly esteemed as the belleville. sow in rows fifteen inches apart, and thin to eight or ten inches in the rows. sarcelle blond sorrel. blond de sarcelle. _vil._ this is a sub-variety of the belleville, with longer and narrower leaves and paler leaf-stems. it puts forth its leaves earlier in the season than the common sorrel, and is of excellent quality. the seed rarely produces the variety in its purity, and it is generally propagated by dividing the roots. round-leaved on french sorrel. _thomp._ roman sorrel. oseille rond. _vil._ r. scutatus. this is a hardy perennial, a native of france and switzerland. its stem is trailing, and from twelve to eighteen inches in height or length; the leaves vary in form, but are usually roundish-heart-shaped or halberd-shaped, smooth, glaucous, and entire on the borders; the flowers are hermaphrodite, yellowish; the leaves are more acid than those of the varieties of the preceding species, and for this reason are preferred by many. the variety is hardy and productive, but not much cultivated. it requires eighteen inches' space between the rows, and a foot in the rows. there is but one variety. mountain sorrel. oseille verge. _vil._ r. montanus. the leaves of this variety are large, oblong, of thin texture, and of a pale-green color; the root-leaves are numerous, about nine inches long and four inches wide, slightly blistered. it is later than the common garden sorrel in running to flower; and is generally propagated by dividing the roots, but may also be raised from seeds. the leaves are remarkable for their acidity. this is the _rumex montanus_ of modern botanists, though formerly considered as a variety of _r. acetosa_. blistered-leaved mountain sorrel. this variety is distinguished from the green mountain sorrel by its larger, more blistered, and thinner leaves. the leaf-stems are also longer, and, as well as the nerves and the under surface of the leaf, finely spotted with red. it starts early in spring, and is slow in running up to flower. green mountain sorrel. this is an improved variety of the mountain sorrel, and preferable to any other, from the greater size and abundance of its leaves, which possess much acidity. it is also late in running to flower. the leaves are large, numerous, ovate-sagittate, from ten to eleven inches long, and nearly five inches in width; the radical leaves are slightly blistered, and of a dark, shining green color. it can only be propagated by dividing the roots. the plants require a space of eighteen inches between the rows, and a foot from plant to plant in the rows. * * * * * spinach. spinacia oleracea. spinach is a hardy annual, of asiatic origin. when in flower, the plant is from two to three feet in height; the stem is erect, furrowed, hollow, and branching; the leaves are smooth, succulent, and oval-oblong or halberd-shaped,--the form varying in the different varieties. the fertile and barren flowers are produced on separate plants,--the former in groups, close to the stalk at every joint; the latter in long, terminal bunches, or clusters. the seeds vary in a remarkable degree in their form and general appearance; those of some of the kinds being round and smooth, while others are angular and prickly: they retain their vitality five years. an ounce contains nearly twenty-four hundred of the prickly seeds, and about twenty-seven hundred of the round or smooth. _soil and cultivation._--spinach is best developed, and most tender and succulent, when grown in rich soil. for the winter sorts, the soil can hardly be made too rich. it is always raised from seeds, which are sown in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch in depth. the seeds are sometimes sown broadcast; but the drill method is preferable, not only because the crop can be cultivated with greater facility, but the produce is more conveniently gathered. for a succession, a few seeds of the summer varieties may be sown, at intervals of a fortnight, from april till august. _taking the crop._--"when the leaves are two or three inches broad, they will be fit for gathering. this is done either by cutting them up with a knife wholly to the bottom, drawing and clearing them out by the root, or only cropping the large outer leaves; the root and heart remaining to shoot out again. either method can be adopted, according to the season or other circumstances."--_rogers._ _to raise seed._--spinach seeds abundantly; and a few of the fertile plants, with one or two of the infertile, will yield all that will be required for a garden of ordinary size. seeds of the winter sorts should be saved from autumn sowings, and from plants that have survived the winter. _use._--the leaves and young stems are the only parts of the plant used. they are often boiled and served alone; and sometimes, with the addition of sorrel-leaves, are used in soups, and eaten with almost every description of meat. "the expressed juice is often employed by cooks and confectioners for giving a green color to made dishes. when eaten freely, it is mildly laxative, diuretic, and cooling. of itself, it affords little nourishment. it should be boiled without the addition of water, beyond what hangs to the leaves in rinsing them; and, when cooked, the moisture which naturally comes from the leaves should be pressed out before being sent to the table. the young leaves were at one period used as a salad."--_m'int._ _varieties._-- flanders spinach. _trans._ this is a winter spinach, and is considered superior to the prickly or common winter spinach, which is in general cultivation during the winter season in our gardens. it is equally hardy, perhaps hardier. the leaves are doubly hastate or halberd shaped, and somewhat wrinkled: the lower ones measure from twelve to fourteen inches in length, and from six to eight in breadth. they are not only larger, but thicker and more succulent, than those of the prickly spinach. the whole plant grows more bushy, and produces a greater number of leaves from each root; and it is sometimes later in running to seed. the seeds are like those of the round or summer spinach, but larger: they are destitute of the prickles which distinguish the seeds of the common winter spinach. for winter use, sow at the time directed for sowing the large prickly-seeded, but allow more space between the rows than for that variety; subsequent culture, and treatment during the winter, the same as the prickly-seeded. large prickly-seeded spinach. large winter spinach. epinard d'angleterre. _vil._ leaves comparatively large, rounded at the ends, thick and succulent. in foliage and general character, it is similar to some of the round-seeded varieties; but is much hardier, and slower in running to seed. it is commonly known as "winter spinach," and principally cultivated for use during this portion of the year. the seeds are planted towards the last of august, in drills a foot apart, and nearly an inch in depth. when well up, the plants should be thinned to four or five inches apart in the drills; and, if the weather is favorable, they will be stocky and vigorous at the approach of severe weather. before the closing-up of the ground, lay strips of joist or other like material between the rows, cover all over with clean straw, and keep the bed thus protected until the approach of spring or the crop has been gathered for use. lettuce-leaved spinach. epinard à feuille de laitue. _vil._ epinard gaudry. leaves very large, on short stems, rounded, deep-green, with a bluish tinge, less erect than those of the other varieties, often blistered on the surface, and of thick substance. it is neither so early nor so hardy as some others; but it is slow in the development of its flower-stalk, and there are few kinds more productive or of better quality. the seeds are round and smooth. for a succession, a sowing should be made at intervals of two weeks. "a variety called 'gaudry,' if not identical, is very similar to this." sorrel-leaved spinach. leaves of medium size, halberd-formed, deep-green, thick, and fleshy. a hardy and productive sort, similar to the yellow or white sorrel-leaved, but differing in the deeper color of its stalks and leaves. summer or round-leaved spinach. round dutch. epinard de hollande. _vil._ leaves large, thick, and fleshy, rounded at the ends, and entire, or nearly entire, on the borders. this variety is generally grown for summer use; but it soon runs to seed, particularly in warm and dry weather. where a constant supply is required, a sowing should be made every fortnight, commencing as early in spring as the frost leaves the ground. the seeds are round and smooth. plants from the first sowing will be ready for use the last of may or early in june. in belgium and germany, a sub-variety is cultivated, with smaller and deeper-colored foliage, and which is slower in running to flower. it is not, however, considered preferable to the common summer or round-leaved. winter or common prickly spinach. epinard ordinaire. _vil._ leaves seven or eight inches long, halberd-shaped, deep-green, thin in texture, and nearly erect on the stalk of the plant; seeds prickly. from this variety most of the improved kinds of prickly spinach have been obtained; and the common winter or prickly-seeded is now considered scarcely worthy of cultivation. yellow sorrel-leaved spinach. white sorrel-leaved spinach. blond à feuille d'oseille. _vil._ the leaves of this variety are similar in form and appearance to those of the garden sorrel. they are of medium size, entire on the border, yellowish-white at the base, greener at the tips, and blistered on the surface. new. represented as being hardy, productive, slow in the development of its flower-stalk, and of good quality. * * * * * wild or perennial spinach. good king henry. tota bona. goose-foot. blitum bonus henricus. a hardy perennial plant, indigenous to great britain, and naturalized to a very limited extent in this country. its stem is two feet and a half in height; the leaves are arrow-shaped, smooth, deep-green, undulated on the borders, and mealy on their under surface; the flowers are numerous, small, greenish, and produced in compact groups, or clusters; the seeds are small, black, and kidney-shaped. _propagation and culture._--"it may be propagated by seed sown in april or may, and transplanted, when the plants are fit to handle, into a nursery-bed. in august or september, they should be again transplanted where they are to remain, setting them in rows a foot apart, and ten inches asunder in the rows, in ground of a loamy nature, trenched to the depth of fifteen or eighteen inches, as their roots penetrate to a considerable depth. the following spring, the leaves are fit to gather for use; and should be picked as they advance, taking the largest first. in this way, a bed will continue productive for several years. "being a hardy perennial, it may also be increased by dividing the plant into pieces, each having a portion of the root and a small bit of the crown, which is thickly set with buds, which spring freely on being replanted. "most of the species of this genus, both indigenous and exotic, are plants of easy cultivation, and may be safely used as articles of food."--_m'int._ _use._--the same as spinach. chapter vii. salad plants. alexanders. brook-lime. buckshorn plantain. burnet. caterpillar. celery. celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery. chervil. chiccory, or succory. corchorus. corn salad. cress, or peppergrass. cuckoo flower. dandelion. endive. horse-radish. lettuce. madras radish. mallow, curled-leaf. mustard. nasturtium. garden picridium. purslain. rape. roquette, or rocket. samphire. scurvy-grass. snails. sweet-scented chervil, or sweet cicely. tarragon. valeriana. water-cress. winter-cress, or yellow rocket. wood-sorrel. worms. * * * * * alexanders. alisanders. smyrnium olusatrum. a hardy, biennial plant, with foliage somewhat resembling that of celery. stem three to four feet high, much branched; radical leaves pale-green, compound,--those of the stem similar in form, but of smaller size. the branches of the plant terminate in large umbels, or spherical bunches of yellowish flowers; which are succeeded by roundish fruits, each of which contains two crescent-shaped seeds. _sowing and culture._--it thrives best in light, deep loam; and is raised from seed sown annually. make the drills two and a half or three feet apart, and cover the seeds an inch deep. when the plants are two or three inches high, thin to twelve inches apart; or sow a few seeds in a nursery-bed, and transplant. _blanching._--when the plants are well advanced, they should be gradually earthed up about the stems in the process of cultivation, in the manner of blanching celery or cardoons; like which, they are also gathered for use, and preserved during winter. _to raise seed._--leave a few plants unblanched; protect with stable-litter, or other convenient material, during winter; and they will flower, and produce an abundance of seeds, the following summer. _use._--it was formerly much cultivated for its leaf-stalks; which, after being blanched, were used as a pot-herb and for salad. they have a pleasant, aromatic taste and odor; but the plant is now rarely grown, celery being almost universally preferred. perfoliate alexanders. smyrnium perfoliatum. a hardy, biennial species, from italy; stem three feet in height, grooved or furrowed, hollow; leaves many times divided, and of a yellowish-green color; flowers, in terminal bunches, yellowish-white; seeds black, of the form of those of the common species, but smaller. it is considered superior to the last named, as it not only blanches better, but is more crisp and tender, and not so harsh-flavored. * * * * * brook-lime. american brook-lime. marsh speedwell. veronica beccabunga. brook-lime is a native of this country, but is also common to great britain. it is a hardy perennial, and grows naturally in ditches, and streams of water, but is rarely cultivated. the stem is from ten to fifteen inches in height, thick, smooth, and succulent, and sends out roots at the joints, by which the plant spreads and is propagated; the leaves are opposite, oval, smooth, and fleshy; the flowers are produced in long bunches, are of a fine blue color, and stand upon short stems,--they are more or less abundant during most of the summer, and are followed by heart-shaped seed-vessels, containing small, roundish seeds. _cultivation._--it may be propagated by dividing the roots, and setting the plants in wet localities, according to their natural habit. it will thrive well when grown with water-cress. _use._--the whole plant is used as a salad, in the same manner and for the same purposes as water-cress. it is considered an excellent anti-scorbutic. * * * * * buckshorn plantain. star of the earth. plantago coronopus. a hardy annual, indigenous to great britain, france, and other countries of europe. the root-leaves are put forth horizontally, and spread regularly about a common centre somewhat in the form of a rosette; the flower-stem is leafless, branching, and from eight to ten inches high; flowers yellow; the seeds are quite small, of a clear, brown color, and retain their power of germination three years,--nearly two hundred and thirty thousand are contained in an ounce. _soil and cultivation._--it succeeds best in a soil comparatively light; and the seed should be sown in april. sow thinly, broadcast, or in shallow drills eight inches apart. when the plants are about an inch high, thin them to three or four inches apart. _use._--the plant is cultivated for its leaves, which are used as a salad. they should be plucked while still young and tender, or when about half grown. * * * * * burnet. _mill._ poterium sanguisorba. burnet is a hardy, perennial plant, indigenous to england, where it is found on dry, upland, chalky soils. when fully developed, it is from a foot and a half to two feet in height. the leaves proceeding directly from the root are produced on long stems, and are composed of from eleven to fifteen smaller leaves, which are of an oval form, regularly toothed, and generally, but not uniformly, smooth. the branches, which are somewhat numerous, terminate in long, slender stems, each of which produces an oval or roundish bunch of purplish-red, fertile and infertile flowers. the fertile flowers produce two seeds each, which ripen in august or september. these are oblong, four-sided, of a yellowish color, and retain their vitality two years. thirty-five hundred are contained in an ounce. _sowing and culture._--the plant is easily propagated by seeds, which may be sown either in autumn or spring. sow in drills ten inches apart, half or three-fourths of an inch deep; and thin, while the plants are young, to six or eight inches in the row. if the seeds are allowed to scatter from the plants in autumn, young seedlings will come up plentifully in the following spring, and may be transplanted to the distances before directed. in dry soil, the plants will continue for many years; requiring no further care than to be occasionally hoed, and kept free from weeds. it may also be propagated by dividing the roots; but, as it is easily grown from seeds, this method is not generally practised. _use._--the leaves have a warm, piquant taste, and, when bruised, resemble cucumbers in odor. they are sometimes used as salad, and occasionally form an ingredient in soups. the roots, after being dried and pulverized, are employed in cases of internal hemorrhage. it is very little used in this country, and rarely seen in gardens. _varieties._--there are three varieties; the distinctions, however, being neither permanent nor important. hairy-leaved burnet. leaves and stems comparatively rough or hairy; in other respects, similar to the smooth-leaved. either of the varieties may be propagated by dividing the roots. large-seeded burnet. this, like the others, is a sub-variety, and probably but a seminal variation. smooth-leaved burnet. leaves and stems of the plant comparatively smooth, but differing in no other particular from the hairy-leaved. seeds from this variety would probably produce plants answering to both descriptions. * * * * * caterpillar. chenille, of the french. _vil._ scorpiurus. all of the species here described are hardy, annual plants, with creeping or recumbent stems, usually about two feet in length. the leaves are oblong, entire on the borders, broadest near the ends, and taper towards the stem; the flowers are yellow, and quite small; the seeds are produced in caterpillar-like pods, and retain their vitality five years. _cultivation._--the seeds may be planted in the open ground in april or may; or the plants may be started in a hot-bed, and set out after settled warm weather. the rows should be fifteen inches apart, and the plants twelve or fifteen inches apart in the rows; or the plants may be grown in hills two feet and a half apart, and two or three plants allowed to a hill. _use._--no part of the plant is eatable; but the pods, in their green state, are placed upon dishes of salads, where they so nearly resemble certain species of caterpillars as to completely deceive the uninitiated or inexperienced. _species._--the species cultivated are the following; viz.:-- common caterpillar. chenille grosse. _vil._ scorpiurus vermiculata. pod, or fruit, comparatively large. the interior grooves, or furrows, are indistinct, or quite wanting: the exterior grooves are ten in number, and well defined. along the summit of these furrows are produced numerous, small, pedicelled tubercles, quite similar to those of some species of worms or caterpillars; and these small tufts, in connection with the brownish-green color and peculiar coiling of the pods, make the resemblance nearly perfect, especially if seen from a short distance. the seeds are large, oblong, flattened at the ends, and of a yellowish color. a well-developed fruit will measure about three-eighths of an inch in diameter; and, when uncoiled, nearly an inch and a half in length. furrowed caterpillar. chenille rayée. _vil._ scorpiurus sulcata. fruit rather slender, furrowed, grayish-green within the furrows, and brown along the summits. four of the exterior furrows are surmounted with numerous small, obtuse, or rounded tubercles; and the pods are coiled in the manner peculiar to the class. the seeds resemble those of the prickly caterpillar, but are of larger size. prickly caterpillar. _vil._ small caterpillar. scorpiurus muricata. pod, or fruit, a fourth of an inch in diameter, curved or coiled; longitudinally furrowed, with numerous, small, erect, tufted points, regularly arranged along the surface. it is of a brownish-red color, with shades of green; and, when well grown, bears a remarkable resemblance to some species of hairy worms or caterpillars. the seeds are large, long, wrinkled, and of a yellowish color. villous or hairy caterpillar. chenille velue. _vil._ scorpiurus subvillosa. this species resembles the prickly caterpillar, but is a little larger. the most marked distinction, however, is in the small points, or tubercles, placed along the longitudinal ridges, which in this species are recurved, or bent at the tips. the seeds are larger than those of the foregoing species. * * * * * celery. smallage. apium graveolens. celery, or smallage, is a hardy, umbelliferous, biennial plant, growing naturally "by the sides of ditches and near the sea, where it rises with wedge-shaped leaves and a furrowed stalk, producing greenish flowers in august." under cultivation, the leaves are pinnatifid, with triangular leaflets; the leaf-stems are large, rounded, grooved, succulent, and solid or hollow according to the variety. the plant flowers during the second year, and then measures from two to three feet in height; the flowers are small, yellowish-white, and are produced in umbels, or flat, spreading groups, at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are small, somewhat triangular, of a yellowish-brown color, aromatic when bruised, and of a warm, pleasant flavor. they are said to retain their germinative powers ten years; but, by seedsmen, are not considered reliable when more than five years old. an ounce contains nearly seventy thousand seeds. _soil._--any good garden soil, in a fair state of cultivation, is adapted to the growth of celery. _propagation._--it is always propagated by seed; one-fourth of an ounce of which is sufficient for a seed-bed five feet wide and ten feet long. the first sowing is usually made in a hot-bed in march: and it may be sown in the open ground in april or may; but, when so treated, vegetates slowly, often remaining in the earth several weeks before it comes up. "a bushel or two of stable manure, put in a hole in the ground against a wall or any fence facing the south, and covered with a rich, fine mould three or four inches deep, will bring the seed up in two weeks." if this method is practised, sprinkle the seed thinly over the surface of the loam, stir the soil to the depth of half an inch, and press the earth flat and smooth with the back of a spade. sufficient plants for any family may be started in a large flower-pot or two, placed in the sitting-room, giving them plenty of light and moisture. _cultivation._--as soon as the young plants are about three inches high, prepare a small bed in the open air, and make the ground rich and the earth fine. here set out the plants for a temporary growth, placing them four inches apart. this should be done carefully; and they should be gently watered once, and protected for a day or two against the sun. "a bed ten feet long and four feet wide will contain three hundred and sixty plants; and, if they be well cultivated, will more than supply the table of a common-sized family from october to may." "in this bed the plants should remain till the beginning or middle of july, when they should be removed into trenches. make the trenches a foot or fifteen inches deep and a foot wide, and not less than five feet apart. lay the earth taken out of the trenches into the middle of the space between the trenches, so that it may not be washed into them by heavy rains; for it will, in such case, materially injure the crop by covering the hearts of the plants. at the bottom of the trench put some good, rich, but well-digested compost manure; for, if too fresh, the celery will be rank and pipy, or hollow, and will not keep nearly so long or so well. dig this manure in, and make the earth fine and light; then take up the plants from the temporary bed, and set them out carefully in the bottom of the trenches, six or eight inches apart."--_corb._ it is the practice of some cultivators, at the time of setting in the trenches, to remove all the suckers, to shorten the long roots, and to cut the leaves off, so that the whole plant shall be about six inches in length. but the best growers in england have abandoned this method, and now set the plants, roots and tops, entire. _blanching._--"when the plants begin to grow (which they will quickly do), hoe on each side and between them with a small hoe. as they grow up, earth their stems; that is, put the earth up against them, but not too much at a time, and always when the plants are dry; and let the earth put up be finely broken, and not at all cloddy. while this is being done, keep the stalks of the outside leaves close up, to prevent the earth getting between the stems of the outside leaves and inner ones; for, if it gets there, it checks the plant, and makes the celery bad. when the earthing is commenced, take first the edges of the trenches, working backwards, time after time, till the earth is reached that was taken from the trenches; and, by this time, the earth against the plants will be above the level of the land. then take the earth out of the middle, till at last the earth against the plants forms a ridge; and the middle of each interval, a sort of gutter. earth up very often, not putting up much at a time, every week a little; and by the last of september, or beginning of october, it will be blanched sufficient for use."--_corb._ another (more recent) method of cultivation and blanching is to take the plants from the temporary bed, remove the suckers, and set them with the roots entire, ten inches apart in the trenches. they are then allowed to grow until they have attained nearly their full size, when the earth for blanching is more rapidly applied than in the previous method. "many plant on the surface,--that is, marking out the size of the bed on ground that has been previously trenched; digging in at least six or eight inches of rich, half-decayed manure, and planting either in single lines four feet apart, or making beds six feet broad, and planting across them, setting the rows fourteen inches apart, and the plants eight inches apart in the lines. they may be earthed up as they advance, or not, until they have attained the height of a foot."--_m'int._ m'intosh gives the following method, practised by the edinburgh market-gardeners: "trenches, six feet wide and one foot deep, are dug out; the bottom is loosened and well enriched, and the plants set in rows across the bed, fourteen inches asunder, and the plants nine inches apart in the rows. by this means, space is economized, and the plants attain a fair average size and quality. the same plan is very often followed in private gardens; and, where the new and improved sorts are grown, they arrive at the size most available for family use. this is one of the best methods for amateurs to grow this crop. they should grow their plants in the temporary or nursery beds until they are ten inches or a foot high, before planting in the trenches; giving plenty of water, and afterwards earthing up once a fortnight." some allow the plants to make a natural growth, and earth up at once, about three weeks before being required for use. when so treated, the stalks are of remarkable whiteness, crisp, tender, and less liable to russet-brown spots than when the plants are blanched by the more common method. _taking the crop._--before the closing-up of the ground, the principal part of the crop should be carefully taken up (retaining the roots and soil naturally adhering), and removed to the cellar; where they should be packed in moderately moist earth or sand, without covering the ends of the leaves. a portion may be allowed to remain in the open ground; but the hearts of the plants must be protected from wet weather. this may be done by placing boards lengthwise, in the form of a roof, over the ridges. as soon as the frost leaves the ground in spring, or at any time during the winter when the weather will admit, celery may be taken for use directly from the garden. _seed._--two or three plants will produce an abundance. they should be grown two feet apart, and may remain in the open ground during the winter. the seeds ripen in august. _use._--the stems of the leaves are the parts of the plant used. these, after being blanched, are exceedingly crisp and tender, with an agreeable and peculiarly aromatic flavor. they are sometimes employed in soups; but are more generally served crude, with the addition of oil, mustard, and vinegar, or with salt only. the seeds have the taste and odor of the stems of the leaves, and are often used in their stead for flavoring soups. with perhaps the exception of lettuce, celery is more generally used in this country than any other salad plant. it succeeds well throughout the northern and middle states; and, in the vicinity of some of our large cities, is produced of remarkable size and excellence. _varieties._-- boston-market celery. a medium-sized, white variety; hardy, crisp, succulent, and mild flavored. compared with the white solid, the stalks are more numerous, shorter, not so thick, and much finer in texture. it blanches quickly, and is recommended for its hardiness and crispness; the stalks rarely becoming stringy or fibrous, even at an advanced stage of growth. much grown by market-gardeners in the vicinity of boston, mass. cole's superb red. _m'int._ this is comparatively a new sort, of much excellence, and of remarkable solidity. it is not of large size, but well adapted for cultivation in the kitchen-garden and for family use; not so well suited for marketing or for exhibition purposes. it has the valuable property of not piping or becoming hollow or stringy, and remains long without running to seed. the leaf-stalks are of a fine purple color, tender, crisp, and fine flavored. a well-grown plant will weigh about six pounds. cole's superb white. much like cole's superb red; differing little, except in color. an excellent sort, hardy, runs late to seed, and is one of the most crisp and tender of the white sorts. stalks short and thick. dwarf curled white. céleri nain frisé. _vil._ leaves dark-green, curled, resembling those of parsley, and, like it, might be employed for garnishing. leaf-stalks rounded and grooved, comparatively crisp and solid, but not fine flavored. it is quite hardy, and, in moderate winters, will remain in the open ground without injury, and serve for soups in spring. its fine, curled foliage, however, is its greatest recommendation. early dwarf solid white. _thomp._ céleri plein, blanc, court, hâtif. _vil._ rather dwarf, but thick-stemmed. the heart is remarkably full; the leaf-stalk solid, blanching promptly. there is, in fact, much more finely blanched substance in a plant of this variety than in one of the tall sorts, and the quality is excellent. it comes into use rather early, and is one of the hardiest of the white varieties. italian celery. _thomp._ large upright. giant patagonian. a tall, strong-growing, erect sort; leaf-stems deeply furrowed, sometimes a little hollow; leaves large, deep-green, with coarse, obtuse serratures. it is not so crisp as the common white solid; and is suitable only for soups, or where very tall celery is desirable. laing's improved mammoth red celery. this is considered the largest variety yet produced; specimens having attained, in england, the extraordinary weight of eight or ten pounds, and at the same time perfectly solid. it is nearly perennial in its habit, as it will not run to seed the first year; and is with difficulty started to blossom even during the second, when planted out for the purpose. color bright-red; flavor unsurpassed, if equalled. manchester red celery. _thomp._ manchester red giant. this variety scarcely differs from the red solid. it has, however, a coarser habit, with a somewhat rounder stalk; and, this being the case, the heart is not so compact. it is grown largely for marketing, and is excellent for soups and stewing. nutt's champion white celery. _m'int._ originated with mr. nutt, of sheffield. it attains, under good management, in good soil, a large size, and, this considered, is of excellent quality; very white, and not apt to run to seed. red solid. _thomp._ new large red. new large purple. tours purple. céleri violet de tours. the plant grows to a large size, full-hearted, with a thick stem. leaf-stalks thick, deeply furrowed, and very solid, of a dark-red or purplish hue where exposed, rose-colored where partially blanched; but the perfectly blanched portion is pure white, more so than the blanched part of the white varieties of celery. it is also crisp, of excellent flavor, and unquestionably the best variety of red celery. seymour's superb white. _thomp._ seymour's superb white solid. a large-sized, vigorous-growing variety; in good soils, often attaining a height of nearly three feet. the stalks are solid; flat at the base, where they overlap, and form a compact, crisp, and, with ordinary care, a well-blanched heart of excellent quality. it succeeds best, as most other sorts do, in rich, moist soil; and when so grown, and properly blanched, will yield a large proportion of celery, of a pure white color, and of the best quality. it is one of the best sorts for extensive culture for the markets, as it is also one of the best varieties for small gardens for family use. it blanches readily; and, with little care, will supply the table, from the last of september, through most of the winter. seymour's white champion. a variety represented as being superior to seymour's superb white. the stalks are broad, flat at the base, and form a compact, well-blanched, crisp heart. shepherd's red. _thomp._ shepherd's giant red. much like the manchester red, but has flatter stems: consequently, it is more compact, and blanches sooner and more perfectly, than that variety; to which, for these reasons, it is preferred by growers for competition. small dutch celery. céleri à couper. _vil._ leaf-stems small, hollow, crisp, and succulent; sprouts, or suckers, abundant. it is seldom blanched; but the leaves are sometimes used for flavoring soups. the seeds should be sown thickly, and on level beds. the plants often resprout after being cut. not much cultivated. sutton's white solid. _m'int._ a very large yet solid-growing variety, exceedingly white and crisp. turkey or prussian celery. giant white. céleri turc. _vil._ turkish giant solid. a remarkably large variety, resembling the common white solid. leaf-stalks long, large, erect, fleshy, and solid; leaves large, with rounded serratures, and of a glossy-green color. it is one of the largest of the white sorts, and is considered superior to the common white solid. wall's white celery. _thomp._ an improved variety of the italian, esteemed by growers for competition, where quantity, not quality, is the principal consideration. white lion's-paw celery. _m'int._ lion's-paw. a short, broad, flat-stalked variety, of excellent quality; crisp and white. its short, flat, spreading habit gave rise to its name. white solid. _thomp._ céleri plein, blanc. _vil._ fine white solid. this variety is of strong and rather tall growth; leaf-stalks generally solid, but when grown in rich, highly manured soil, they sometimes become slightly hollow; leaves large, smooth, bright-green; serratures large and obtuse. it blanches readily, is crisp, of excellent quality, and comes into use earlier than the red sorts. it is generally cultivated in the northern states, not only on account of its hardiness, but for its keeping qualities. as a market variety, it is one of the best. * * * * * celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery. this variety forms at the base of the leaves, near the surface of the ground, a brownish, irregular, rounded root, or tuber, measuring from three to four inches in diameter. the leaves are small, with slender, hollow stems. in favorable exposures and rich soil, the roots sometimes attain a weight of more than three pounds. it is much hardier than the common varieties of celery. _propagation._--it is propagated from seeds, which may be sown in the open ground in april or may, in shallow drills six or eight inches apart. "when the young plants are three inches high, they should be removed, and set on the surface (not in trenches), in moderately enriched soil. they should be set in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot from each other in the line. at the time of transplanting, all of the small suckers, or side-shoots, should be rubbed off,--a precaution to be kept in view throughout its growth,--as the energies of the whole plant ought to be directed to the formation of the bulb-like root."--_m'int._ _subsequent cultivation._--the growing crop will require no peculiar treatment. when the bulbs are two-thirds grown, they are earthed over for the purpose of blanching, and to render the flesh crisp and tender. cool and humid seasons are the most favorable to their growth. in warm and dry weather, the bulbs are small, comparatively tough, and strong flavored. _taking the crop._--some of the bulbs will be ready for use in september; from which time, till the last of november, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. before severe weather, the quantity required for winter should be drawn, packed in damp earth or sand, and stored in the cellar. _to save seed._--give to a few plants, taken up in the autumn, as much light and air as possible during the winter, keeping them cool, but not allowing them to freeze; and, in april, set them in the open ground, eighteen inches apart. the seed will ripen the last of the season. it is often used in the manner of the seed of the common celery for seasoning soups. _use._--the root, or bulb, is the part of the plant eaten: the flesh of this is white, and comparatively tender, with the flavor of the stalks of common celery, though generally less mild and delicate. it is principally valued for its remarkable hardiness and for its keeping properties. where the common varieties of celery are grown or preserved with difficulty, this might be successfully grown, and afford a tolerable substitute. the bulbs are sometimes eaten boiled, and the leaves are occasionally used in soups. curled-leaved celeriac. curled-leaved turnip-rooted. céleri-rave frisé. _vil._ this is a variety of the common celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery; like which, it forms a sort of bulb, or knob, near the surface of the ground. it is, however, of smaller size; usually measuring about three inches in diameter. the skin is brown, and the flesh white and fine-grained; leaves small, spreading, curled. it is in no respect superior to the common turnip-rooted, and possesses little merit aside from the peculiarity of its foliage. cultivate, preserve during winter, and use as directed for the common variety. early erfurt celeriac. céleri-rave d'erfurt. _vil._ a very early variety. root, or bulb, not large, but regular in form. its earliness is its principal merit. chervil. chærophyllum cerefolium. common or plain-leaved. a hardy, annual plant, from the south of europe. stem eighteen inches to two feet in height; the leaves are many times divided, and are similar to those of the common plain parsley; the flowers are small, white, and produced in umbels at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are black, long, pointed, longitudinally grooved, and retain their vitality but two years,--nearly nine thousand are contained in an ounce. "this is the most common sort; but, except that it is hardier than the curled varieties, is not worthy of cultivation." curled chervil. _m'int._ a variety of the common chervil, with frilled or curled leaves; the distinction between the sorts being nearly the same as that between the plain-leaved and curled-leaved varieties of parsley. the foliage is delicately and beautifully frilled; and, on this account, is much employed for garnishing, as well as for the ordinary purposes for which the plain sort is used. being a larger grower, it requires more room for its development; and the plants should stand a foot apart each way. when intended for winter use, it should have the protection of hand-glasses, frames, or branches of trees placed thickly around or amongst it. in very unfavorable situations, it is well to pot a dozen or two plants, and shelter them under glass during the winter. frizzled-leaved or french chervil. _m'int._ double-curled. cerfeuil frisé. _vil._ an improved variety of the curled chervil,--even more beautiful; but wanting in hardiness. it succeeds best when grown in the summer months. _propagation and cultivation._--chervil is raised from seeds; and, where it is much used, sowings should be made, at intervals of three or four weeks, from april till july. the seeds should be sown thinly, in drills a foot apart, and covered nearly an inch in depth. _use._--it is cultivated for its leaves, which have a pleasant, aromatic taste; and, while young and tender, are employed for flavoring soups and salads. * * * * * chiccory, or succory. wild endive. cichorium intybus. a hardy, perennial plant, introduced into this country from europe, and often abounding as a troublesome weed in pastures, lawns, and mowing-lands. the stem is erect, stout, and branching, and, in its native state, usually about three feet in height,--under cultivation, however, it sometimes attains a height of five or six feet; the radical leaves are deep-green, lobed, and, when grown in good soil, measure ten or twelve inches in length, and four inches in width; the flowers are large, axillary, nearly stemless, of a fine blue color, and generally produced in pairs; the seeds somewhat resemble those of endive, though ordinarily smaller, more glossy, and of a deeper-brown color,--they will keep ten years. the plants continue in blossom from july to september; and the seeds ripen from august to october, or until the plants are destroyed by frost. _soil, sowing, and cultivation._--as the roots of chiccory are long and tapering, it should be cultivated in rich, mellow soil, thoroughly stirred, either by the plough or spade, to the depth of ten or twelve inches. the seed should be sown in april or may, in drills fifteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch deep. when the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to eight inches apart in the rows; and, during the summer, cultivate frequently, to keep the soil light, and the growing crop free from weeds. _blanching._--before using as a salad, the plants are blanched, either by covering with boxes a foot in depth, or by strips of boards twelve or fourteen inches wide, nailed together at right angles, and placed lengthwise over the rows. they are sometimes blanched by covering with earth; the leaves being first gathered together, and tied loosely at the top, which should be left exposed to light. _to save seed._--in the autumn, leave a few of the best plants unblanched; let them be about eighteen inches asunder. protect with stable litter; or, if in a sheltered situation, leave them unprotected during winter, and they will yield abundantly the ensuing summer. _taking the crop._--when the leaves are properly blanched, they will be of a delicate, creamy white. when they are about a foot high, they will be ready for use; and, as soon as they are cut, the roots should be removed, and others brought forward to succeed them. "in cutting, take off the leaves with a thin slice of the crown, to keep them together, as in cutting sea-kale. when washed, and tied up in small bundles of a handful each, they are fit for dressing."--_m'int._ _use._--it is used as endive; its flavor and properties being much the same. though rarely grown in this country, it is common to the gardens of many parts of europe, and is much esteemed. the blanched leaves are known as _barbe de capucin_, or "friar's beard." _varieties._-- improved chiccory, or succory. chicorée sauvage améliorée. _vil._ leaves larger than those of the common chiccory, and produced more compactly; forming a sort of head, or solid heart, like some of the endives. the plant is sometimes boiled and served in the manner of spinach. variegated or spotted chiccory. _vil._ this is a variety of the preceding, distinguished by the color of the leaves, which are veined, and streaked with red. in blanching, the red is not changed, but retains its brilliancy; while the green becomes nearly pure white,--the two colors blending in rich contrast. in this state they form a beautiful, as well as tender and well-flavored, salad. improved variegated chiccory. _vil._ a sub-variety of the spotted chiccory, more constant in its character, and more uniform and distinct in its stripes and variegations. when blanched, it makes an exceedingly delicate and beautiful garnish, and a tender and excellent salad. either of the improved sorts are as hardy, and blanch as readily, as the common chiccory. large-rooted or coffee chiccory. turnip-rooted chiccory. this variety is distinguished by its long, fleshy roots, which are sometimes fusiform, but generally much branched or divided: when well grown, they are twelve or fourteen inches in length, and about an inch in their largest diameter. the leaves have the form of those of the common chiccory, but are larger, and more luxuriant. though the variety is generally cultivated for its roots, the leaves, when blanched, afford a salad even superior to some of the improved sorts before described. vilmorin mentions two sub-varieties of the large-rooted or coffee chiccory; viz.:-- brunswick large-rooted. roots shorter than those of the magdebourg, but of greater diameter; leaves spreading. magdebourg large-rooted. roots long, and comparatively large; leaves erect. after several years' trial, preference was given to this variety, which proved the more productive. _sowing and cultivation._--for raising coffee chiccory, the ground should first be well enriched, and then deeply and thoroughly stirred by spading or ploughing. the seeds should be sown in april or may, in shallow drills a foot apart, and the young plants thinned to three or four inches apart in the rows. hoe frequently; water, if the weather is dry; and in the autumn, when the roots have attained sufficient size, draw them for use. after being properly cleaned, cut them into small pieces, dry them thoroughly in a kiln or spent oven, and store for use or the market. after being roasted and ground, chiccory is mixed with coffee in various proportions, and thus forms a pleasant beverage; or, if used alone, will be found a tolerable substitute for genuine coffee. the roots of any of the before-described varieties may be used in the same manner; but as they are much smaller, and consequently less productive, are seldom cultivated for the purpose. it is an article of considerable commercial importance; large quantities being annually imported from the south of europe to different seaports of the united states. as the plant is perfectly hardy, of easy culture, and quite productive, there appears to be no reason why the home demand for the article may not be supplied by home production. of its perfect adaptedness to the soil and climate of almost any section of this country, there can scarcely be a doubt. * * * * * corchorus. corette potagère, of the french. corchorus olitorius. an annual plant from africa; also indigenous to the west indies. stem about two feet high, much branched; leaves deep-green, slightly toothed, varying in a remarkable degree in their size and form,--some being spear-shaped, others oval, and some nearly heart-shaped; leaf-stems long and slender; flowers nearly sessile, small, yellow, five-petaled; seeds angular, pointed, and of a greenish color,--fourteen thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality four years. _soil, propagation, and culture._--the plant requires a light, warm soil; and should have a sheltered, sunny place in the garden. it is grown from seed sown annually. the sowing may be made in march in a hot-bed, and the plants set in the open ground in may; or the seed may be sown the last of april, or first of may, in the place where the plants are to remain. the drills, or rows, should be fifteen inches apart, and the plants five or six inches apart in the rows. no further attention will be required, except the ordinary labor of keeping the soil loose and the plants clear from weeds. _use._--the leaves are eaten as a salad, and are also boiled and served at table in the form of greens or spinach. they may be cut as soon as they have reached a height of five or six inches. * * * * * corn salad. fetticus. lamb's lettuce. mâche, of the french. valeriana locusta. this is a small, hardy, annual plant, said to derive its name from its spontaneous growth, in fields of wheat, in england. it is also indigenous to france and the south of europe. when in flower, or fully grown, it is from twelve to fifteen inches in height. the flowers are small, pale-blue; the seeds are rather small, of a yellowish-brown color, unequally divided by two shallow, lengthwise grooves, and will keep six or eight years. _soil and culture._--it is always grown from seed, and flourishes best in good vegetable loam, but will grow in any tolerably enriched garden soil. early in april, prepare a bed four feet wide, and of a length according to the quantity of salad required; having regard to the fact, that it is better to sow only a small quantity at a time. rake the surface of the bed even, make the rows across the bed about eight inches apart, sow the seed rather thinly, and cover about one-fourth of an inch deep with fine, moist soil. if dry weather occurs after sowing, give the bed a good supply of water. when the young plants are two inches high, thin them to four inches apart, and cut or draw for use as soon as the leaves have attained a suitable size. as the peculiar value of corn salad lies in its remarkable hardiness, a sowing should be made the last of august or beginning of september, for use during the winter or early in spring; but, if the weather is severe, the plants must be protected by straw or some other convenient material. early in march, or as soon as the weather becomes a little mild, remove the covering, and the plants will keep the table supplied until the leaves from fresh sowings shall be grown sufficiently for cutting. _seed._--to raise seed, allow a few plants from the spring sowing to remain without cutting. they will grow up to the height and in the manner before described, and blossom, and ripen their seed during the summer. an ounce of seed will sow a row two hundred feet in length, and about five pounds will be required for an acre. _use._--the leaves, while young, are used as a salad; and in winter, or early in spring, are considered excellent. they are also sometimes boiled and served as spinach. _varieties._-- common corn salad. root-leaves rounded at the ends, smooth, three or four inches long by about an inch in width. the younger the plants are when used, the more agreeable will be their flavor. large round-leaved. leaves larger, of a deeper green, thicker, and more succulent, than those of the foregoing variety. it is the best sort for cultivation. the leaves are most tender, and should be cut for use while young and small. large-seeded round. _vil._ this is a sub-variety of the large round, and is much cultivated in germany and holland. the leaves are longer, narrower, and thinner, and more tender when eaten; but the large round is preferred by gardeners for marketing, as it bears transportation better. the seeds are about twice as large. italian corn salad. _vil._ valerianella eriocarpa. the italian corn salad is a distinct species, and differs from the common corn salad in its foliage, and, to some extent, in its general habit. it is a hardy annual, about eighteen inches high. the radical leaves are pale-green, large, thick, and fleshy,--those of the stalk long, narrow, and pointed; the flowers are small, pale-blue, washed or stained with red; the seeds are of a light-brown color, somewhat compressed, convex on one side, hollowed on the opposite, and retain their vitality five years,--nearly twenty-two thousand are contained in an ounce. it is cultivated and used in the same manner as the species before described. it is, however, earlier, milder in flavor, and slower in running to seed. the leaves are sometimes employed early in spring as a substitute for spinach; but their downy or hairy character renders them less valuable for salad purposes than those of some of the varieties of the common corn salad. * * * * * cress, or peppergrass. lepidium sativum. the common cress of the garden is a hardy annual, and a native of persia. when in flower, the stem of the plant is smooth and branching, and about fifteen inches high. the leaves are variously divided, and are plain or curled, according to the variety; the flowers are white, very small, and produced in groups, or bunches; seeds small, oblong, rounded, of a reddish-brown color, and of a peculiar, pungent odor,--about fourteen thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their germinative properties five years. _soil and cultivation._--cress will flourish in any fair garden soil, and is always best when grown early or late in the season. the seed vegetates quickly, and the plants grow rapidly. as they are milder and more tender while young, the seed should be sown in succession, at intervals of about a fortnight; making the first sowing early in april. rake the surface of the ground fine and smooth, and sow the seed rather thickly, in shallow drills six or eight inches apart. half an ounce of seed will be sufficient for thirty feet of drill. _to raise seed._--leave a dozen strong plants of the first sowing uncut. they will ripen their seed in august, and yield a quantity sufficient for the supply of a garden of ordinary size. _use._--the leaves, while young, have a warm, pungent taste; and are eaten as a salad, either separately, or mixed with lettuce or other salad plants. the leaves should be cut or plucked before the plant has run to flower, as they then become acrid and unpalatable. the curled varieties are also used for garnishing. broad-leaved cress. a coarse variety, with broad, spatulate leaves. it is sometimes grown for feeding poultry, and is also used for soups; but it is less desirable as a salad than most of the other sorts. common or plain-leaved cress. this is the variety most generally cultivated. it has plain leaves, and consequently is not so desirable a sort for garnishing. as a salad kind, it is tender and delicate, and considered equal, if not superior, to the curled varieties. curled cress. garnishing cress. leaves larger than those of the common plain variety, of a fine green color, and frilled and curled on the borders in the manner of some kinds of parsley. it is used as a salad, and is also employed as a garnish. it is very liable to degenerate by becoming gradually less curled. to keep the variety pure, select only the finest curled plants for seed. golden cress. _trans._ this variety is of slower growth than the common cress. the leaves are of a yellowish-green, flat, oblong, scalloped on the borders, sometimes entire, and of a much thinner texture than any of the varieties of the common cress. it is very dwarf; and is consequently short, when cut as a salad-herb for use. it has a mild and delicate flavor. when run to flower, it does not exceed eighteen inches in height. it deserves more general cultivation, as affording a pleasant addition to the varieties of small salads. the seeds are of a paler color, or more yellow, than those of the other sorts. normandy curled cress. _m'int._ a very excellent variety, introduced by mr. charles m'intosh, and described as being hardier than the other kinds, and therefore better adapted for sowing early in spring or late in summer. the leaves are finely cut and curled, and make not only a good salad, but a beautiful garnish. the seed should be sown thinly, in good soil, in drills six inches apart. in gathering, instead of cutting the plants over, the leaves should be picked off singly. after this operation, fresh leaves are soon put forth. it is difficult to procure the seed true; the common curled being, in general, substituted for it. * * * * * cuckoo flower. small water-cress. cardamine pratensis. a hardy, perennial plant, introduced from europe, and naturalized to a limited extent in some of the northern states. stem about fifteen inches high, erect, smooth; leaves deeply divided,--the divisions of the radical or root leaves rounded, those of the stalk long, narrow, and pointed; the flowers are comparatively large, white, or rose-colored, and produced in erect, terminal clusters; the seeds are of a brown color, small, oblong, shortened on one side, rounded on the opposite, and retain their vegetating powers four years,--nearly thirty thousand are contained in an ounce. _soil._--it succeeds best in moist, loamy soil; and should have a shady situation. _propagation and cultivation._--it may be propagated from seeds, or by a division of the roots. the seeds are sown in april or may, in shallow drills a foot asunder. the roots may be divided in spring or autumn. _use._--the leaves have the warm, pungent taste common to the cress family; and are used in their young state, like cress, as a salad. medically, they have the reputation of being highly antiscorbutic and of aiding digestion. there are four varieties:-- _white flowering._--a variety with white, single flowers. _purple flowering._--flowers purple, single. either of these varieties may be propagated from seeds, or by a division of the roots. _double flowering white._--flowers white, double. _double flowering purple._--a double variety, with purple blossoms. these varieties are propagated by a division of the roots. double-flowering plants are rarely produced from seeds. * * * * * the dandelion. leontodon taraxacum. the dandelion, though spontaneously abundant, is not a native of this country. introduced from europe, it has become extensively naturalized, abounding in gardens, on lawns, about cultivated lands; and, in may and june, often, of itself alone, constituting no inconsiderable portion of the herbage of rich pastures and mowing-fields. it is a hardy, perennial plant, with an irregular, branching, brownish root. the leaves are all radical, long, runcinate, or deeply and sharply toothed; the flower-stem is from six to twelve inches and upwards in height, leafless, and produces at its top a large, yellow, solitary blossom; the seeds are small, oblong, of a brownish color, and will keep three years. _soil and cultivation._--although the dandelion will thrive in almost any description of soil, it nevertheless produces much the largest, most tender, and best-flavored leaves, as well as the greatest crop of root, when grown in mellow, well-enriched ground. before sowing, stir the soil, either by the spade or plough, deeply and thoroughly; smooth off the surface fine and even; and sow the seeds in drills half an inch deep, and twelve or fifteen inches apart. if cultivated for spring greens, or for blanching for salad, the seed must be sown in may or june. in july, thin out the young plants to two or three inches apart; cultivate during the season in the usual form of cultivating other garden productions; and, in april and may of the ensuing spring, the plants will be fit for the table. for very early use, select a portion of the bed equal to the supply required; and, in november, spread it rather thickly over with coarse stable-manure. about the beginning of february, remove the litter, and place boards or planks on four sides, of a square or parallelogram, in the manner of a common hot-bed, providing for a due inclination towards the south. over these put frames of glass, as usually provided for hot-beds; adding extra protection by covering with straw or other material in intensely cold weather. thus treated, the plants will be ready for cutting two or three weeks earlier than those in the open ground. when grown for its roots, the ground must be prepared in the manner before directed; and the seeds should be sown in october, in drills fourteen or fifteen inches asunder. in june following, thin out the young plants to two or three inches apart; keep the ground loose, and free from weeds, during the summer; and, in october, the roots will have attained their full size, and be ready for harvesting, which is usually performed with a common subsoil plough. after being drawn, they are washed entirely clean, sliced, and dried in the shade; when they are ready for the market. _use._--the dandelion resembles endive, and affords one of the earliest, as well as one of the best and most healthful, of spring greens. "the french use it bleached, as a salad; and if large, and well bleached, it is better than endive, much more tender, and of finer flavor." the roots, after being dried as before directed, constitute an article of considerable commercial importance; being extensively employed as a substitute for, or mixed in various proportions with, coffee. it may be grown for greens at trifling cost; and a bed twelve or fourteen feet square will afford a family an abundant supply. under cultivation, and even in its natural state, the leaves of different plants vary in a marked degree from each other, not only in size, and manner of growth, but also in form. judicious and careful cultivation would give a degree of permanency to these distinctions; and varieties might undoubtedly be produced, well adapted for the various purposes for which the plant is grown, whether for the roots, for blanching, or for greens. * * * * * endive. chicorium endivia. endive is a hardy annual, said to be a native of china and japan. when fully developed, it is from four to six feet in height. the leaves are smooth, and lobed and cut upon the borders more or less deeply, according to the variety; the flowers are usually of a blue color, and rest closely in the axils of the leaves; the seeds are small, long, angular, and of a grayish color; their germinative properties are retained for ten years; nearly twenty-five thousand are contained in an ounce. _soil._--all of the varieties thrive well in any good, mellow garden soil. where there is a choice of situations, select one in which the plants will be the least exposed to the effects of drought and heat. _propagation._--the plants can be raised only from seed. this may be sown where the plants are to remain; or it may be sown broadcast, or in close drills in a nursery-bed for transplanting. if sown where the plants are to remain, sow thinly in shallow drills a foot apart for the smaller, curled varieties, and fifteen inches for the larger, broad-leaved sorts. thin out the plants to a foot asunder as soon as they are large enough to handle, and keep the ground about them, as well as between the rows, loose, and free from weeds, by repeated hoeings. if required, the plants taken out in thinning may be reset in rows at the same distances apart. if sown in a nursery-bed, transplant when the young plants have eight or ten leaves; setting them at the distances before directed. this should be done at morning or evening; and the plants should afterwards be watered and shaded for a few days, until they are well established. the first sowing may be made as early in spring as the weather will permit; and a sowing may be made a month or six weeks after, for a succession: but as it is for use late in autumn, or during the winter and spring, that endive is most required, the later sowings are the most important. these are usually made towards the end of july. _blanching._--before using, the plants must be blanched; which is performed in various ways. the common method is as follows: when the root-leaves have nearly attained their full size, they are taken when entirely dry, gathered together into a conical form, or point, at the top, and tied together with matting, or any other soft, fibrous material; by which means, the large, outer leaves are made to blanch the more tender ones towards the heart of the plant. after being tied in this manner, the plants are sometimes blanched by earthing, as practised with celery or cardoons. this process is recommended for dry and warm seasons: but in cold, wet weather, they are liable to decay at the heart; and blanching-pots, or, in the absence of these, common flower-pots, inverted over the plants, will be found a safe and effectual means of rendering them white, crisp, and mild flavored. "some practise setting two narrow boards along each side of the row; bringing them together at the top in the form of a triangle, and afterwards drawing earth over them to keep them steady. some cover the dwarfish sorts with half-decayed leaves, dry tanner's bark, sand, coal-ashes, and even sawdust; but all of these methods are inferior to the blanch-pot or the tying-up process." _time required for blanching._--in summer weather, when vegetation is active, the plants will blanch in ten days; but in cool weather, when the plants have nearly attained their growth or are slowly developing, three weeks will be required to perfect the operation. _harvesting, and preservation during winter._--"before frost sets in, they must be tied up in a conical form, as before directed; and all dead or yellow leaves must be taken off. then take them up with a ball of soil to each, and put them into light earth in a cellar or some warm building. put only the roots into the earth. do not suffer the plants to touch each other; and pour a little water round the roots after they are placed in the earth. if they are perfectly dry when tied up, they will keep till spring."--_corb._ _seed._--two or three vigorous plants, left unblanched, will yield sufficient to supply a garden of ordinary size for years. half an ounce will sow a seed-bed of forty square feet. _use._--"the leaves are the parts used, and these only when blanched to diminish their natural bitterness of taste. it is one of the best autumn, winter, and spring salads."--_m'int._ _varieties._--the descriptions of many of the varieties have been prepared from an interesting paper read before the london horticultural society by mr. matthews, clerk of the society's garden. the different sorts are divided into two classes,--the "batavian" and the "curled-leaved." batavian endives. under the batavian endives are included all the varieties with broad leaves, generally rounded at the points, with the margin slightly ragged or torn, but not curled. these are called, by the french, _scarolles_. as most of the sorts require more room than the curled-leaved kinds, the rows should be about fourteen inches apart, and the plants thinned out from nine to twelve inches in the rows. broad-leaved batavian endive. common yellow endive, of the dutch. leaves yellowish-green, large, long and broad, thick and fleshy, the edges slightly ragged: when fully grown, they are about ten inches long, and an inch wide at the base; increasing regularly in width towards the end, and measuring five or six inches in diameter at the broadest part. the leaves of the centre of the plant are of the same form, but shorter, and much paler. the plants form but little heart of themselves; but the length of the outer leaves is such, that they tie up well for blanching. in quality, as well as in appearance, it is inferior to the curled sorts; and its flavor is not so mild and agreeable as that of some of the other kinds of batavian endives. curled batavian endive. _thomp._ the leaves of this variety are neither so large nor so broad as those of the broad-leaved batavian endive: they grow flat on the ground, and are curled at their edges. the whole appearance of the plant is very different from the common broad-leaved; approaching the curled endives, in general character. the heart, which forms of itself, is small, and lies close to the ground. the plants require twelve or fourteen inches' space between the rows, and eight or ten inches in the row. large batavian endive. scarolle grande, of the french. this differs from the small batavian endive in the size and shape of its leaves, which are broader and more rounded: they are a little darker, but yet pale. the inner ones are turned over like the small variety, though not so regularly; but form a large, well-blanched heart, of good flavor. this and the small batavian will blanch perfectly if a mat is laid over them, and do not require to be tied up. both the small and the large sorts are considered hardier than the curled varieties. lettuce-leaved or white batavian endive. scarolle blonde. _vil._ leaves broad and large, obtuse, ragged at the edges, of a paler color and thinner texture than either of the other batavian sorts; the exterior leaves are spreading, fourteen inches long, two inches wide at the base, and, growing regularly broader to the end, measure six or seven inches in diameter at the widest part; the central leaves are short, and the head is less compact than that of the common broad-leaved; the seeds are of a paler color than those of the green curled endive. to blanch it, the leaves must be tied up; and it should be grown for summer use, as it is comparatively tender, and will not endure severe weather. it is best if used while young; for, when fully developed, the leaves are not tender, and, if not well blanched, are liable to have a slightly bitter taste. sow in may or june, in rows fifteen inches apart, and thin to a foot in the rows; or transplant, giving the plants the same space. small batavian endive. scarolle courte, of the french. leaves whitish-green, broad, of moderate length, and slightly cut at the edges. the inner leaves are numerous, and turn over like a hood at the end; forming a larger head than any of the other kinds. it is one of the best of the endives, and a valuable addition to our winter salads. it blanches with little trouble; and is mild and sweet, without being bitter. curled endives. curled endives are those with narrow leaves, more or less divided, and much curled. they are usually full in the heart. the french call them, by way of distinction, _chicorées_. dutch green curled endive. this approaches the large green curled endive in appearance and growth; but the divisions of the leaves are deeper, the outer leaves are broader, not so much curled, and the inner ones more turned into the heart: the outer leaves are about ten inches long. it blanches well, and is hardy. green curled endive. small green curled endive. leaves six or seven inches long, finely cut, and beautifully curled; the outer leaves lying close to the ground, the inner ones thickly set, forming a compact heart. easily blanched, very hardy, and well adapted for winter use. the leaves are longer, and of a darker-green color, than those of the green curled summer endive, and will tie up much better for blanching. it is a fortnight later. sow in rows a foot or fourteen inches apart, and thin to six or eight inches in the row. it may be quickly blanched by simply covering the plant with a deep flower-pot saucer. in summer, while the plants are growing vigorously, the process will be completed in about a week: later in the season, two-weeks, or even more, may be necessary. green curled summer endive. leaves not quite so large as those of the green curled; finely and deeply cut: the outer ones are five or six inches long, and grow close to the ground; the inner are short, numerous, curled, and form a close, full heart. it is much the smallest of any of the kinds, and is somewhat tender. the outer leaves are so short, that they will not tie up; but blanch well by being covered simply with a flat garden-pan, as directed for the green curled. this variety is distinguished from the last named by its shorter, broader, deeper cut, and less curled leaves: the head is more solid at the centre, and is also much harder. the seeds should be sown early; for, if sown late, the plants are liable to be affected by dampness and wet weather, and to rot at the heart. cultivate in rows twelve or fourteen inches apart, and eight or ten inches apart in the rows. italian green curled endive. leaves from ten to twelve inches long, deep-green, narrow, and divided to the mid-rib. they grow erect, and the segments are much cut and curled. it is a well-marked variety; readily distinguished by the length of the leaf-stalks, and the pinnatifid character of the leaves. it blanches well, and is of good quality. large green curled endive. a sub-variety of the common green curled, of stronger growth, and larger hearted. the exterior leaves are ten or twelve inches long, looser and more erect than those of the last named: the inner ones are less numerous, and not so much divided. it is hardy, blanches quickly, and is not liable to decay at the heart. long italian green curled. leaves long, deeply divided, and more upright in their growth than those of the large green curled; the divisions of the leaves are large, and toothed, or cut, but are not curled; the heart-leaves are few and short. the variety is quite distinct; and, though not so neat and regular as some others, it is of excellent quality, and recommended for cultivation. picpus fine curled endive. _vil._ exterior leaves seven or eight inches long, deeply lobed; the lobes divided in the same manner as those of the common green curled. the inside leaves are finely cut, and much curled; and form a kind of head more compact than that of the green curled, but comparatively loose-hearted. it blanches well and quickly, and is a good variety; though neither its foliage nor its general habit presents any very distinctive peculiarities. ruffec curled. chicorée frisée de ruffec. _vil._ this variety attains a remarkable size, much exceeding that of the common green curled. the leaves sometimes measure nearly a foot and a half in length. quality tender and good. staghorn endive. early fine curled rouen. _vil._ a recently introduced variety. the leaves are deep-green, divided into numerous segments, not frilled or curled, but much cut or jagged at the points, the borders having a branched appearance; whence the name. the leaves gradually shorten towards the centre of the plant, are more finely cut, and become closer together; thus forming a moderately firm heart, or head; less compact, however, than that of the green curled summer endive. it is well adapted to humid climates, is hardier than the common green curled, and is preferred by market-gardeners for cultivation in autumn and winter. triple-curled moss endive. _m'int._ winter moss endive. chicorée mousse. _vil._ this is a sub-variety of the staghorn endive, and comparatively of recent introduction. it is a unique sort, exceedingly well curled; and, when the variety is genuine and the plant well developed, has an appearance not unlike a tuft of moss. it is liable to degenerate; and, though sometimes classed as a winter endive, is less hardy than many other sorts. it may be grown in rows a foot apart, six inches being allowed between the plants in the rows. white curled or ever-blanched endive. _vil._ leaves pale yellowish-green, nearly white when young, ten inches long, rather narrow, lobed, cut, and beautifully frilled, or curled, on the borders; the upper surface of the mid-ribs generally tinged with red. the leaves of the centre are not numerous, and much curled: resting upon those of the exterior, they form no head, but leave the heart loose and open. it is distinguished from all others by its color; both the leaves and the seeds being paler than those of any other sort. its principal recommendation is signified in the name; but it should be used while young, cut and served in the form of lettuce. it is then tender and of good quality; though the plants yield a small amount of salad, compared with many other sorts. when fully grown, the leaves become tough, and often bitter. as a variety for winter culture, it is of little value. * * * * * horse-radish. cochlearia armoracia. nasturtium armoracia. horse-radish is a hardy perennial, introduced from europe, growing naturally along old roads, and about gardens and waste places in long settled towns. the root is white within and without, long, nearly cylindrical, and from an inch to two inches and a half in diameter; stalk two feet or more in height, smooth and branching; the radical leaves are from fifteen to eighteen inches in length, oval-oblong, and toothed on the margin,--those of the stalk narrow, pointed, smooth, and shining; the flowers are white, and are put forth in june; the seed-pods are globular, but are very rarely formed, the flowers being usually abortive. there is but one variety. _propagation and culture._--"propagation is always effected by planting portions of the roots, which grow readily. the soil most conducive to it is a deep, rich, light sand, or alluvial deposit, free from stones or other obstructions; as, the longer, thicker, and straighter the roots are, the more they are valued. there is scarcely another culinary vegetable, of equal importance, in which cultivation is, in general, so greatly neglected as in this. it is often found planted in some obscure corner of the garden, where it may have existed for years; and is only visited when needed for the proprietor's table. the operation of hastily extracting a root or two is too often all that is thought of; and the crop is left to fight its way amongst weeds and litter as best it may."--_m'int._ a simple method of cultivation is as follows: trench the ground eighteen inches or two feet deep, and set the crowns or leading buds of old roots, cut off about three inches in length, in rows a foot apart, and nine inches from each other in the rows; cover six inches deep, and cultivate in the usual manner during the summer. the shoots will soon make their appearance, and the large leaves of the plant completely occupy the surface of the bed. after two seasons' growth, the roots will be fit for use. _taking the crop._--its season of use is from october till may; and, whenever the ground is open, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. for winter use, take up the requisite quantity of roots in november, pack them in moist sand or earth, and store in the cellar, or in any situation out of reach of frost. _use._--the root shredded or grated, with the addition of vinegar, is used as a condiment with meats and fish. it has an agreeable, pungent flavor; and, besides aiding digestion, possesses other important healthful properties. * * * * * lettuce. lactuca sativa. lettuce is said to be of asiatic origin. it is a hardy, annual plant, and, when fully developed, from two to three feet in height, with an erect, branching stem. the flowers are compound, yellow, usually about half an inch in diameter; the seeds are oval, flattened, and either white, brown, or black, according to the variety,--nearly thirty thousand are contained in an ounce, and their vitality is retained five years. _soil._--lettuce succeeds best in rich and comparatively moist soil; and is also best developed, and most crisp and tender, if grown in cool, moist weather. a poor soil, and a hot, dry exposure, may produce a small, tolerable lettuce early in spring, or late in autumn; but, if sown in such situations during the summer months, it will soon run to seed, and prove nearly, if not entirely, worthless for the table. the richer the soil may be, and the higher its state of cultivation, the larger and finer will be the heads produced; and the more rapidly the plants are grown, the more tender and brittle will be their quality. _propagation._--it is always grown from seeds, which are small and light; half an ounce being sufficient to sow a nursery-bed of nearly a hundred square feet. it is necessary that the ground should be well pulverized and made smooth before it is sown, and the seeds should not be covered more than a fourth of an inch deep. _cultivation._--some recommend sowing where the plants are to remain, in drills from ten to fifteen inches apart, and thinning the plants to nearly the same distance in the lines; adapting the spaces between the drills, as well as between the plants in the drills, to the habit and size of the variety in cultivation. others recommend sowing in a small nursery-bed, and transplanting. the process of transplanting unquestionably lessens the liability of the plants to run to seed, and produces the largest and finest heads. the first sowing in the open ground may be made as soon in march or april as the frost leaves the ground; and, if a continued supply is desired, a sowing should afterwards be made, at intervals of about four weeks, until september. "during spring, the young crops must be protected from frost, and in summer from drought by copious manure-waterings and frequent stirring of the ground between the plants. in the growing season, every stimulant should be applied; for much of the excellence of the crop depends on the quickness of its growth." _forcing._--lettuce is now served at table the year round; not, of course, of equal excellence at all seasons. sowings are consequently required for each month: those intended for the spring supply being made from december to february; about twelve weeks being required for its full development, when reared in the winter months. the seed is sown rather thinly, broadcast, in a hot-bed; and, when the plants have made two or three leaves, they are pricked out to three or four inches apart in another portion of the bed,--thus affording them more space for growth, and opportunity to acquire strength and hardiness. when two or three inches high, they are finally transplanted into yet another part of the bed, at distances corresponding with the size of the variety, varying from ten to fourteen inches in each direction. as the plants increase in size, the quantity of air should be increased; and water should be given, whenever the surface of the bed becomes dry. in severe cold or in cloudy weather, and almost always at night, straw matting (made thick and heavy for the purpose), woollen carpeting, or a similar substitute, should be extended over the glass, for the retention of heat. some practise transplanting directly from the nursery-bed to where the plants are to remain; but the finest lettuce is generally obtained by the treatment above described. "lettuces are sometimes required for cutting young, or when about two inches high. these are termed, by the french, _laitues à couper_. the small, early sorts (such as the hardy hammersmith and black-seeded gotte) are preferred for this purpose; but any sort that is green or pale-green, and not brown or otherwise colored, will do. they should be sown in the open ground about once a week, or every ten days, from april, throughout the season. in winter, they are best raised on heat. they should be sown rather thickly in drills six inches apart."--_thomp._ _to save seed._--"this should be done from plants raised from early sowings. the finest specimens should be selected; avoiding, however, those that show a disposition to run quickly to seed. those that heart readily, and yet are slow to run up, are to be preferred. care should be taken that no two different varieties be allowed to seed near each other, in order that the sorts may be kept true. the seed which ripens first on the plant is the best: therefore it should be secured, rather than wait for the general ripening. the branchlets which first ripen their seed should be cut of­f, and laid on a cloth in the sun; or, when the forward portion of the seed is as near maturity as will safely bear without shaking of­f, the plants should be carefully pulled up, and placed upright against a south wall, with a cloth under them to perfect their ripening. the seed should in no case be depended on without trial. plants from seeds two years old heart more readily than those from one-year-old seed."--_thomp._ _use._--"lettuce is well known as one of the best of all salad plants. it is eaten raw in french salads, with cream, oil, vinegar, salt, and hard-boiled eggs. it is also eaten by many with sugar and vinegar; and some prefer it with vinegar alone. it is excellent when stewed, and forms an important ingredient in most vegetable soups. it is eaten at almost all meals by the french; by the english after dinner, if not served as adjuncts to dishes during the repast; and by many even at supper. in lobster and chicken salads, it is indispensable; and some of the varieties furnish a beautiful garnish for either fish, flesh, or fowl. "in a raw state, lettuce is emollient, cooling, and in some degree laxative and aperient, easy of digestion, but containing no nourishment." _varieties._--these are exceedingly numerous. some are of english origin; many are french and german; but comparatively few are american. the number of kinds grown to any considerable extent in this country is quite limited. cultivators generally select such as appear to be best adapted to the soil and climate of their particular locality; and, by judicious management, endeavor to give vigor and hardiness to the plants, and to increase the size, compactness, and crispy quality of the head. some of the varieties have thus been brought to a remarkable degree of perfection; the plants producing heads with as much certainty, and nearly as well proportioned and solid, as those of the common cabbage. they are generally divided into two classes; viz., cabbage lettuces and cos lettuces. _cabbage lettuces._-- brown dutch. black-seeded. _vil._ head of medium size, rather long and loose; the leaves, which coil or roll back a little on the borders about the top of the head are yellowish-green, washed or stained with brownish-red,--the surplus leaves are large, round, waved, green, washed with bronze-red, and coarsely, but not prominently, blistered; diameter twelve to fourteen inches; weight about eight ounces. this lettuce cabbages readily, forms a good-sized head, is tender, of good quality, hardy, and tolerably early. it does not, however, retain its head well in dry and warm weather; and, as it is little affected by cold, seems best adapted to winter or very early culture. it resembles the yellow-seeded brown dutch, but is not so early, and the head is looser and larger. brown silesian or marseilles cabbage. _vil._ brown batavian. head green, tinted with brown, remarkably large,--not compactly, but regularly, formed; ribs and nerves of the leaves large and prominent; the leaves disconnected with the head are large, bronze-green, coarsely blistered, and frilled and curled on the margin. the diameter of a well-grown plant is about eighteen inches, and its weight twenty-eight ounces. the seeds are white. this lettuce, though somewhat hard, is brittle and mild flavored, but is better when cooked than when served in its crude state as a salad. it is a hardy, late sort; succeeds well in winter, and retains its head a long period; but is rarely employed for forcing, on account of its size,--one of the plants occupying, in a frame or hot-bed, the space of two plants of average dimensions. brown winter cabbage. _vil._ large brown winter. head of medium size, green, washed or stained with brownish-red, regularly formed, and moderately compact; the exterior leaves are round and short, much wrinkled, and coarsely blistered. when grown in winter or in cool weather, the plants measure fourteen inches in diameter, and weigh from fourteen to sixteen ounces. the seeds are white. hardy, and well adapted for winter culture. the heads are not so firm as those of some varieties; but they are well retained, blanch white and tender, and are of excellent flavor. early or summer cape. royal cape. head roundish, usually well formed, and moderately close and firm; the outer leaves are large, loose, golden-green, undulated, and coarsely blistered; the interior leaves are more finely blistered, and nearly of the same color as those of the outside; head, when divided, yellowish to the centre; the plants, when fully grown, measure nearly a foot in diameter, and weigh from six to ten ounces. the variety is not well adapted for forcing or for early culture in the open ground. as a summer lettuce, it is one of the best; enduring the heat well, and not running soon to seed. though not so crisp and brittle as some of the winter or spring grown varieties, it is comparatively well flavored and of good quality. it is similar to the summer or royal cabbage. early simpson. hâtive de simpson. _vil._ head large, pale-green, a little irregular in its form, and only of medium solidity; the outside leaves are large and broad, plaited, and much blistered; diameter fourteen or fifteen inches; weight twelve or fourteen ounces; seeds white. this lettuce is brittle, and of excellent flavor; but its head is not compactly formed. its season is near that of the versailles cabbage; but it runs quicker to seed. it is said to be an american variety, and is much grown in the vicinity of new york city for marketing. early white spring or black-seeded gotte. _trans._ a small spring cabbage lettuce, growing close to the ground. its heart is hard and firm, and measures about four inches in diameter when stripped of its outer leaves; color pale-green; the leaves are thin, nearly round, rugose, and waved on the margin. this lettuce comes early into use, and, besides, is of excellent flavor; but its chief merit is, that it remains longer than almost any other sort before running to seed, and even sometimes bursts before the flower-stem is formed. it is one of the smallest of the cabbage lettuces, and somewhat resembles the tennis-ball; from which, however, it differs in the leaves being more curled and of a lighter-green color, and by not running to seed so soon by three weeks or a month. the variety has black seeds; and this fact should be particularly attended to in obtaining it from seedsmen, as the white-seeded gotte lettuces run much sooner to flower. various other gotte lettuces are described by authors. "all are of great merit, but are little cultivated in the united states. where small, hard, compact, and delicate sorts are required, this class should be selected." endive-leaved. _vil._ laitue chicorée. this variety forms no head. the leaves are finely frilled and curled, and spread regularly from a common centre in the form of a rosette. a well-developed plant resembles curled endive. it appears to be nearly identical with the green curled lettuce. the seeds are black, and smaller than those of any other variety. english endive-like curled-leaved. _vil._ like the common green curled lettuce, this variety forms no head. the plant has the form of a rosette, and the foliage a silvery-gray appearance. the leaves are short, undulated on the border, but not frilled and curled like the common variety; nerves purplish; the heart of the plant is large and full; seeds black. this lettuce is hardy, tender, and well flavored, and equal, if not superior, to the common green curled, both in respect to quality and its adaptation to winter culture. green curled. curled. endive-leaved. boston curled. the green curled strongly resembles, if it is not identical with, the endive-leaved. when well grown, the plant measures about ten inches in diameter, and is one of the most beautiful of all the lettuces. the exterior leaves are finely frilled and curled, and of a rich, golden-green color; the central leaves are smaller, but frilled and curled like those of the exterior. when in perfection, the plants have the form of a rosette, and make an excellent garnish. the seeds are white. it is hardy, well adapted for forcing, and is extensively grown in the vicinity of boston, mass., for early marketing. as respects its value for the table, it cannot be considered equal to many of the cabbage varieties, as it is deficient in crispness, and tenderness of texture,--qualities essential in all salad plants. its recommendations are its hardiness, its adaptation to early culture and forcing, and particularly its beautiful appearance. market-gardeners and cultivators make three sub-varieties, which are known as "single-curled," "double-curled," and "triple-curled;" the difference consisting in the finer frilling, or curling, of the last named. a well-grown plant resembles some varieties of endive; whence the term "endive-leaved." green winter cabbage. hardy winter cabbage. morine. _vil._ head pale-green, of medium size, round and regular, firm and solid; leaves of the head much wrinkled, and coarsely blistered; the outside leaves are broad and large, glossy-green, wrinkled and blistered like those composing the head. winter-grown plants will measure in their full diameter about twelve inches, and weigh from fourteen to sixteen ounces. seeds white. the green winter cabbage lettuce is tender, and of excellent flavor, particularly if cultivated in cool weather. it is hardy, forms its head promptly and uniformly, is slow in the development of its flowers, and must be classed as one of the best of the hardy, winter varieties. hammersmith hardy. _m'int._ hardy green hammersmith. early frame. early dwarf dutch. green dutch. a popular, old variety, with a comparatively small, dark-green head. the leaves are much wrinkled, concave, thick, and fleshy; the seeds are white. it is considered the hardiest sort in cultivation, and is one of the best for growing in winter or for forcing. when raised in spring, late in autumn, or in cool, moist weather, the plants attain a diameter of nearly ten inches, and weigh from six to eight ounces; but summer-grown specimens are much smaller, rarely measuring more than six or seven inches in diameter, or weighing above three or four ounces. in warm, dry weather, it soon runs to seed. ice cabbage. _trans._ this variety belongs to the division of the silesian or batavian lettuces, and must not be confounded with the white cos. the leaves are of a light shining green, blistered on the surface, much undulated, and slightly jagged on the edges, nearly erect, eight inches long, and five or six inches broad; the outer leaves spread a little at the top, but grow close at the heart. it blanches without tying up, and becomes white, crisp, and tender. the ice cabbage lettuce comes into use with the white silesian, from which it differs, as it also does from any other of its class, in being much more curled, having a lucid, sparkling surface (whence probably its name), and not turning in so much at the heart. it lasts as long in crop as the white silesian. imperial head. turkey cabbage. union. a large and excellent variety, but inferior to the versailles or the ice cabbage. head large, regular, a little oblong, of a dull, pale-green color, and not compactly formed; the outside leaves are large, rounded, undulated or waved on the borders, thin in texture, and of a soiled or tarnished light-green color; diameter fourteen inches; weight twelve to fifteen ounces; seeds white. this is a crisp and tender lettuce, though sometimes slightly bitter. it is not early, and soon shoots up to seed; but is quite hardy, and well adapted for winter cultivation. the imperial head, or imperial cabbage lettuce, with white seeds, was at one period more generally cultivated in small gardens than any other variety; and though some of the recently introduced sorts excel it, not only in size, but in tender consistency and flavor, the imperial is still extensively cultivated and much esteemed. with the exception of the color of its seeds, it resembles the turkey cabbage. india. large india. head large, moderately compact; leaves large, with coarse and hard mid-ribs and veins. its recommendation is its remarkable adaptedness to summer culture; as it withstands heat and drought, and retains its head to a remarkable degree before running to seed. for the table, it is inferior to many other sorts; although the large ribs and veins of the leaves are comparatively brittle, and of tender texture. large brown cabbage or mogul. grosse brune paresseuse. _vil._ large gray cabbage. mammoth. head remarkably large, round, regularly formed, grayish-green, tinted or washed with reddish-brown at the top: the leaves not composing the head are large, plaited, coarsely blistered, of a grayish-green color, stained here and there with spots of pale-brown. the diameter of a well-grown plant is about fourteen inches, and its weight nearly a pound; seeds black. the large brown cabbage lettuce is crisp and tender, but is sometimes slightly bitter. its season is near that of the versailles; but it is slower in forming its head, and sooner runs to flower. it is hardy, good for forcing and well adapted for cultivation during winter. in summer, the heads are comparatively small, and loosely formed. large red cabbage. rouge charteuse. _vil._ head green, washed with red, of medium size, regularly but loosely formed; the exterior leaves are large, undulated, blistered, and stained with brownish-red, like those of the head; diameter thirteen or fourteen inches; weight twelve ounces; seeds black. its season is near that of the large brown cabbage. when grown in warm weather, the head is small, and the plant soon runs to seed: in winter, the head is much larger, more solid, and longer retained. it resembles the brown dutch, but differs in the deeper color of the leaves. large winter cabbage or madeira. laitue passion. _vil._ head of medium size, regular in form, not compact, green, washed with red at the top: the leaves not composing the head are broad and large, a little undulated or waved on the border, plaited or folded at the base, thin in texture, somewhat blistered, and stained with spots of clear brown. when grown in winter, or in cool, moist weather, the plants will measure about a foot in diameter, and weigh nearly a pound. seeds white. it is quite brittle, though not remarkable for tenderness of texture; hardy; succeeds well when grown in cold weather; and remains long in head before shooting up to seed. season, the same with that of the green winter cabbage. malta or ice cabbage. ice cos. drumhead. white cabbage. de malte. _vil._ in its general character, this variety resembles the white silesian. the head is remarkably large, somewhat flattened, compact, pale-green without, and white at the centre; the outer leaves are large and broad, glossy-green, and coarsely blistered; the mid-ribs and nerves are large and prominent. the extreme diameter of a full-grown plant is about sixteen inches, and the weight from twenty to twenty-four ounces. the seeds are white. the variety heads readily, blanches naturally, and is crisp, tender, and well flavored. it is hardy, but not early; and remains long in head without running to seed. it is extensively cultivated in england; and in some localities succeeds better, and is of finer quality, than the white silesian or marseilles cabbage. the name is derived from the glazed or polished surface of the leaves. neapolitan. naples cabbage. plant dwarfish; head of large size, round, regularly formed, solid,--when in perfection, resembling a well-developed cabbage; the exterior leaves are broad and large, green, frilled on the margin, and coarsely blistered. if well grown, the plants will measure sixteen inches in diameter, and weigh from twenty to twenty-four ounces. seeds white. the neapolitan lettuce blanches naturally, is well flavored, and so slow in the development of its flower-stalk, that the heads are sometimes artificially divided at the top to facilitate its growth, and to secure the seeds, a supply of which is always obtained with difficulty; as, aside from the tardiness of the plant in flowering, the yield is never abundant. it is not so good for forcing as many others, and must be classed as a summer rather than as a winter variety. palatine. _vil._ brown cabbage. a variety of medium size, with a round, somewhat depressed head, stained with red about the top. the foliage is yellowish-green, strongly marked or clouded with brownish-red. extreme diameter of the plant ten or eleven inches; weight about twelve ounces. the seeds are black. it is remarkably crisp and tender; of excellent flavor; yields a large quantity of salad in proportion to its size; flourishes well at all seasons, even during winter; and must be classed as one of the best, and recommended for general cultivation. spotted cabbage (black-seeded). sanguine à graine noire. _vil._ the heads of this variety are of medium size, round and regular in their form, and comparatively solid; the sides are brownish-red, but at the crowns the color is changed to clear, bright-red; the outer leaves are short, broad, and round, and strongly marked or clouded with brownish-red, like those composing the head. if grown in winter or in cool weather, the plants attain a diameter of about twelve inches, and will weigh twelve ounces. it retains its head longer than almost any other variety; and, though sometimes slightly bitter, is considered superior to the white-seeded. compared with the last-named, the head is not so well formed, the foliage is deeper colored, and it is not so well adapted for forcing or for cultivation during winter. spotted cabbage (white-seeded). sanguine à graine blanche. _vil._ head yellowish-green, spotted and clouded with brownish-red, of medium size, round and regular. the surplus leaves are small and numerous, round, prominently blistered, copper-green, streaked and variegated with brownish-red. summer-grown plants will measure ten inches in diameter, and weigh about eight ounces. winter-grown plants, or those grown in cool and moist weather, will give an increase of the diameter, and weigh nearly a pound. it is a brittle, well-flavored lettuce, hardy, and well adapted for growing in frames during winter. when grown in the summer months, the head is seldom well formed, and the plants soon run to seed. stone tennis-ball. gotte lente à monter. _vil._ plant quite small, with a uniformly green, regular, solid head; all of the leaves to the heart being strongly wrinkled and coarsely blistered. the exterior leaves are comparatively few and small, green, undulated, and prominently blistered. summer-grown plants measure six or seven inches in diameter, and weigh about three ounces. when grown early or late in the season, or under the influence of cool and moist weather, the plants attain a larger size; often measuring nine or ten inches in diameter, and weighing eight ounces. the seeds are black. the stone tennis-ball hearts well, is of excellent quality, and, in proportion to its size, yields a large quantity of salad. it retains its head a long period, even in warm weather, without shooting up to seed; and, as most of the leaves of the plant are embraced in the head, it occupies but a small space of ground in cultivation. hardy and early. summer cabbage. large white cabbage. royal cabbage. summer blond. _vil._ sugar cabbage. foliage pale yellowish-green; head of medium size, round, somewhat flattened, firm and close; the leaves composing it are wrinkled and blistered,--those of the outside being frequently torn and broken on the margins about the crown. the entire diameter of a well-grown plant is about twelve inches, and the weight from ten to twelve ounces. the seeds are white. it is one of the best sorts for summer cultivation, as it not only forms its head readily in warm and dry weather, but remains long in head before running to flower. for forcing, or for sowing early in the season, some other varieties would succeed better. though sometimes slightly bitter, it is crisp, tender in texture, appears to be adapted to our climate, and is recommended for cultivation. tennis-ball. green ball. button. capuchin. hardy hammersmith. _vil._ one of the oldest and most esteemed of the cabbage lettuces. the head is below medium size, dark-green, remarkably solid if grown in cool weather, but often loose and open-hearted if cultivated during the summer months; the surplus leaves are few in number, deep-green, slightly curled, and broadly, but not prominently, blistered; the seeds of the genuine variety are black. the tennis-ball lettuce is remarkable for its extreme hardiness. winter-grown plants, or those raised in cool, moist weather, will measure about ten inches in diameter, and weigh eight ounces; whilst those raised under opposite conditions rarely exceed seven or eight inches in diameter, or weigh more than four or five ounces. it is slow in running to seed, and the head blanches white and tender. "it requires little room in frames in winter, and yields a great return in spring, as almost the whole plant is eatable." a large cabbage lettuce, tinted with brown about the head, is erroneously known in some localities as the "tennis-ball." turkey cabbage. similar to the imperial head; the principal if not the only difference consisting in the color of the seeds, which are black. versailles. _vil._ swedish. blond versailles. sugar-lettuce. head pale yellowish-green, large, long, and compactly formed; the exterior leaves are large, numerous, wrinkled, and coarsely blistered. when in its greatest perfection, the extreme diameter of the whole plant is about fourteen inches, and its weight twelve or fourteen ounces. the seeds are white. this variety forms its head quickly and uniformly; cabbages white and crisp; is slow in shooting up to seed; flourishes in almost every description of soil, and at all seasons, except, perhaps, in extreme cold; and, though sometimes slightly bitter to the taste, is crisp, tender, and of good quality. with the exception of its paler color, it resembles the neapolitan. it is one of the best of all varieties for summer cultivation. victoria or red-bordered. _vil._ an excellent early and hardy variety. the head is of medium size, tinted or washed with red at the top, round and regular in form, and comparatively solid; leaves large, yellowish-green, wrinkled, and blistered. if grown in summer, the plants measure eight or nine inches in diameter, and weigh four ounces. in cool weather, the plants attain a diameter of twelve inches, and weigh from ten to twelve ounces; seeds white. the victoria lettuce is larger than the tennis-ball, heads freely, and is crisp and well flavored. when sown in summer, it soon runs to flower; but, in cool weather, the heads are well retained. white gotte (black-seeded). _vil._ a small, low-growing, yellowish-green cabbage lettuce, with a comparatively loose head. the plants rarely measure more than six inches in their full diameter, or weigh above four ounces. it is one of the earliest of all the lettuces, crisp, of good flavor, and well adapted for forcing or for frame culture. besides the distinction in the color of the seeds, it differs from the white-seeded white gotte in its smaller and more loosely formed heads. white gotte (white-seeded). _vil._ white tennis-ball. this variety has a small, long, firm, and close head; and is uniformly of a yellowish-green color. the outer leaves are small, light greenish-yellow, waved on the borders, and prominently blistered. the plant is of small dimensions; rarely measuring more than six or seven inches in diameter, or weighing above three ounces. the variety is early, crisp, and well flavored, but soon runs to seed, and is much better adapted for growing in winter, or for forcing, than for cultivation in the summer months. white silesian, or white batavian. _vil._ drumhead cabbage. large drumhead. spanish. one of the largest of the cabbage lettuces. head golden-green, tinted with brownish-red about the top, regularly but not compactly formed. the outer leaves are large and broad, yellowish-green, bordered with brown, wrinkled, and coarsely blistered. when well grown, the entire diameter of the plant is about eighteen inches, and its weight twenty ounces. the seeds are white. this variety appears to be adapted to all seasons. it is hardy, retains its head well, withstands heat and drought, blanches white and crisp, and is of excellent flavor. it succeeds well in frames; but, on account of its large size, is not a profitable sort for forcing. a variety, known as the "tennis-ball" in some localities, is very similar to this; and the "boston cabbage" of new england, if not identical, seems to be but an improved form of the white silesian. white stone cabbage. large golden summer cabbage. head of medium size, yellowish-green, stained with brownish-red, firm and solid. when fully developed, the entire diameter of the plant is about fourteen inches, and its weight sixteen ounces. the seeds are white. this lettuce is brittle, of tender texture and good quality, though it is sometimes slightly bitter. it is hardy, heads readily, is slow in running to flower, succeeds well in warm and dry weather, and is also well adapted for frame-culture or for forcing. yellow-seeded brown dutch. _vil._ white dutch. american brown dutch. head of medium size, yellowish-green, variegated with red, rounded at the top, and tapering to a point at the base; compact; seeds yellow. a half-early sort, of good quality, hardy, and well adapted for winter culture, or for sowing early in spring. it somewhat resembles the black-seeded brown dutch: but, apart from the difference in the color of the seeds, its foliage is more blistered, and more colored with red; and the plant produces numerous sprouts, or shoots, about the base of the head. * * * * * cos lettuces. these are quite distinct from the cabbage lettuces before described. the heads are long, erect, largest at the top, and taper towards the root,--the exterior leaves clasping or coving over and around the head in the manner of a hood, or cowl. as a class, they are remarkable for hardiness and vigor; but the midribs and nerves of the leaves are comparatively coarse and hard, and most of the kinds will be found inferior to the cabbage lettuces in crispness and flavor. they are ill adapted for cultivation in dry and hot weather; and attain their greatest perfection only when grown in spring or autumn, or in cool and humid seasons. _varieties._-- alphange or florence cos (black-seeded). _vil._ in the form of the head, and in its general character, this variety resembles the white-seeded. both of the sorts are remarkable for size, for hardiness and healthy habit, for the length of time they remain in head before running to seed, and for the brittle and tender character of the ribs and nerves of the leaves. besides the difference in the color of the seeds, the head of this variety is smaller, and the foliage paler, than that of the white-seeded. alphange or florence cos (white-seeded). _vil._ magnum bonum cos. head large, long, not compact, and forming well only when the exterior leaves are tied loosely together. the midribs and nerves of the leaves are large, but brittle, and of tender texture. it is ten or twelve days later than the green paris cos, retains its head well, is hardy and of healthy habit, but is deficient in flavor, and inferior to either of the paris sorts. artichoke-leaved. _vil._ this variety forms no head; and, in its foliage and general habit, is quite distinct from all of the cos varieties. the leaves are numerous, twelve or fourteen inches long; of a lively-green color, often stained with brownish-red; erect, narrow, pointed, and toothed on the margin, like those of the artichoke. before blanching, the leaves are slightly bitter; but mild, crisp, and tender, with no savor of bitterness, after being blanched. the seeds are black. the plant grows uprightly, groups its leaves together, and thus blanches the interior parts spontaneously; but a much larger portion will be fit for use, if the leaves are collected, and tied loosely about the tips in the manner of treating cos lettuces. it is remarkably hardy, slow in running to flower, and the seeds may be sown till august. late in the season, it is mild and pleasant, and furnishes a tender salad when most of the cos lettuces become bitter and strong-flavored. bath green cos. _m'int._ this variety has much merit as a hardy, winter, green sort; and is nearly related to the brown cos, but is less brown on the outer leaves: but, while that has white seeds, the seeds of this variety are black. hence there are found, upon the catalogues of seedsmen, black-seeded bath, or brown cos; and white-seeded bath, or brown cos; the latter seeming to be the hardiest, while the former appears to be the best. brown cos. bath cos. sutton's berkshire brown cos. wood's improved bath cos. bearfield cos. white-seeded brown cos. this is one of the oldest of the cos lettuces, and considered the hardiest of the class. the head is of large size, pointed, not compact, and requires to be tied in order to obtain it in its greatest perfection; the leaves are of a copper-green color, stiff and firm, toothed and blistered; the seeds are white. the brown cos blanches white and tender, and is exceedingly crisp and well flavored; but the dark-brownish color of the exterior leaves is deemed an objection, and it is often displaced by really inferior varieties. in weight and measurement, it differs little from the green paris cos. extensively cultivated and much esteemed in england. gray paris cos. _vil._ head of the form of an inverted cone; green, with a grayish tone about the top; compact, and forming well without tying. the exterior leaves are numerous, deep-green, erect, firm, and prominently blistered. the full diameter of the plant is nearly twelve inches, and its weight about twenty ounces; the seeds are white. the gray paris cos is brittle, and of tender texture; but is considered inferior to the other paris cos sorts, and is but little cultivated. green paris cos. _vil._ kensington cos. sutton's superb green cos. wellington. ady's fine large. head inversely conical, compact; leaves deep-green, erect, firm, hooded or cowl-formed towards the ends, and serrated on the margin; the ribs and nerves are large and prominent. when fully grown, the entire diameter of the plant is fifteen or sixteen inches, and its weight twenty-four ounces; the seeds are white. it is considered one of the best of the cos lettuces; and, though not so hardy as the brown cos, is a good variety for forcing, and furnishes a tender, well-flavored head during summer. whether for spring, summer, or autumn, it is an excellent sort. it attains a large size, is of a fine green color, and, "from the manner in which the outer leaves cove over the interior ones, blanches well without having to be tied together." it has a tender, brittle leaf; is some days earlier than the white paris; and is the principal variety employed by the market-gardeners of paris for cultivating under glass. green winter cos. _vil._ head elongated, somewhat of the form of the preceding variety; deep-green, and not forming well, unless the exterior leaves are tied together at the tips; the outer leaves are large, erect, concave, toothed on the margin, and prominently blistered; the seeds are black. it blanches well; but the ribs and nerves of the leaves are comparatively coarse and hard. well adapted to winter culture; but, as a summer lettuce, of little value. monstrous brown cos. _vil._ two-headed. head of remarkable size, long, loose, and open; leaves large, equalling in size those of the alphange or florence cos; green, washed with brown; pointed; seeds white. the plant sends out numerous side-shoots, or suckers; and sometimes produces several distinct heads: these, however, are generally loosely formed, and not of the fine, tender quality of the paris varieties. oak-leaved cos. romaine à feuille de chêne. _vil._ the oak-leaved lettuce produces no head, but forms a loose and open heart at the centre of the plant. the leaves are numerous, bronze-green, and deeply cut, or lobed, on the margin, in the form of the leaves of some species of the oak; the seeds are black. the plants put forth fresh sprouts after having been cut; but the quality is inferior, and the variety is rarely cultivated. red winter cos. foliage deep-brown, smooth, and glossy,--gathered at the centre of the plant into a loose heart, rather than head; seeds black. the hardiness of this lettuce is its principal merit. it is little affected by severe weather; and, as a sort for winter culture, is desirable. when grown in summer, it is of poor quality. spotted cos (black-seeded). red-spotted. bloody. aleppo. panachée à graine noire. _vil._ this variety is similar to the white-seeded, and, like it, forms no head: the leaves are green, much stained or clouded with brownish-red, erect, firm, rounded at the ends, concave or spoon-shaped, and grouped at the centre into a long and comparatively close heart. it is crisp and well flavored, but attains its greatest perfection only when the outer leaves are tied loosely together about the top of the plant. spotted cos (white-seeded). _vil._ like the preceding, this variety forms no head; but the interior leaves are formed into an erect, oblong, close heart, which, by tying the exterior leaves together, becomes white, crisp, and of excellent flavor. though late, it is hardy, remains long in head before running to seed, and is well worthy of cultivation. waite's white cos. _m'int._ an excellent variety, apparently intermediate between the green paris and white paris; not of quite so deep a green as the former, yet deeper than the latter. with regard to its comparative excellence, it is considered fully equal to the paris cos varieties; as it is grown as easily, and is equally crisp and tender. size and weight nearly the same. white brunoy cos (black-seeded). _vil._ leaves of large size, yellowish-green, pointed, slightly undulated, entire on the borders, and often revoluted like those of the white-seeded. it rarely produces a head; or, if so, it is loose and open. its greatest perfection is obtained by collecting the exterior leaves about the top of the plant, and tying them loosely together. the variety is not considered superior to the white-seeded, though both of the sorts are inferior to the paris cos or florence sorts. white brunoy cos (white-seeded). _vil._ the heads of this variety are long and loose, and rarely form well unless the exterior leaves are tied loosely together. it somewhat resembles the alphange in the form and character of its foliage, though the head is longer and larger. the plant attains a remarkable size, is hardy, and of good quality; but soon runs to seed, and appears to be a winter rather than a summer lettuce. white paris cos. _vil._ _m'int._ london white cos. sutton's superb white cos. the head of this variety has the form of the green paris, and blanches well without tying; the outside leaves are erect, yellowish-green, and rather numerous. the extreme diameter of the entire plant, when well grown, is about fourteen inches, and its weight nearly twenty-four ounces. the seeds are white. this is the sort most generally grown by the london market-gardeners, millions of it being produced annually within a few miles of london alone; and it has been adopted almost exclusively, by the gardeners of paris, for cultivation in the open air. next to the green paris cos, this is the best, the largest, and the longest in running to seed, of all the summer lettuces. it is tender, brittle, and mild flavored, less hardy and a few days later than the green paris cos. endive-leaved lettuce. _trans._ lactuca intybacea. the leaves of this species have the form of those of some of the varieties of endive; whence the name. they are small, pale-green, broad towards the ends, cut and irregularly lobed on the borders. while young, the plants have the appearance of green curled endive. as it runs to flower much earlier than the spinach lettuce, it is less esteemed than that variety. the seeds should be sown thickly, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart; and the plants should be cut for use when they are three or four inches high. perennial lettuce. _vil._ lactuca perennis. this species is a native of europe; and, in habit and duration, is distinct from all others. the leaves are about ten inches long, of a glaucous or sea green color, thick and fleshy, deeply cut or divided on the margin, and spread regularly from the centre of the plant in the form of a rosette. when fully developed, the plant is two feet and a half high; separating into numerous branches, which terminate in large purple flowers. the seeds, which are of a brownish-black color, are sown in drills fifteen inches apart; and the plants should be thinned to six inches apart in the drills. the leaves are eaten as salad; but, when so used, they should be blanched, either by earthing up or by tying the plant together. they are also sometimes eaten boiled as spinach or endive. spinach lettuce. _trans._ oak-leaved lettuce. lactuca quercina. the leaves of this species are six inches long, pale yellowish-green, lyrate, with obtuse and entire divisions: when fully developed, they somewhat resemble those of the oak, as implied by the name. the plants form no heart, or head; and are never cultivated singly like the cabbage or cos lettuces. the leaves are produced in moderate abundance, and are crisp and well flavored. the seeds should be sown, like those of the endive-leaved, thickly, in drills; and, when the lower leaves are four or five inches long, they may be cut for use. if not taken off too closely, the plants will afford a second cutting. the seeds are sown early with other spring salads. * * * * * madras radish. raphanus sp. the roots of the madras radish are sometimes eaten while they are quite young and small; but they soon become fibrous, strong flavored, and unfit for use. the plant is generally cultivated for its pods, which sometimes measure ten or twelve inches in length: these are solid, crisp, and tender, and, while young, are used for pickling and for salad; being much superior for these purposes to those of the common radish. when cultivated for its pods, the seeds should be sown in drills two feet apart, and the plants thinned to nine inches in the drills. * * * * * mallow, curled-leaved. malva crispa. an annual plant, introduced from europe, and occasionally found growing spontaneously in the vicinity of gardens where it has been once cultivated. the stem is frequently more than six feet in height; the leaves are nearly five inches in diameter, smooth, and of a rich green color, lobed, and beautifully frilled or curled on the borders; flowers axillary, white, and small; the seeds are somewhat kidney-shaped, of a yellowish-brown color, and retain their powers of germination five years. _cultivation._--the seeds are sown the last of april or beginning of may, and covered about an inch deep. the plants require much space, and should be grown at least eighteen inches asunder. the best method is to drop a few seeds where the plants are to grow; or to rake in a few seeds sown broadcast, and transplant. _use._--no part of the plant is considered suitable for food; but the elegantly curled leaves are employed for garnishing desserts. * * * * * mustard. black mustard. brown mustard. red mustard. sinapis nigra. black mustard is a hardy, annual plant, introduced from europe. in some localities, it grows naturally in great abundance; and is regarded as a troublesome weed, though its seeds furnish the common table mustard. its stem is four or five feet in height, round, smooth, and branching; the leaves are lobed and toothed on the margin,--the radical or lower ones rough, those of the upper portion of the stalk smooth; the flowers are numerous, rather large, bright-yellow; the pods are erect, somewhat four-sided, and are set closely against the sides of the stalk; the seeds are small, round, brownish-black, and retain their germinative powers many years; nearly eighteen thousand are contained in an ounce. _propagation and cultivation._--it is raised from seeds, about four quarts of which will be required for sowing an acre. it is sometimes grown in the vegetable garden, but is generally cultivated in fields for its seeds, which, as before remarked, furnish the common table mustard. the sowing is usually made from the middle of april to the middle of may. after making the surface of the ground fine and smooth, sow broadcast, or thinly in shallow drills fourteen or fifteen inches apart; cultivate during the season in the usual manner; and, in august, the crop will be ready for harvesting. cut the stalks at the ground before the pods shed their seeds; and spread in a dry, light, and airy situation, till they are sufficiently dried for threshing. when grown for salad in the vegetable garden, it should be sown, and cut for use, as directed for white mustard. "if the seed is covered to the depth of three inches or more, it will lie dormant, and retain its powers of vegetation for ages: from which circumstance, together with the liability of the seed to become shaken out in the harvesting of the crop, such lands as are once employed for the growing of mustard cannot be fairly cleaned of it for a considerable length of time, and only by judicious fallowing or fallow-cropping, with repeated hoeing and weeding."--_law._ _use._--besides the use of the flour of the seeds as a condiment, the seed-leaves are used as salad, in the manner of those of the white species; and the young plants, cut to the ground, are used as spring greens, either boiled alone, or mixed with spinach. chinese or pekin mustard. _vil._ sinapis pekinensis. a hardy annual, introduced from china. stem four feet high, with remarkably large leaves; the flowers, which are produced in loose, terminal spikes, are yellow and showy; the seeds are small, and retain their vitality five years. _cultivation._--the seeds are sown in april or may, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart. if cultivated for its seeds, the drills should be eighteen inches or two feet apart, and the plants thinned to six or eight inches in the drills. _use._--the leaves are employed in salads, in the manner of cress; and they are also sometimes boiled and served as spinach. cabbage-leaved mustard. moutarde à feuilles de chou. _vil._ sinapis sp. a hardy, annual, chinese plant, similar in habit to the species last described. stem from three to four feet high; leaves large, roundish, lobed, and wrinkled; flowers yellow; the seeds are small, reddish-brown or black, and retain their powers of germination a long period. _cultivation and use._--this species is cultivated in the same manner, and is used for the same purpose, as the chinese mustard. curled mustard. west-india cress. a comparatively small species. stem two feet and a half high; flowers bright-yellow; seeds small, blackish-brown,--scarcely distinguishable from those of the black mustard. the leaves are of medium size, greenish-yellow, broadest near the ends, deeply and finely cut on the borders, and beautifully frilled, or curled: they make an excellent garnish; and, when used as salad, have a pleasant, cress-like flavor. cut-leaved mustard. moutarde lacinée. _vil._ in its general character, this species resembles the chinese or pekin mustard: the leaves, however, are much smaller, and divided quite to the mid-rib. when young, the leaves make an excellent small salad; having the warm, pleasant flavor of cress. white mustard. sinapis alba. white mustard is a hardy annual, introduced from europe, and occasionally found growing spontaneously in the vicinity of fields and gardens where it has been once cultivated. the stem is three feet and upwards in height; the leaves are large, deeply lobed, and of a rich, deep-green color; the flowers are large, yellow, produced in loose, terminal spikes; the seeds are yellow, much larger than those of the preceding species, and retain their vitality five years,--seventy-five hundred are contained in an ounce. _propagation._--white mustard is always raised from seeds; about four quarts of which will be necessary for seeding an acre. when grown for salad, an ounce will sow forty feet of drill. _soil and cultivation._--it succeeds best in rich, loamy soil; which, previously to sowing, should be thoroughly pulverized. when cultivated in the vegetable garden for salad or greens, the first sowing may be made as early in the season as the frost will admit. sow the seeds thickly, in drills eight or ten inches apart; and cover half an inch deep with fine mould. remove all weeds as they make their appearance; and, in continued dry weather, water freely. the plants should be cut for use while in the seed-leaf; as, when much developed, they become strong, rank, and ill-flavored. for a succession, a small sowing may be made every week until september. in field culture, the seeds are sometimes sown broadcast; but the more common method is to sow in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart. when the crop is ready for harvesting, the plants are cut to the ground, stored and threshed, as directed for black mustard. _use._--the plants, before the development of the rough leaves, are used as salad: when more advanced, they are boiled and eaten as spinach. the flour of the seeds furnishes a table mustard of good quality; though the seeds of the black species possess greater piquancy, and are generally employed for the purpose. the seeds of both species are much used in medicine, and are considered equally efficacious. * * * * * nasturtium. indian cress. capucine, of the french. tropæolum, sp. et var. this plant is a native of peru; and, though generally treated as an annual, is a tender perennial. when cultivated for its flowers or seeds, it should be planted in poor, light soil; but when foliage and luxuriant growth are desired, for the covering of arbors, trellises, and the like, the soil can hardly be made too rich. the planting should be made in april or may. as the seeds are quite large, they should be covered two inches deep. when planted in drills, they are made three feet apart, and the young plants thinned to six inches apart in the drills. the growing crop may be supported by staking or bushing, as practised with pease; or the taller-growing sorts may be shortened in, which will induce a strong, stocky habit of growth. while the plants are young, they will require some attention, in order that they may be properly attached to the stakes or trellises provided for their support; after which, little care need be bestowed, beyond the ordinary stirring of the soil, and keeping the ground free from weeds. _use._--the unexpanded flower-buds, and the seeds while young and succulent, have a warm, aromatic taste, and are pickled and used as capers. the young shoots are eaten as salad; and the flowers, which are large and richly colored, are used for garnishing. few ornamental plants are better known or more generally cultivated than the nasturtium. the species and varieties are as follow:-- tall nasturtium. tropæolum majus. stem from six to eight feet high, succulent; leaves alternate, smooth, rounded,--the leaf-stems being attached to the disc, or under-surface; flowers large, on long stems, yellow,--the two upper petals streaked and marked with purple; the seeds are large, somewhat triangular, convex on one of the sides, of a drab or pale-brown color, and retain their germinative properties five years,--from a hundred and eighty to two hundred are contained in an ounce. dark-flowering. a variety of the preceding; differing only in the brown color of the flowers. cultivation and uses the same. variegated. also a sub-variety of the tall nasturtium, with orange-yellow flowers; each of the petals being stained or spotted with purple. other varieties occur, differing in color, but equally useful for the purposes before described. small nasturtium. dwarf capucine. tropæolum minus. much smaller, in all respects, than the common dwarf variety of _tropæolum majus_; the stem rarely measuring more than two feet in length, or rising above a foot in height. the flowers are yellow; the lower petals with a blotch of scarlet at their base, and the upper ones delicately striped with the same color. it yields abundantly; and, though the pods are comparatively small, they are generally preferred to those of the tall nasturtium for pickling. * * * * * picridium. garden picridium. picridium vulgare. a hardy, annual plant, from the south of europe. stem eighteen inches high; leaves six to eight inches long, irregular in form, but generally broad at the ends, and heart-shaped and clasping at the base; flowers yellow, compound, produced in clusters; the seeds are long, slightly curved, four-sided, brown or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality five years. _sowing and cultivation._--the seeds should be sown in april or may, in drills a foot apart, and half an inch in depth. as the plants, when allowed to run to seed, produce but little foliage, it is necessary, in order to secure a continued supply of fresh leaves, to cut or nip off the flowering-shoot as it makes its appearance. under proper management, the leaves grow rapidly, and are produced in great abundance. _use._--the leaves have a pleasant, agreeable flavor; and, while young and tender, are mixed in salads. * * * * * purslain. portulaca. purslain is a hardy, annual plant. most of the cultivated kinds are but improved forms of the common purslain (_p. oleracea_), introduced into this country from europe, and so troublesome as a weed in most vegetable gardens. stem usually about a foot in length, succulent and tender; leaves fleshy, broad and round at the ends, and tapering to the stalk; flowers yellow, resting closely in the axils of the leaves; the seeds are black, exceedingly small, and retain their germinating powers ten years. _soil, propagation, and culture._--purslain thrives well in all soils,--dry, wet, or intermediate; and is propagated by seeds sown in shallow drills at any time from april to july. _use._--the plants may be cut for use when they have made a growth of four or five inches. they are mixed in salads, eaten boiled as spinach, or pickled. the species and varieties are as follow:-- common purslain. portulaca oleracea. abundant in gardens, cultivated fields, and waste grounds. the green and the golden purslain are improved sub-varieties. the common purslain is used in all the forms in which the cultivated sorts are used; and, though some of the latter are considered more succulent, the difference in quality will scarcely repay the cost of cultivation, where the present variety would be the ceaseless competitor for the supremacy. golden purslain. pourpier doré. _vil._ p. oleracea var. aurea. similar to the green purslain, but differing in the paler or yellowish color of the stalks and leaves. green purslain. pourpier vert. _vil._ leaves an inch and three-fourths in length, and upwards of an inch in width, deep-green. large-leaved golden purslain. p. sativa. leaves pale yellowish-green, larger than those of the preceding sorts. the plant is a strong grower, and the leaves attain a remarkable size; but the stalks are often comparatively tough and hard, and, for salad purposes, much inferior to those of the green or golden varieties. * * * * * rape. this plant is generally cultivated for its seeds, like mustard. it is, however, sometimes grown for salad; the seeds being sown in april, and, for a succession, once in three or four weeks till august or september. sow thickly, in drills ten or twelve inches apart, and cover half an inch deep. the soil should be rich and moist, in order to induce a rapid growth, and thus to give a tender, succulent character to the young leaves; these being the parts eaten. they are served like lettuce, or boiled and treated as coleworts or spinach. for mixing with cress or lettuce, the plants are cut to the ground before the development of the second leaves. the species are as follow:-- annual rough-leaved summer rape. _law._ turnip rape. brassica rapa. root fusiform, small, hard, and woody; radical leaves lyrate, vivid green, and without any appearance of the glaucous bloom for which the biennial sorts are so distinguished; the stem-leaves are slightly glaucous, smooth, or nearly so,--the lower ones cut on the borders, the upper entire; the seeds are small, and similar to those of the common field turnip, of which it seems to be either a variety, or the source from which the latter has been derived. common or winter rape. _law._ cole-seed. brassica napus. biennial; root long, tapering, hard, and woody, like that of the species before described. the leaves are smooth, thick, and fleshy, and of much the same form as those of the annual rough-leaved summer rape; this species, however, being readily distinguished, when young, by its uniformly smooth leaves. the seeds, also, are larger than those of the last-named species; but this is not to be relied upon as a distinguishing characteristic, as the size of the seeds, in this as in most other plants, is liable to be materially altered by the soil as well as by the previous culture of the seed-stock. the seeds are sown in summer, and the crop ripens the following year. it is not adapted to the climate of the northern states. in england, the foregoing species are extensively cultivated both for forage and for seed; the latter being used to a limited extent for feeding birds, but chiefly for the production of rape-seed oil. german rape. _law._ annual or early rape. smooth-leaved summer rape. brassica præcox. the german rape somewhat resembles the common or winter. it differs in being of annual duration; in its more deeply divided leaves, more erect pods, and smaller seeds. it would unquestionably succeed well in almost any part of the northern or middle states, and might prove as remunerative a crop as corn or wheat. the seeds should be sown in may; and the plants should be treated and the crop harvested, in all respects, as mustard. it is sometimes sown broadcast, but generally in drills. when sown broadcast, eight or ten pounds of seed will be required for an acre; if in drills, three or four pounds will be sufficient. the yield varies from twenty to forty bushels per acre. summer rape. _law._ colza. wild navew. brassica campestris. a biennial plant, with a tapering, hard, and fibrous root. the radical leaves are lyrate and roughish when young; those of the stem clasping, or heart-shaped, at base, and of an oblong form,--all somewhat fleshy, of a dark-green color, with a glaucous bloom. the seeds are larger than those of the ruta-baga, or swedish turnip, but in other respects not distinguishable. this species is sometimes termed _brassica campestris olifer_, or oil-rape, from its being considered the best sort of rape for cultivating for oil; and to distinguish it from the _campestris ruta-baga_, or swedish turnip, which is only a variety of this species. it is not sufficiently hardy for cultivation in the northern states. * * * * * rocket. _vil._ garden rocket. roquette, of the french. brassica eruca. a hardy, annual plant, from the south of europe. stem about two feet high; leaves long, lobed or lyrate, smooth and glossy, succulent and tender; flowers pale citron-yellow, with blackish-purple veins, very fragrant, having the odor of orange-blossoms; the seeds are small, roundish, brown, or reddish-brown, and retain their vitality two years,--fifteen thousand are contained in an ounce. _sowing and cultivation._--the seed is sown thinly, in shallow drills a foot asunder. the first sowing may be made as early in spring as the frost will permit; afterwards, for a succession, a few seeds may be sown at intervals of three or four weeks. in poor soil and dry seasons, the leaves are liable to be tough and acrid: the seeds should, therefore, be sown in rich loam, and the plants thoroughly watered in dry weather; as, the more rapid and vigorous the growth, the more succulent and mild-flavored will be the foliage. _use._--the leaves, while young and tender, are eaten as salad. * * * * * samphire. _thomp._ _mill._ sea-fennel. parsley-pert. st. peter's herb. crithmum maritimum. this is a half-hardy, perennial plant, common to rocky localities on the seacoast of great britain. stalk from a foot to two feet in height, tender and succulent; leaves half an inch long, somewhat linear, glaucous-green, fleshy; flowers in terminal umbels,--small, white, or yellowish-white; the seeds are oblong, yellowish, and, though somewhat larger, resemble those of fennel,--they retain their germinative power but one year. the plant blossoms in july and august, and the seeds ripen in september and october. _cultivation._--"it is rather difficult to cultivate in gardens; and the produce is never so good as that obtained from the places where it naturally grows. it may be propagated either by dividing the plant, or by sowing the seed in april or in autumn, soon after it is ripe. the latter period is preferable; for, if kept till spring, the seed does not germinate so well. "it succeeds best in a light, sandy, or gravelly soil, kept constantly moist, and sprinkled occasionally with a little sea-salt or barilla, or watered with a solution of these substances, in order to supply the plant with soda, which is a necessary element of its food. it will grow still better if planted or sown among stones at the foot of walls, with a south or east aspect. this, and an occasional watering, with a solution of sea-salt, will give conditions nearly the same as those under which the plant naturally grows. as it is rather delicate, and liable to be injured by frost, it should be protected by dry litter or leaves during the winter. towards the end of summer, the leaves may be cut for use."--_thomp._ _use._--the leaves have a warm, pleasant, aromatic flavor; and, when pickled in vinegar, are used in salads and as a seasoning. golden samphire. _thomp._ inula crithmifolia. a hardy perennial, growing, like the preceding, naturally, on the marshes and seacoast of great britain. the stalk is a foot and a half in height, erect, with clusters of small, fleshy leaves; flowers yellow, in small, umbel-like clusters. _propagation and cultivation._--it may be propagated by seeds, or by a division of the roots. it thrives best in a shady situation, and requires frequent watering. if salt be occasionally dissolved in the water, it will promote the growth of the plants, and render the branches and foliage more succulent and tender. _use._--the fleshy leaves and the young branches are pickled in vinegar, and added to salads as a relish. the plant, however, has none of the pleasant aromatic flavor of the true samphire, though often sold under the name, and used as a substitute. * * * * * scurvy-grass. cochlearia officinalis. this is a hardy, annual, maritime plant, common to the seacoast of france and great britain. the root-leaves spread regularly from a common centre, are heart-shaped, fleshy, smooth, and glossy,--those of the stem sessile, oblong, and toothed on the margin; the stalks are numerous, and from six inches to a foot in height; the flowers are small, white, and produced in compact groups, or clusters; the seeds are small, oval, a little angular, and retain their vitality three years. _soil, sowing, and cultivation._--it succeeds best in moist, sandy soil; and flourishes in shady situations. sow the seeds in august, soon after they ripen, in shallow drills eight or ten inches apart; and, while the plants are young, thin them to five or six inches apart in the rows. the plants taken up in thinning may be transplanted, and new beds formed if occasion require. the growing crop should be kept free from weeds, and liberally watered in dry weather. in the following spring, the leaves will be fit for the table. those plants not cut for use will flower in june, and the seeds will ripen in july. the seeds seldom vegetate well if sown late in spring, or during warm, dry weather. _use._--the radical leaves are used as a salad, and are sometimes mixed with cress. when bruised, they emit an unpleasant odor; and have an acrid, bitter taste when eaten. the plant is more generally used for medicinal purposes than as an esculent. * * * * * snails. snail trefoil. medicago orbicularis. from the south of europe. it is a hardy, annual plant, with reclining steins, compound or winged leaves, and yellow flowers. the pods, or seed-vessels, are smooth, and coiled in a singular and remarkably regular manner. as they approach maturity, they gradually change to a dark-brown color; and, seen from a short distance, have the appearance of snails feeding on the plant. the seeds are large, flat, somewhat kidney-shaped, of a yellowish-brown color, and retain their powers of germination five years. they are usually sold in the pods, but should be taken out before planting. _sowing and culture._--it is propagated by seeds, which should be sown in april or may where the plants are to remain. sow in drills fifteen inches apart. the plants should be thinned out where they are too close, and kept clean from weeds; which is all the culture they require. they will blossom in july, and the seeds will ripen in autumn. _use._--though entirely inoffensive, no part of the plant is used for food. the pods resemble some species of snails in a remarkable degree, and are placed on dishes of salad for the purpose of exciting curiosity, or for pleasantly surprising the guests at table. * * * * * sweet cicely. sweet-scented chervil. osmorrhiza odorata. scandix odorata. a hardy perennial. when fully grown, the stalk is three feet or more in height; the leaves are large, and many times divided; the stems and nerves downy; the flowers are white, fragrant, and terminate the stalks in flat, spreading bunches, or umbels; the seeds are large, brown, and retain their vitality but one year. _sowing and culture._--it is usually grown from seeds; and is of easy cultivation, as it thrives in almost any soil or situation. when allowed to scatter its seeds after ripening in the autumn, the plants will spring up spontaneously in great numbers in the following april or may, and may then be transplanted where they are to remain; or the seed may be sown in october, in beds, making the rows fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and thinning the plants to a foot apart in the rows. when practicable, the seed should be sown in the autumn; as it seldom vegetates well, unless subjected to the action of the winter. after the plants have become established, they will require only ordinary treatment, and yield abundantly. _use._--"in england, the leaves were formerly put into salads; but the strong flavor of aniseed, which the whole plant possesses, renders them disagreeable to most persons. it is now not cultivated in britain; but the leaves and roots are still used in france: the former for the same purposes as those of chervil; the latter in soups, to which they are said to communicate an agreeable taste."--_thomp._ in this country, it is sometimes cultivated with other aromatic plants; but its use in soups, or as a seasoner or garnish, is very limited. * * * * * tarragon. artemesia dracunculus. a hardy, perennial plant, said to be a native of siberia. stalk herbaceous, about three feet in height; the leaves are long, narrow, pointed, smooth, and highly aromatic; the flowers are small, somewhat globular, greenish, and generally infertile. there is but one variety. _soil, planting, and culture._--as the plants seldom produce seed, tarragon is usually propagated by dividing the roots. select a warm and comparatively dry situation; stir the ground deeply and thoroughly; and, in april, set the roots in rows fifteen inches apart, ten or twelve inches apart in the rows, and cover two or three inches deep. they will soon send up vigorous shoots, which may be cut for use the first season. it is sometimes increased by cuttings, set three or four inches deep in moist earth. if seeds can be obtained, they should be sown in april or may, in a nursery-bed or in a common frame. sow in shallow drills six or eight inches apart; and, when the plants are three or four inches high, set them out as directed for the roots. they will early become strong and stocky, and may be used in august or september. the plants are more healthy, yield more abundantly, and are of finer quality, when not allowed to run to flower. _use._--"tarragon is cultivated for its leaves and the points of its young shoots; both of which are used as ingredients in salads, soups, stews, pickles, and other compounds. tarragon vinegar, so much esteemed as a fish-sauce, is made by infusion of the leaves in common vinegar. it is also added to most salads to correct their coldness. three or four plants will be sufficient for a family."--_m'int._ * * * * * valeriana. _vil._ fedia cornucopiæ. valeriana cornucopiæ. this is an annual plant, with a smooth, branching stem about fifteen inches high. the leaves are oblong, stemless, thick, and fleshy, and of a bright, glossy-green color; the flowers are numerous, large, rose-colored, showy, and ornamental; the seeds are oblong, yellowish, somewhat vesiculous, and retain their vitality five years,--twenty-two hundred are contained in an ounce. _soil and culture._--it succeeds best in a light, warm soil. prepare a bed four feet and a half wide, spade it thoroughly over, rake the surface smooth and fine, and sow the seed in drills fourteen inches apart. the first sowing should be made the last of april, or early in may; and afterwards, for a succession, sow a row or two every fortnight till july. _use._--it is used as a salad, and is said to be superior to the common fetticus, or corn-salad. when in blossom, the plant presents a beautiful appearance, and well deserves a place in the flower-garden. * * * * * water-cress. sisymbrium nasturtium. nasturtium officinale. water-cress is a hardy, aquatic perennial; and is found growing naturally, in considerable abundance, about ponds, and in ditches and small running streams. when in blossom, the plant is about two feet in height, or length; the leaves are winged, with five or six pairs of rounded leaflets, and, in deep water, are often immersed, or float upon the surface; the flowers are small, white, four-petaled, and terminate the stalks in loose spikes; the seeds are very small, reddish-brown, and retain their powers of germination five years,--nearly a hundred and twenty thousand are contained in an ounce. _planting and culture._--"water-cress is of the best quality when grown in running streams and gravelly soil." the roots may be planted in spring, in situations where the water is from four to eight inches deep. after they are established, the plants will rapidly increase, both from the natural distribution of the seeds and the spreading of the roots, and soon entirely cover the surface of the water with foliage. it may be grown with trifling cost in any small collection of water, and can be easily introduced by dropping a few plants about the borders at the time of the ripening of the seeds. in many localities, it is found growing in spontaneous abundance; and one of the best and most healthful of salads may be obtained for the mere labor of gathering. _varieties._--there are three described varieties,--the green-leaved, the small brown-leaved, and the large brown-leaved. these differ slightly, if at all, in flavor; though the brown-leaved is generally preferred: having a fine appearance, and a small proportion of stalk to the leaves, it is most salable in the market. the variations in foliage and habit do not appear to be caused by the quantity or quality of the water in which the plants are grown, as the three kinds are found growing together. "the green-leaved is the easiest of cultivation, and the small brown-leaved is the hardiest. the large brown-leaved is the best, and is the only one which can be well grown in situations where shallow water is not to be obtained."--_trans._ _gathering and use._--"the shoots are _cut_ for market, not _broken_ off, as is the usual mode of gathering cress in its natural state, and which is found to be very injurious to the plants in the beds. after they have been cut about three times, they begin to stock; and then, the oftener they are cut, the better. in summer, it is necessary to keep them very closely cut; and in water of a proper depth, and with a good soil, each bed supplies a gathering once a week." it is extensively employed as an early spring salad; and, on account of its warm and pleasant taste, is by many persons preferred to all other salad plants. * * * * * winter-cress. barbarea. american winter-cress. belle-isle cress. scurvy-grass, of some localities. barbarea præcox. stems from twelve to fifteen inches high; leaves lyrate, the terminal lobe round; flowers small, in erect, loose, terminal spikes, or groups; the seeds are small, wrinkled, of a grayish color, and retain their vitality three years. introduced from europe, and naturalized in the northern states. common winter-cress, or yellow rocket. barbarea vulgaris. this species somewhat resembles the foregoing; and, like it, grows naturally in moist, shady situations. it is distinguished by its longer, more erect, and more slender pods. _soil and cultivation._--both of the species are hardy, perennial plants; and are raised from seeds, which should be sown in april or may, in shallow drills a foot apart. for a succession, a few seeds may be sown at intervals of three or four weeks till august. for winter use, sow, and subsequently cultivate, as winter spinach. _use._--as soon as the plants have made sufficient growth, they may be cut for use. the outer leaves should be first gathered, and the flower-stalks cut or nipped off as they make their appearance, in order to render the plants strong and stocky, and to promote the growth of the leaves; these being the parts of the plants used. they are served as cress, which they resemble in flavor. * * * * * wood-sorrel. oxalis acetocella. wood-sorrel is a hardy, perennial plant; growing naturally in woods, in cool and shaded situations. the leaves are radical, inversely heart-shaped, and produced three together at the extremity of quite a long stem, or petiole; the flower-stalk is entirely leafless, and supports a solitary bell-shaped flower, the petals of which are white, finely lined or striped with purple; the seed-vessels are of an oblong form, five-angled, and, when ripe, burst open by the touch, in the manner of those of the _impatiens noli me tangere_, or common balsam, of the flower-garden; the seeds are quite small, and of a reddish-brown color. the flowers are produced in may and june, and the seeds ripen in july. _propagation and culture._--it may be propagated either by seeds or by dividing the roots. the soil should be rich and moist; and the seeds may be sown in april or may, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart; or the roots may be divided in spring or autumn, and set in rows the same distance asunder. _use._--the leaves possess a pleasant, acid taste; and are mixed with salads, to which they impart an agreeable, refreshing flavor. the plant is considered one of the most valuable of all vegetables cultivated for their acid properties. * * * * * worms. astragalus hamosus. a hardy, annual plant, indigenous to the south of europe. stem ten or twelve inches long, recumbent; leaves pinnate, with ten or twelve pairs of quite small leaflets; flowers yellow, produced five or six together at the extremity of quite a long stem, or peduncle; the seed-pods are about two inches long, nearly a fourth of an inch thick, peculiarly bent or curved, and contain ten or twelve brown seeds. there is but one species or variety cultivated. _sowing and culture._--the plants may be started by sowing the seeds in a hot-bed in march, or the seeds may be sown in the open ground in may. they are cultivated in rows fourteen inches apart, and ten or twelve inches apart in the rows; and are also grown in groups, or hills, three or four together. the plants blossom in july, and the pods attain their growth in august and september. _use._--the pods, in their green state, much resemble some descriptions of worms; and, like caterpillars (_scorpiurus_) and snails (_medicago_), are sometimes placed on dishes of salad to excite curiosity, or for pleasantly surprising the guests at table. though inoffensive, they are seldom eaten. chapter viii. oleraceous plants. angelica. anise. balm. basil. borage. caraway. clary. coriander. costmary. cumin. dill. fennel. lavender. lovage. marigold. marjoram. nigella. parsley. peppermint. rosemary. sage. savory. spearmint. tansy. thyme. angelica. angelica archangelica. angelica is a native of hungary and germany, and is also indigenous to great britain. it is a hardy, biennial plant, with a cylindrical, hollow, herbaceous stem four or five feet high. the radical leaves are from two to three feet long, compound, or divided in threes, purplish-red at the base; flowers small, pale-yellow, in large, terminal, spherical umbels; the seeds are of a yellowish color, oblong, flattened on one side, convex on the opposite, ribbed, thin, and membraneous on the borders, and retain their germinative power but a single season,--nearly six thousand are contained in an ounce. _soil and culture._--the plants thrive best in damp, and even wet, localities; but may be grown in any good, well-enriched soil. as the seeds soon lose their vitality, they should be sown in august, immediately after ripening. make a small bed, sow the seeds in drills ten inches apart, and cover three-fourths of an inch deep. in this seed-bed allow the young plants to remain until the following spring, when they should be set out two feet asunder in each direction. the stalks will be fit for use in may and june of the following year. if the flower-stem is removed as it makes its appearance, the plants will put forth fresh sprouts from the sides of the root, and survive three years; but when allowed to blossom, and to perfect their seeds, the plants soon after perish. _use._--angelica was formerly used, after being blanched, as a salad, like celery. in the vicinity of london, it is raised to a considerable extent for confectioners,--the tender leaf-stalks and flowering-shoots serving as a basis for sweetmeat. the seeds are sometimes employed for flavoring liquors. * * * * * anise. pimpinella anisum. this is an annual plant, originally from egypt. though but little cultivated in this country, neither our soil nor climate is unsuitable; and it might be successfully, if not profitably, grown in the middle and warmer parts of the northern states. large quantities of the seeds are raised on the island of malta and in some parts of spain, and thence exported to england and america for the purpose of distillation or expression. the stem is from a foot and a half to two feet high, and separates into numerous slender branches; the leaves are twice pinnate,--those of the upper part of the stalk divided into three or four narrow segments; the flowers are small, yellowish-white, produced in large, loose umbels, at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are of a grayish-green color, oblong, slightly bent or curved, convex and ribbed on one side, concave on the opposite, and terminate in a small bunch, or knob,--nearly nine thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. _culture._--anise is raised from seeds sown annually, and thrives best in light, rich, comparatively dry soil, and in a warm, sunny situation. as early in spring as the appearance of settled warm weather, lay out a bed four feet and a half wide, and as long as may be desired; spread on a thin dressing of well-digested compost, and spade it thoroughly in with the soil; then rake the surface fine and even, and sow the seed thinly in drills twelve inches apart and an inch deep, allowing an ounce of seed for a hundred and fifty linear feet. when the plants are an inch high, thin them to five or six inches apart; and, as they increase in size, keep the ground between the rows loose, and the spaces between the plants free from weeds. towards the close of the season, the seed will be ripened sufficiently for harvesting; when the plants should be pulled up, and spread in a sunny place until dry. the seed should then be threshed from the heads, riddled and winnowed, and again exposed to the sun, or spread in a dry, airy room, to evaporate any remaining moisture; when they will be ready for use or the market. in field culture, the grower should follow substantially the same method, with the exception of laying out the ground; omitting, in this particular, its division into beds. after the land has been well prepared, the seed can be sown with great facility by a common sowing-machine, adjusted as when employed for sowing carrots. at the time of harvesting, the plants may be cut near the surface of the ground, or even mowed; thereby avoiding much of the inconvenience arising from the soil that adheres to the roots when the plants are pulled up. there are no varieties. _use._--the seeds and leaves are used both in medicine and cookery. the green leaves are employed in salads, and for seasoning and garnishing, like fennel. the seeds have a fragrant odor, a pleasant, warm taste, and are highly carminative. large quantities are used for distillation and in flavoring liquors, and also for expressing for their essential oil. * * * * * balm. melissa officinalis. a hardy, perennial plant, from the south of europe. the stalk is four-sided, branching, and from two to three feet high; leaves opposite, in pairs, ovate, toothed on the borders; the flowers are small, nearly white, produced in spikes, or clusters, at or near the top of the plant. _soil, propagation, and culture._--any warm, mellow, garden soil is suited to its growth. it is generally propagated by dividing the roots, which may be done either in spring or in autumn. after thoroughly stirring the soil, set the roots in rows fifteen inches apart, and a foot apart in the rows. under good management, the plants will soon completely cover the surface of the ground, and the bed will not need renewal for many years. _gathering._--if required for drying, the plants should be cut as they come into flower, separating the stems at the surface of the ground. they should not be exposed to the sun in drying, but placed in an airy, shady place, and allowed to dry gradually. the leaves, in their green state, may be taken directly from the plants as they are required for use. _use._--the plant has a pleasant, lemon-like odor; an agreeable, aromatic taste; and, in flavoring certain dishes, is used as a substitute for lemon-thyme. it is beneficial in hemorrhage, and other diseases of the lungs; and, in the form of tea, constitutes a cooling and grateful diluent in fevers. a mixture of balm and honey, or sugar, is sometimes applied to the interior of beehives, just previous to receiving the swarm, for the purpose of "attaching the colony to its new settlement." * * * * * basil. ocymum. there are two species of basil cultivated in gardens; viz., the common sweet basil (_o. basilicum_) and the small bush basil (_o. minimum_). of the common sweet basil, there are three varieties; and of the bush basil, two varieties. they are all annuals, and are grown from seeds, which are black, small, oblong, and retain their vitality from six to ten years. common sweet basil. large sweet basil. ocymum basilicum. stem from a foot to a foot and a half in height; leaves comparatively large, green, ovate, sharply pointed; flowers white, in whorls at the extremities of the stems and branches. the whole plant, when bruised, is highly aromatic; having the odor and flavor of cloves. the seeds of the common sweet basil, and also those of the two following varieties, may be sown in a hot-bed in march, and the plants set out in may in rows a foot apart, and five or six inches apart in the rows; or the seeds may be sown in the open ground the last of april or early in may, and the plants thinned while young, as directed for transplanting. in removing the plants from the hot-bed, retain as much of the earth about the roots as possible; water freely as soon as transplanted, and also in dry weather; and they will soon yield an abundance of tender stems and leaves. _varieties._-- purple basil. basilic grand violet. _vil._ leaves and flowers purple. when grown in sunny situations, the leaf-stems and young branches are also purple. in other respects, the variety is similar to the common sweet basil. its properties and uses are the same. lettuce-leaved basil. _vil._ the leaves of this variety are large, pale-green, wrinkled and blistered like those of some kinds of lettuce: whence the name. it resembles the foregoing varieties in taste and odor, and is used for the same purposes. bush basil. ocymum minimum. the bush basils are small, low-growing, branching plants; and are propagated and cultivated like the common sweet basil. green bush basil. basilic fin vert. _vil._ stem about eight inches high; leaves small, green, oval; flowers white, produced in whorls about the upper portion of the principal stalk and towards the extremities of the branches. purple bush basil. basilic fin violet. _vil._ leaves purple. in other respects, similar to the green bush basil. _use._--the leaves and young branches have a strong, clove-like taste and odor, and are used in highly seasoned soups and meats. they are also sometimes added to salads. for winter use, the stalks are cut while in flower, dried, powdered, and preserved, like other pot-herbs. * * * * * borage. borago officinalis. borage is generally classed as a hardy annual, though it is sometimes biennial. stem two feet high; the leaves are oval, alternate, and, in common with the stalk and branches, thickly set with stiff, bristly hairs; the flowers are large and showy,--they are red, white, or blue, and often measure more than an inch in diameter; the seeds are large, oblong, slightly curved, and retain their germinative property three years. _soil and cultivation._--borage thrives best in light, dry soil. the seeds are sown in april or may, in drills ten or twelve inches apart, and half an inch deep. they should be sown quite thinly, or so as to secure a plant for every six or eight inches; to which distance they should be thinned. when a continued supply is required, a second sowing should be made in july. the plants seed abundantly; and, when once introduced into the garden, spring up spontaneously. _use._--the plant is rarely cultivated and little used in this country. it is sometimes employed as a pot-herb, and the young shoots are occasionally mixed in salads. they are also sometimes boiled and used as spinach. the flowers make a beautiful garnish, and it is well worthy cultivation as an ornamental plant. "the stalks and foliage contain a large proportion of nitre; and, when dried, burn like match-paper." _varieties._--there are several varieties, differing slightly, except in the color of the flowers; the red-flowering, white-flowering, and blue-flowering being the principal. a variety, with variegated foliage, is described by some authors. miller states that "they generally retain their distinctions from seeds." * * * * * caraway. carum carui. the common caraway is a hardy, biennial plant; a native of various parts of europe; and, to a considerable extent, naturalized in this country. the root is long and tapering, of a yellowish-white color, and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter near the crown or at its broadest part; the flesh of the root is white, fine-grained, with a flavor not unlike that of the carrot; the flower-stalks are put forth the second season, and are about two feet and a half in height, with numerous spreading branches; the leaves are finely cut, or divided, and of a deep-green color; the flowers are small, white, and produced in umbels at the ends of the branches; the seeds, which ripen quite early in the season, are of an oblong form, somewhat curved, furrowed, slightly tapering towards the extremities, of a clear olive-brown color, and pleasant, aromatic flavor and odor,--nearly eight thousand five hundred seeds are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. _soil and cultivation._--caraway is one of the hardiest of plants, and succeeds well in almost any soil or situation. in the coldest parts of the united states, and even in the canadas, it is naturalized to such an extent about fields and mowing lands, as to be obtained in great abundance for the mere labor of cutting up the plants as the ripening of the seeds takes place. when cultivated, the sowing may be made in april or may: but, if sown just after ripening, the seeds not only vegetate with greater certainty, but the plants often flower the ensuing season; thus saving a summer's growth. sow in drills twelve or fifteen inches apart, and cover half an inch deep. when the plants are well up, thin to six or eight inches apart, and keep the ground loose, and free from weeds. the seeds will ripen in the july of the year after sowing. for other methods of culture, see coriander. _use._--it is principally cultivated for its seeds, which constitute an article of some commercial importance; a large proportion, however, of the consumption in this country being supplied by importation from europe. they are extensively employed by confectioners, and also for distillation. they are also mixed in cake, and, by the dutch, introduced into cheese. it is sometimes cultivated for its young leaves, which are used in soups and salads; or as a pot-herb, like parsley. the roots are boiled in the manner of the carrot or parsnip, and by some preferred to these vegetables; the flavor being considered pleasant and delicate. there are no described varieties. * * * * * clary. _loud._ clary sage. salvia sclarea. clary is a hardy, biennial plant. it is indigenous to the south of europe, and has been cultivated in gardens for upwards of three centuries. the radical leaves are large, rough, wrinkled, oblong-heart-shaped, and toothed on the margin; stalk two feet high, four-sided, clammy to the touch; flowers pale-blue, in loose, terminal spikes; seeds round, brownish, and, like others of the family, produced four together,--they retain their vitality two years. _sowing and culture._--it is generally grown from seeds, which are sown annually in april or may, in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and half or three-fourths of an inch deep. when the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to ten or twelve inches apart, and treat the growing crop in the usual form during summer. the leaves will be in perfection in the ensuing autumn, winter, and spring; and the plants will blossom, and produce their seeds, in the following summer. _use._--the leaves are used for flavoring soups, to which they impart a strong, peculiar flavor, agreeable to some, but unpleasant to most persons. it has some of the properties of common sage, and is occasionally used as a substitute. the plant is seldom employed in american cookery, and is little cultivated. * * * * * coriander. _law._ coriandrum sativum. a hardy annual, supposed to have been introduced from the south of europe, but now naturalized in almost all temperate climates where it has once been cultivated. stem about two feet in height, generally erect, but, as the seeds approach maturity, often acquiring a drooping habit; stem-leaves more finely cut or divided than those proceeding directly from the root, and all possessed of a strong and somewhat disagreeable odor. the generic name is derived from _koris_ (a bug), with reference to the peculiar smell of its foliage. flowers white, produced on the top of the plant, at the extremities of the branches, in flat, spreading umbels, or bunches; seeds globular, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, of a yellowish-brown color, with a warm, pleasant, aromatic taste,--they become quite light and hollow by age, and are often affected by insects in the manner of seed-pease. though they will sometimes vegetate when kept for a longer period, they are not considered good when more than two years old. _propagation and cultivation._--like all annuals, it is propagated from seed, which should be sown in april or may, in good, rich, mellow soil well pulverized. sow in drills made fourteen or sixteen inches asunder and about three-fourths of an inch in depth, and thin to nine inches in the rows. it soon runs to flower and seed, and will be ready for harvesting in july or august. in the south of england, coriander is generally cultivated in connection with caraway; eighteen pounds of caraway seed being mixed with fifteen pounds of coriander for an acre. the coriander, being an annual, yields its crop the first season. after being cut, it is left on the field to dry, and the seeds afterwards beaten out on cloths; the facility with which these are detached not admitting of the usual method of harvesting. an unquestionably preferable mode of cultivation would be to sow them both in drills alternately, by which means the caraway would be more easily hoed and cleaned after the removal of the coriander. _use._--it is generally cultivated for its seeds, which are used to a considerable extent by druggists, confectioners, and distillers. in the garden, it is sometimes sown for its leaves, which are used as chervil in soups and salads; but, when so required, a sowing should be made at intervals of three or four weeks. there are no varieties. * * * * * costmary, or alecost. balsamita vulgaris. costmary is a hardy, perennial plant, with a hard, creeping root, and an erect, branching stem two or three feet high. the radical leaves, which are produced on long footstalks, are oval, serrated, and of a grayish color,--those of the stalk are sessile, smaller than the radical ones, but similar in form; the flowers are deep-yellow, in erect, terminal, spreading corymbs; the seeds are small, slightly curved, and of a grayish-white color. hoary-leaved costmary. _loud._ a variety with deeply divided and hoary leaves, less fragrant than the preceding. _propagation and cultivation._--costmary may be cultivated in almost any description of soil or situation. it is sometimes grown from seeds, but is generally propagated by dividing the roots, which increase rapidly, and soon entirely occupy the ground. they are taken up for planting out either in spring or autumn, and should be set two feet apart in each direction. by occasionally thinning out the plants as they become too thick, a bed may be continued many years. _use._--the plant has a soft, agreeable odor, and is sometimes used as a pot-herb for flavoring soups. the leaves are used in salads, and also for flavoring ale or beer: hence the name "alecost." * * * * * cumin. cuminum cyminum. cumin is a native of egypt. it is a tender, annual plant, from nine to twelve inches high. the leaves are deep-green, and divided into long, linear segments, not unlike those of fennel; the flowers are white or pale-blue, and produced in small umbels at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are long, furrowed, of a pale-brownish color, and somewhat resemble those of anise,--about seven thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their power of germination three years. _soil and cultivation._--cumin requires a light, warm-loamy soil. the seed should be sown about the beginning of may, in drills fourteen inches apart and half an inch deep. when the plants are well up, they should be thinned to three or four inches apart in the lines. the treatment of the growing crop, and the usual method of harvesting, are the same as directed for anise or coriander. the seed is sometimes sown broadcast; the soil being first finely pulverized, and raked smooth and even. this may be successfully practised upon land naturally light and warm, if free from weeds. though a native of a warm climate, cumin may be successfully grown throughout the middle states, and in the warmer portions of the northern and eastern. _use._--the plant is cultivated for its seeds, which are carminative, and used as those of caraway and coriander. they are sometimes employed for flavoring spirits. the plant is rarely grown, and the seeds are but little used, in the united states. there are no varieties. * * * * * dill. _loud._ anethum graveolens. dill is a hardy, biennial plant. there is but one species cultivated, and there are no varieties. the stem is erect and slender, and the leaves are finely divided; the flowers are produced in june and july of the second year, and the seeds ripen in august. the plant resembles fennel in its general character, though smaller and less vigorous. _propagation and cultivation._--dill flourishes best in light soil, and is propagated from seeds sown annually. as these retain their vitality but a single year, and, even when kept through the winter, vegetate slowly, they are frequently sown late in summer, or early in autumn, immediately after ripening. the drills are made a foot apart, and the seeds covered half an inch deep. the young plants should be thinned to six inches apart in the rows; and the leaves may be gathered for use from july till winter, and in the following spring till the plants have run to flower. _use._--"the whole plant is strongly aromatic. its leaves are used to give flavor to pickles, particularly cucumbers; and occasionally are added to soups and sauces: the seeds are also employed for flavoring pickles. all parts of the plant are used in medical preparations." * * * * * fennel. foeniculum. three species of fennel are cultivated, differing not only in habit, but, to some extent, in their properties. the stems vary in height from two to four feet, and are smooth and branching; the flowers are yellow, in terminal umbels; the seeds are oval, ribbed, or furrowed, generally of a light, yellowish-brown color, and retain their vitality from three to five years. _soil, sowing, and culture._--a light, dry soil is best adapted to the growth of fennel; though it will thrive well in any good garden loam. it is generally raised from seeds, which may be sown in august, just after they ripen, or in april and may. they are generally sown in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and about three-fourths of an inch deep,--the young plants being afterwards thinned to twelve or fifteen inches apart in the drills; or a few seeds may be scattered broadcast on a small seed-bed, raked in, and the seedlings, when two or three inches high, transplanted to rows, as before directed. fennel is sometimes propagated by a division of the roots and by offsets. this may be performed either in spring, summer, or autumn. set the roots, or shoots, fifteen inches apart in each direction; and they will soon become stocky plants, and afford an abundance of leaves for use. when cultivated for its foliage, the flowering-shoots should be cut off as they may make their appearance, to encourage the production of fresh shoots, and to give size and succulency to the leaves. the species and their peculiar uses are as follow:-- common or bitter fennel. foeniculum vulgare. a perennial species, with deep, strong, fleshy roots; stem three or four feet high, with finely divided leaves. the flowers are put forth in july, and the seeds ripen in august: the latter are about one-sixth of an inch long, of a greenish-brown color, and, in common with the leaves, of a decidedly bitter taste. _soil, sowing, and culture._--this species may be grown in almost any soil or situation. sow the seeds soon after ripening, or early in spring. the plants require no other care than to be kept free from weeds. _use._--the young leaves are used for flavoring soups and sauces, and are sometimes mixed in salads. the seeds are carminative, and the roots and leaves have reputed medicinal properties. dark-green leaved. _loud._ a variety with deep-green foliage. its uses, and modes of culture, are the same as those of the foregoing species. florence or italian fennel. _mill._ finochio. sweet azorian fennel. foeniculum dulce. quite distinct from the common fennel, and generally cultivated as an annual. the stem, which is about eighteen inches high, expands near the surface of the ground; and, when divided horizontally, presents an oval form, measuring four or five inches in one direction, and two inches in the opposite. the flowers are produced in umbels, as in the other species. the seeds are slender, yellow, somewhat curved, sweet and pleasant to the taste, and of an agreeable, anise-like odor. _sowing and culture._--the plant should be grown in well-enriched, mellow soil. sow the seeds in april or may, thinly, in shallow drills from eighteen inches to two feet apart. half an ounce of seeds will be sufficient for fifty feet of drill; or, by transplanting when they spring up too thickly, will furnish seedlings for a hundred feet. the plants should be eight or ten inches apart; and, when the stems have attained a sufficient size, they should be earthed up for blanching, in the manner of celery. two or three weeks will be required to perfect this; and, if properly treated, the stems will be found white, crisp, tender, and excellent. plants from the first sowing will be ready for use in july and august. for a succession, a few seeds may be sown in june, or early in july. _use._--the blanched portion of the stem is mixed in soups, and also used as a salad. it is served like celery, with various condiments; and possesses a sweet, pleasant, aromatic taste. it is a popular vegetable in some parts of europe, but is rarely cultivated in this country. sweet fennel. _mill._ malta fennel. foeniculum officinale. by some writers, this has been described as a variety of the common fennel; but its distinctive character appears to be permanent under all conditions of soil and culture. the leaves are long and narrow, and, compared with those of the last named, less abundant, and not so pointed. the stem is also shorter, and the seeds are longer, more slender, and lighter colored. _sowing and cultivation._--it is propagated and cultivated as the common fennel. _use._--it is used in all the forms of the last named. the seeds have a sweet, pleasant, anise-like taste and odor, are strongly carminative, and yield an essential oil by distillation. lavender. lavendula spica. lavender is a hardy, low-growing, shrubby plant, originally from the south of europe. there are three varieties; and they may be propagated from seeds by dividing the roots, or by slips, or cuttings. the seeds are sown in april or may. make the surface of the soil light and friable, and sow the seeds in very shallow drills six inches apart. when the seedlings are two or three inches high, transplant them in rows two feet apart, and a foot apart in the rows. the slips, or cuttings, are set in april, two-thirds of the length in the soil, and in rows as directed for transplanting seedlings. shade them for a few days, until they have taken root; after which, little care will be required beyond the ordinary form of cultivation. the roots may be divided either in spring or autumn. though lavender grows most luxuriantly in rich soil, the plants are more highly aromatic, and less liable to injury from severe weather, when grown in light, warm, and gravelly situations. _use._--lavender is sometimes used as a pot-herb, "but is more esteemed for the distilled water which bears its name, and which, together with the oil, is obtained in the greatest proportion from the flower-spikes which have been gathered in dry weather, and just before the flowers are fully expanded. the oil of lavender is obtained in the ratio of an ounce to sixty ounces of dried flowers."--_law._ "in the neighborhood of mitcham, in surrey, england, upwards of two hundred acres are occupied with lavender alone."--_thomp._ _varieties._-- broad-leaved lavender. _mill._ spike lavender. compared with the common lavender, the branches of this variety are shorter, more sturdy, and thicker set with leaves; the latter being short and broad. the broad-leaved lavender rarely blossoms; but, when this occurs, the leaves of the flower-stalk are differently formed from those of the lower part of the plant, and somewhat resemble those of the common variety. the stalks are taller, the spikes lower and looser, and the flowers smaller, than those of the last named. common or blue-flowering lavender. narrow-leaved blue-flowering. a shrubby, thickly-branched plant, from a foot to upwards of three feet high, according to the depth and quality of the soil in which it is cultivated. the leaves are opposite, long, and narrow; flowers blue or purple, in spikes. the whole plant is remarkably aromatic; but the flowers have this property in a greater degree than the foliage or branches. the plants are in perfection in july and august, and are cut for drying or distillation, close to the stem, as the blossoms on the lower part of the spikes begin to change to a brown color. narrow-leaved white-flowering. a sub-variety of the common lavender, with white flowers. it is of smaller growth and less hardy than the last named, though not so generally cultivated. its properties and uses are the same. * * * * * lovage. ligusticum levisticum. lovage is a hardy, perennial plant, with a hollow, channelled, branching stem six or seven feet high. the leaves are winged, smooth, deep, glossy-green, and somewhat resemble those of celery; the flowers are yellow, and produced in large umbels at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are oblong, striated, of a pale, yellowish-brown color, and retain their germinative powers but one year. _soil, propagation, and culture._--lovage requires a deep, rich, moist soil; and is propagated either by seeds or dividing: the roots. the seeds should be sown in august, or immediately after ripening; as, when sown in spring, they seldom vegetate well. when the young plants have made a growth of two or three inches, they should be transplanted three feet apart in each direction; and, when well established, will require little care, and continue for many years. the roots may be divided in spring or autumn; and should be set three feet apart, as directed for seedling plants; covering the crowns three inches deep. _use._--lovage was formerly cultivated as an esculent; but its use as such has long been discontinued. it is now cultivated for its medicinal properties; both the seeds and roots being used. the latter are large, fleshy, dark-brown without, yellowish within, and of a peculiar, warm, aromatic taste. they are sliced and dried, and in this state are used to some extent by confectioners. the seeds are similar to the roots in taste and odor, but have greater pungency. in appearance and flavor, the plant is not unlike celery. there are no varieties. * * * * * marigold. pot marigold. calendula officinalis. this hardy annual is a native of france and the south of europe. aside from its value for culinary purposes, its large, deep, orange-yellow flowers are showy and attractive; and it is frequently cultivated as an ornamental plant. the stem is about a foot in height; the leaves are thick and fleshy, rounded at the ends, and taper to the stalk; the flowers are an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, yellow,--differing, however, in depth of color, and single or double according to the variety; the seeds are large, light-brown, much curved and contorted, and very irregular both in their size and form. _sowing and cultivation._--the plant is of easy culture. the seeds are sown in autumn, just after ripening; or in april, may, or june. make the drills a foot apart; cover the seed three-fourths of an inch deep; and, when the plants are an inch or two inches high, thin them to eight or ten inches apart. plants from the first sowing will blossom early in july, and continue in bloom until destroyed by frost. _gathering._--the flowers are gathered when fully expanded, divested of their calyxes, and spread in a light, airy, shaded situation until they are thoroughly dried. they are gathered as they come to perfection; for, when the plants are allowed to ripen their seeds, they become much less productive. _to raise seed._--leave one or two of the finest plants, without cutting the flowers; and, when the heads of seed begin to change from a green to a brownish color, cut them off, spread them a short time as directed for drying the flowers, and pack away for use. _use._--the flowers are used in various parts of europe for flavoring soups and stews, and are much esteemed. though often grown as an ornamental plant, the flowers are but little used in this country for culinary purposes. the varieties are as follow:-- common orange-flowered. flowers single, deep orange-yellow, high-flavored. it is considered the best variety for cultivation. lemon-flowered. this differs from the foregoing in the paler color of the flowers, which are also less aromatic. the plants are not distinguishable from those of the common orange-flowered. double orange-flowering. of the same color with the first named, but with fine, large, double ornamental flowers. the petals are flat, and rest in an imbricated manner, one on the other, as in some varieties of the anemone. it is more productive, but less aromatic, than the single-flowering. double lemon-flowering. a variety of the second-named sort, with double flowers like those of the preceding. to raise good seeds of either of the double-flowering kinds, all plants producing single flowers must be removed as soon as their character is known. when the single and double-flowering plants are suffered to grow together, the latter rapidly deteriorate, and often ultimately become single-flowering. childing, or proliferous marigold. _loud._ this variety produces numerous small flowers from the margin of the calyx of the large central flowers. it is quite ornamental, but of little value as an esculent. * * * * * marjoram. origanum. common marjoram. origanum vulgare. a perennial species, with a shrubby, four-sided stem, a foot and a half high; leaves oval, opposite,--at the union of the leaves with the stalk, there are produced several smaller leaves, which, in size and form, resemble those of the common sweet marjoram; the flowers are pale-red, or flesh-colored, and produced in rounded, terminal spikes; the plants blossom in july and august, and the seeds ripen in september. _propagation and culture._--it may be grown from seeds, but is generally propagated by dividing the roots, either in spring or autumn. set them in a dry and warm situation, in rows fifteen inches apart, and ten or twelve inches from plant to plant in the rows. the seeds may be sown in a seed-bed in april or may, and the seedlings transplanted to rows as directed for setting the roots; or they may be sown in drills fifteen inches apart, afterwards thinning out the young plants to ten inches apart in the drills. there is a variety with white flowers, and another with variegated foliage. _use._--the young shoots, cut at the time of flowering and dried in the shade, are used as sweet marjoram for seasoning soups and meats. the whole plant is highly aromatic. sweet marjoram. knotted marjoram. origanum majorana. sweet marjoram is a native of portugal. though a biennial, it is always treated as an annual; not being sufficiently hardy to withstand the winters of the middle or northern states in the open ground. the plant is of low growth, with a branching stem, and oval or rounded leaves. the flowers, which appear in july and august, are of a purplish color, and produced in compact clusters, or heads, resembling knots: whence the term "knotted marjoram" of many localities. the seeds are brown, exceedingly small, and retain their germinative properties three years. _sowing and cultivation._--sweet marjoram is raised from seeds sown annually in april, may, or june. its propagation, however, is generally attended with more or less difficulty, arising from the exceeding minuteness of the seeds, and the liability of the young seedlings to be destroyed by the sun before they become established. the seeds are sown in drills ten or twelve inches apart, and very thinly covered with finely pulverized loam. coarse light matting is often placed over the bed immediately after sowing, to facilitate vegetation; and, if allowed to remain until the plants are well up, will often preserve a crop which would otherwise be destroyed. the seeds are sometimes sown in a hot-bed, and the plants set out in may or june, in rows twelve inches apart, and six inches apart in the rows. _gathering._--the plants, when in flower or fully developed, are cut to the ground; and, for winter use, are dried and preserved as other pot-herbs. _use._--sweet marjoram is highly aromatic, and is much used, both in the green state and when dried, for flavoring broths, soups, and stuffings. pot marjoram. origanum onites. a perennial species, from sicily. stem a foot or more in height, branching; leaves oval, comparatively smooth; the flowers are small, of a purplish color, and produced in spikes. _propagation and cultivation._--the species is propagated, and the crop in all respects should be treated, as directed for common marjoram. the properties and uses of the plant are also the same. both, however, are much inferior to the sweet marjoram last described. winter sweet marjoram. _corb._ origanum heracleoticum. a half-hardy perennial, from the south of europe. stem eighteen inches high, purplish; the leaves are opposite, oval, rounded at the ends, and resemble those of sweet marjoram; the flowers are white, and are put forth in july and august, in spikelets about two inches in length; the seeds ripen in september. _propagation and culture._--it may be grown from seeds, but is generally propagated by dividing the roots either in the spring or fall, and planting the divisions ten inches apart, in rows eighteen inches asunder. it succeeds best in dry localities, and requires no other attention than to have the soil kept loose, and free from weeds. there is a variety with variegated leaves, but differing in no other respect from the foregoing. _use._--the leaves and young branches are used in soups, and stuffing for meats; and should be cut when just coming into flower, and dried in the shade. * * * * * aromatic nigella. four spices. allspice. black cumin. quatre epices, of the french. nigella saliva. a hardy, annual plant from the east indies. stem twelve to eighteen inches high, with alternate, sessile, finely divided leaves; the flowers are large, white, variegated with blue; the seeds, which are produced in a roundish capsule, are somewhat triangular, wrinkled, of a yellowish color, and pungent, aromatic taste,--about thirteen thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. there is a species cultivated, the seeds of which are black. _soil and cultivation._--it is always raised from seed, and thrives best in light, warm soil. the seed may be sown from the middle of april to the middle of may. pulverize the soil well, make the surface smooth and even, and sow in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart and about half an inch deep. when the plants are two inches high, thin them to five or six inches apart in the rows. during the summer, cultivate in the usual manner, keeping the soil loose, and watering occasionally if the weather be dry; and in august or september, or when the seed ripens, cut off the plants at the roots, spread them in an airy situation, and, when sufficiently dried, thresh out; after which, spread the seed a short time to evaporate any remaining moisture, and they will be ready for use. _use._--the seeds have a warm, aromatic taste; and are employed in french cookery, under the name of _quatre épices_, or "four spices." * * * * * parsley. apium petroselinum. parsley is a hardy, biennial plant from sardinia. the leaves of the first year are all radical, compound, rich, deep-green, smooth, and shining. when fully developed, the plant measures three or four feet in height; the flowers are small, white, in terminal umbels; the seeds are ovoid, somewhat three-sided, slightly curved, of a grayish-brown color and aromatic taste,--seven thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. _soil and propagation._--parsley succeeds best in rich, mellow soil, and is propagated from seeds sown annually; an ounce of seed being allowed to a hundred and fifty feet of drill. _sowing._--as the seed vegetates slowly,--sometimes remaining in the earth four or five weeks before the plants appear,--the sowing should be made as early in spring as the ground is in working condition. lay out the bed of a size corresponding to the supply required, spade it deeply and thoroughly, level the surface (making it fine and smooth), and sow the seed in drills fourteen inches apart, and half an inch deep. when the plants are two or three inches high, thin them to eight or ten inches apart; being careful, in the thinning, to leave only the best and finest curled plants. according to lindley, the finest curled kinds will rapidly degenerate and become plain, if left to themselves; while, on the other hand, really excellent sorts may be considerably improved by careful cultivation. the best curled parsley is obtained by repeated transplantings. when the seedlings are two inches high, they are set in rows ten inches apart, and six inches apart in the rows. in about four weeks, they should be again transplanted to where they are to remain, in rows eighteen inches apart, and fourteen inches apart in the rows. when thus treated, the plants become remarkably close, of a regular, rosette-like form, and often entirely cover the surface of the ground. when grown for competition or for exhibition, this process of transplanting is thrice and often four times repeated. _seed._--in autumn, select two or three of the finest curled and most symmetrical plants; allow them to remain unplucked; give a slight protection during winter; and, in the following summer, they will yield abundantly. much care is requisite in keeping the varieties true. this is especially the case with the curled sorts. the seed-growers, who value their stock and character, select the best and finest curled plants, and allow no others to flower and seed. when the object is to improve a variety, but few seeds are saved from a plant; and, in some cases, but few seeds from a head. _use._--the leaves of the curled varieties afford one of the most beautiful of garnishes: they are also used for flavoring soups and stews. the seeds are aromatic, and are sometimes used as a substitute for the leaves; though the flavor is much less agreeable. _varieties._-- dwarf curled parsley. curled parsley. sutton's dwarf curled. usher's dwarf curled. a fine, dwarfish, curled variety, long cultivated in england. in some gardens, it is grown in such perfection as to resemble a tuft of finely curled, green moss. it is hardy, and slow in running to seed, but liable to degenerate, as it constantly tends to increase in size and to become less curled. from the dwarf curled parsley, by judicious cultivation and a careful selection of plants for seed, have originated many excellent sorts of stronger growth, yet retaining its finely curled and beautiful leaves. mitchell's matchless winter. _thomp._ a fine, curled sort, larger than the dwarf curled; and, on account of its remarkable hardiness, recommended as one of the best for winter culture. myatt's triple-curled. myatt's garnishing. myatt's extra fine curled. windsor curled. the leaves of this variety are large and spreading, bright-green above, paler beneath. when true, the foliage is nearly as finely curled as that of the dwarf, though the plant is much larger and stronger in its habit. plain parsley. _thomp._ common parsley. the leaves of this sort are plain, or not curled; and the plant produces them in greater quantity than the curled sorts. it is also somewhat hardier. for many years, it was the principal variety grown in the gardens of this country; but has now given place to the curled sorts, which, if not of better flavor, are generally preferred, on account of their superior excellence for garnishing. rendle's treble garnishing. _trans._ a variety of the dwarf curled, of larger size; the leaves being as finely curled and equally beautiful. hamburg or large-rooted parsley. _m'int._ turnip-rooted parsley. a variety of the common plain parsley, with stronger foliage. though the leaves are sometimes used in the manner of those of the common parsley, it is generally cultivated for its fusiform, fleshy roots. to obtain these of good size and quality, the soil should not be too rich, but deeply and thoroughly trenched. sow the seeds in april or may, in drills a foot or fourteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch deep; and, when the seedlings are two or three inches high, thin them to six or eight inches apart in the rows. cultivate during the season as carrots or parsnips; and, in october, the roots will have attained their growth, and be suitable for use. take them up before the ground closes, cut off the tops within an inch or two of the crowns, pack in earth or sand, and store in the cellar for winter. _to raise seeds._--reset a few roots in april, two feet apart; or leave a few plants in the open ground during the winter. they will blossom in june and july, and ripen their seeds in august. _use._--the roots are eaten, boiled as carrots or parsnips. in connection with the leaves, they are also mixed in soups and stews, to which they impart a pleasant, aromatic taste and odor. naples or celery-leaved parsley. neapolitan parsley. celery parsley. this variety somewhat resembles celery; and, by writers on gardening, is described as a hybrid between some of the kinds of celery and the large-rooted or hamburg parsley. with the exception of their larger size, the leaves are similar to those of the common plain parsley. _use._--the leaves are sometimes employed for garnishing; but are generally blanched, and served as celery. _sowing and cultivation._--the plants are started in a hot-bed in march, or the seeds may be sown in a seed-bed in the open ground in may. when the seedlings are four or five inches high, transplant to trenches two feet apart and six or eight inches deep, setting the plants a foot apart in the trenches; afterwards gather the earth gradually about the stems, in the process of cultivation; and, when they are sufficiently grown and blanched, harvest and preserve as celery. _to raise seeds._--leave two or three plants unblanched. they should be eighteen inches asunder, and may remain in the open ground during winter. they will flower, and yield a plentiful supply of seeds, the following summer. * * * * * peppermint. mentha piperita. peppermint is a hardy, perennial plant, introduced from europe, and growing naturally in considerable abundance along the banks of small streams, and in rich, wet localities. where once established, it spreads rapidly, and will remain a long period. stem smooth, erect, four-sided, and from two to three feet in height; leaves opposite, ovate, pointed, toothed on the margin; flowers purplish, or violet-blue, in terminal spikes; the seeds are small, brown, or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality four years. _propagation and culture._--it may be grown from seeds; but this method of propagation is rarely practised, as it is more readily increased by dividing the roots. the agreeable odor, and peculiar, warm, pleasant flavor, of the leaves are well known. the plant, however, is little used as a pot-herb, but is principally cultivated for distillation. for the latter purpose, the ground is ploughed about the middle of may, and furrowed in one direction, as for drill-planting of potatoes; making the furrows about eighteen inches apart. the best roots for setting are those of a year's growth; and an acre of these will be required to plant ten acres anew. these are distributed along the furrows in a continuous line, and covered sometimes with the foot as the planter drops the roots, and sometimes by drawing the earth over them with a hoe. in about four weeks, the plants will be well established, and require hoeing and weeding; which is usually performed three times during the season, the cultivation being finished early in august. "the cutting and distilling commence about the th of august, except in very dry seasons, when it stands two or three weeks longer, and continues until the st of october; during which period the plant is in full inflorescence, and the lower leaves begin to grow sear. it is raked together in small heaps; when it is suffered to wilt ten or twelve hours, if convenient. "the next year, little is done to the mint-field but to cut and distil its product. during this (the second) year, a few weeds make their appearance, but not to the injury of the crop; though the most careful of the mint-growers go through their fields, and destroy them as much as possible. the second crop is not so productive as the first. "the third year, little labor is required other than to harvest and distil the mint. the stem is coarser than before, and the leaves still less abundant. the weeds this year abound, and are not removed or destroyed; half or more of the product of the field often being weeds. "the fourth year, the field is ploughed up early in the spring; and this 'renewing' is sometimes done every third year. "the fifth year, without any further attention, produces a crop equal to the second; after which, the field is pastured and reclaimed for other crops. "the first year produces the best quality of oil, the highest yield per acre, and the greatest amount to the quantity of herbage."--_f. stearns._ * * * * * rosemary. rosmarinus officinalis. rosemary is a half-hardy, shrubby plant, from three to six feet in height. the leaves vary in form and color in the different varieties; the flowers are small, generally blue, and produced in axillary clusters; the seeds are brown, or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality four years. _propagation and cultivation._--like most aromatic plants, rosemary requires a light, dry soil; and, as it is not perfectly hardy, should have a sheltered situation. the common green-leaved and the narrow-leaved are best propagated by seeds; but the variegated sorts are propagated only by cuttings or by dividing the roots. the seeds are sown in april, in a small nursery-bed; and the seedlings, when two or three inches high, transplanted in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. when propagated by cuttings, they should be taken off in may or june, six inches long, and set two-thirds of the length in the earth, in a moist, shady situation: when well rooted, transplant as directed for seedlings. the roots may be divided in spring or autumn. _use._--it is sometimes employed, like other pot-herbs, for flavoring meats and soups. it is used in the manufacture of "eau de cologne," and its flowers and calyxes form a principal ingredient in the distillation of "hungary water." infusions of the leaves are made in some drinks, and the young stems are used as a garnish. there are four varieties, as follow:-- common or green-leaved. leaves narrow, rounded at the ends,--the upper and under surface green; the flowers are comparatively large, and deep-colored. the plant is of spreading habit; and, in all its parts, is more strongly aromatic than the narrow-leaved. it is decidedly the best sort for cultivation. gold-striped. a variety of the common or green-leaved, with foliage striped, or variegated with yellow. this and the silver-leaved are generally cultivated as ornamental plants. the gold-striped is much the hardier sort, and will succeed in any locality where the common green-leaved is cultivated. narrow-leaved. the plants of this variety are smaller and less branched than those of the common or green-leaved, and are also less fragrant; the leaves are hoary beneath, and the flowers are smaller and of a paler color. it is used in all the forms of the common or green-leaved, but is less esteemed. silver-striped. this is a sub-variety of the common or green-leaved, and the most tender of all the sorts. it is principally cultivated for its variegated foliage; the leaves being striped, or variegated with white. like the gold-striped, it can only be propagated by slips or by dividing the roots, and must be well protected during winter. * * * * * sage. salvia. sage is a low-growing, hardy, evergreen shrub, originally from the south of europe. stem from a foot and a half to two feet high,--the leaves varying in form and color in the different species and varieties; the flowers are produced in spikes, and are white, blue, red, purple, or variegated; the seeds are round, of a blackish-brown color, and retain their power of germination three years,--nearly seven thousand are contained in an ounce. _soil and propagation._--sage thrives best in light, rich, loamy soil. though easily grown from slips, or cuttings, it is, in this country, more generally propagated from seeds. these may be sown on a gentle hot-bed in march, and the plants set in the open ground in june, in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot asunder in the rows; or the seeds may be sown in april, where the plants are to remain, thinly, in drills eighteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch deep. when the plants are two inches high, thin them to a foot apart in the rows; and, if needed, form fresh rows by resetting the plants taken up in thinning. if grown from cuttings, those from the present year's growth succeed best. these should be set in june. cut them four or five inches in length, remove the lower leaves, and set them two-thirds of their length in the earth. water freely, and shade or protect with hand-glasses. by the last of july, or first of august, they will have taken root, and may be removed to the place where they are to remain. it may also be propagated by dividing the roots in spring or autumn, in the manner of other hardy shrubs. _gathering and use._--sage should be gathered for drying before the development of the flowering-shoots; and, when cultivated for its leaves, these shoots should be cut out as they make their appearance. when thus treated, the product is largely increased; the leaves being put forth in much greater numbers, and of larger size. it is sometimes treated as an annual; the seeds being sown in april, in drills fourteen inches apart, and the plants cut to the ground when they have made sufficient growth for use. the leaves are employed, both in a green and dried state, for seasoning stuffings, meats, stews, and soups. sage is also used for flavoring cheese; and, in the form of a decoction, is sometimes employed for medical purposes. _species and varieties._-- broad-leaved green sage. balsamic sage. _mill._ stems shrubby, less erect and more downy than those of the succeeding species; the leaves are comparatively large, broad, heart-shaped, woolly, toothed on the margin, and produced on long footstalks,--those of the flower-stalks are oblong, sessile, and nearly entire on the borders; the flowers are small, pale-blue, and much less abundant than those of the common sage. it is rarely employed in cookery, but for medical purposes is considered more efficacious than any other species or variety. common or red-leaved. purple-top. red-top. salvia officinalis. this is the common sage of the garden; and with the green-leaved, which is but a sub-variety, the most esteemed for culinary purposes. the young stalks, the leaf-stems, and the ribs and nerves of the leaves, are purple: the young leaves are also sometimes tinged with the same color, but generally change by age to clear green. the red-leaved is generally regarded as possessing a higher flavor than the green-leaved, and is preferred for cultivation; though the difference, if any really exists, is quite unimportant. the productiveness of the varieties is nearly the same. the leaves of the green sage are larger than those of the red; but the latter produces them in greater numbers. green-leaved. green-top. a variety of the preceding; the young shoots, the leaf-stalks, and the ribs and nerves of the leaves, being green. there appears to be little permanency in the characters by which the varieties are distinguished. both possess like properties, and are equally worthy of cultivation. from seeds of either of the sorts, plants answering to the description of the red-leaved and green-leaved would probably be produced, with almost every intermediate shade of color. narrow-leaved green sage. _mill._ sage of virtue. leaves narrow, hoary, toothed towards the base; the spikes of flowers are long, and nearly leafless; flowers deep-blue; the seeds are similar to those of the red-leaved, and produced four together in an open calyx. compared with the common red-leaved or green-leaved, the leaves are much narrower, the spikes longer and less leafy, and the flowers smaller and of a deeper color. the variety is mild flavored, and the most esteemed of all the sorts for use in a crude state; as it is also one of the best for decoctions. "at one period, the dutch carried on a profitable trade with the chinese by procuring the leaves of this species from the south of france, drying them in imitation of tea, and shipping the article to china, where, for each pound of sage, four pounds of tea were received in exchange."--_m'int._ variegated-leaved green sage. a sub-variety of the green-leaved, with variegated foliage. it is not reproduced from seeds, and must be propagated by slips or by dividing the roots. variegated-leaved red sage. this is but an accidental variety of the common red-leaved sage, differing only in its variegated foliage. it can be propagated only by cuttings or by a division of the roots. * * * * * savory. saturjea. the cultivated species are as follow:-- headed savory. saturjea capitata. a perennial plant, with a rigid, angular, branching stem a foot and a half high. the leaves are firm, pointed, and, when bruised, emit a strong, pleasant, mint-like odor; the flowers are white, and are produced in terminal, globular heads; the seeds are quite small, of a deep-brownish color, and retain their vitality three years. it may be propagated from seeds or by dividing the roots; the latter method, however, being generally practised. the young shoots are used in all the forms of summer savory. shrubby savory. saturjea viminea. a shrub-like, perennial species, cultivated in the same manner as the winter savory. the plant has the pleasant, mint-like odor of the species first described, but is little used either in cookery or medicine. summer savory. saturjea hortensis. an annual species, from the south of europe. stem twelve or fifteen inches high, erect, rather slender, and producing its branches in pairs; the leaves are opposite, narrow, rigid, with a pleasant odor, and warm, aromatic taste; the flowers are pale-pink, or flesh-colored, and are produced at the base of the leaves, towards the upper part of the plant, each stem supporting two flowers; the seeds are quite small, deep-brown, and retain their vitality two or three years. _propagation and cultivation._--summer savory is always raised from seeds, sown annually in april or may. it thrives best in light, mellow soil; and the seed should be sown in shallow drills fourteen or fifteen inches apart. when the plants are two or three inches high, thin them to five or six inches apart in the rows, and cultivate in the usual manner during the summer. when the plants have commenced flowering, they should be cut to the ground, tied in small bunches, and dried in an airy, shady situation. for early use, the seeds are sometimes sown in a hot-bed on a gentle heat, and the seedlings afterwards transplanted to the open ground in rows, as directed for sowing. _use._--the aromatic tops of the plant are used, green or dried, in stuffing meats and fowl. they are also mixed in salads, and sometimes boiled with pease and beans. it is sold in considerable quantities at all seasons of the year, in a dried and pulverized state, packed in hermetically-sealed bottles or boxes. winter savory. _thomp._ saturjea montana. a hardy, evergreen shrub, with a low, branching stem about a foot in height. the leaves are opposite, narrow, and rigid, like those of the preceding species; the flowers resemble those of the summer savory, but are larger and of a paler color; the seeds, which ripen in autumn, are small, dark-brown, and retain their vitality three years. _propagation and culture._--"it may be raised from seed sown in april or may; but is generally propagated by dividing the plants in april, or by cuttings of the young shoots taken off in april or may. the cuttings should be planted two-thirds of their length deep, on a shady border, and, if necessary, watered until they take root. when well established, they may be planted out a foot apart, in rows fifteen inches asunder. some may also be planted as an edging. "the plants should be trimmed every year in autumn, and the ground between the rows occasionally stirred; but, in doing this, care must be taken not to injure the roots. fresh plantations should be made before the plants grow old and cease to produce a sufficient supply of leaves." _use._--it is used for the same purposes as summer savory. the leaves and tender parts of the young branches are mixed in salads: they are also boiled with pease and beans; and, when dried and powdered, are used in stuffings for meats and fowl. * * * * * spearmint. green mint. mentha viridis. a hardy, perennial plant, introduced from europe, and generally cultivated in gardens, but growing naturally in considerable abundance about springs of water, and in rich, wet localities. the stem is erect, four-sided, smooth, and two feet or more in height; the leaves are opposite, in pairs, stemless, toothed on the margin, and sharply pointed; the flowers are purple, and are produced in august, in long, slender, terminal spikes; the seeds are small, oblong, of a brown color, and retain their vitality five years,--they are generally few in number, most of the flowers being abortive. _soil, propagation, and culture._--it may be grown from seed, but is best propagated by a division of the roots, which are long and creeping, and readily establish themselves wherever they are planted. spearmint thrives best in rich, moist soil; but may be grown in any good garden loam. the roots may be set either in the autumn or spring. where large quantities are required for marketing in the green state, or when grown for distillation, lay out the land in beds three or four feet in width, and make the drills two or three inches deep and a foot apart. having divided the roots into convenient pieces, spread them thinly along the drills, and earth them over to a level with the surface of the bed. thus treated, the plants will soon make their appearance; and may be gathered for use in august and september. just before severe weather, give the beds a slight dressing of rich soil; and, the ensuing season, the plants will entirely occupy the surface of the ground. _use._--mint is sometimes mixed in salads, and is used for flavoring soups of all descriptions. it is often boiled with green pease; and, with the addition of sugar and vinegar, forms a much-esteemed relish for roasted lamb. it has also much reputed efficacy as a medicinal plant. curled-leaved spearmint. a variety with curled foliage. it is a good sort for garnishing; but, for general use, is inferior to the common or plain-leaved species before described. propagated by dividing the roots. * * * * * tansy. tanacetum vulgare. tansy is a hardy, perennial, herbaceous plant, naturalized from europe, and abundant by roadsides and in waste places. its stem is from two to three feet high; the leaves are finely cut and divided, twice-toothed on the margin, and of a rich, deep-green color; flowers in corymbs, deep-yellow, and produced in great abundance; the seeds are small, of a brownish color, and retain their vitality three years. _soil and cultivation._--tansy may be grown in almost any soil or situation, and is propagated from seeds or by dividing the roots; the latter method being generally practised. in doing this, it is only necessary to take a few established plants, divide them into small pieces or collections of roots, and set them six inches apart, in rows a foot asunder, or in hills two feet apart in each direction. they will soon become established; and, if not disturbed, will completely occupy the ground. in most places, when once introduced, it is liable to become troublesome, as the roots not only spread rapidly, but are very tenacious of life, and eradicated with difficulty. when cultivated for its leaves, the flowering-shoots should be cut off as they make their appearance. it is but little used, and a plant or two will afford an abundant supply. _use._--the leaves have a strong, peculiar, aromatic odor, and a bitter taste. they were formerly employed to give color and flavor to various dishes, but are now rarely used in culinary preparations. the plant possesses the tonic and stomachic properties common to bitter herbs. there are three cultivated varieties, as follow:-- curled-leaved tansy. double tansy. tanacetum vulgare, var. crispum. this differs from the common tansy in the frilled or curled character of the leaves, which have some resemblance to the leaves of the finer kinds of curled cress or parsley. they are of a rich green color, and are sometimes employed for garnishing. in the habit of the plant, color of the flowers, odor and flavor of the leaves, the variety differs little, if at all, from the common tansy. it is more beautiful than the last-named; and, in all respects, much more worthy of cultivation. propagated only by dividing the roots. large-leaved tansy. leaves larger than those of any other variety, but much less fragrant. it is of little value, and rarely cultivated. variegated-leaved. a variety with variegated foliage. aside from the peculiar color of the leaves, the plant differs in no respect from the common tansy: it grows to the same height, the flowers are of the same color, and the leaves have the same taste and odor. it must be propagated by dividing the roots; the variegated character of the foliage not being reproduced from seeds. * * * * * thyme. thymus. two species of thyme are cultivated for culinary purposes,--the common garden thyme (_t. vulgaris_) and the lemon or evergreen thyme (_t. citriodorus_). they are hardy, perennial plants, of a shrubby character, and comparatively low growth. they are propagated from seeds and by dividing the roots; but the finest plants are produced from seeds. of the common garden thyme, there are three varieties:-- broad-leaved. the broad-leaved thyme is more cultivated in this country than any other species or variety. the stem is ten or twelve inches high, shrubby, of a brownish-red color, and much branched; the leaves are small, narrow, green above, and whitish beneath; flowers purple, in terminal spikes; the seeds are black, and exceedingly small,--two hundred and thirty thousand being contained in an ounce; they retain their vitality two years. _propagation and cultivation._--when propagated by seeds, they are sown in april or may, thinly, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart. when the plants are up, they should be carefully cleared of weeds, and thinned to eight or ten inches apart, that they may have space for development. they may be cut for use as soon as they have made sufficient growth; but, for drying, the stalks are gathered as they come into flower. if propagated by dividing the roots, the old plants should be taken up in april, and divided into as many parts as the roots and tops will admit. they are then transplanted about ten inches apart, in beds of rich, light earth; and, if the weather be dry, watered till they are well established. they may be cut for use in august and september. _use._--the leaves have an agreeable, aromatic odor; and are used for flavoring soups, stuffings, and sauces. narrow-leaved. _mill._ the stalks of this variety are shorter than those of the broad-leaved; the leaves also are longer, narrower, and more sharply pointed; and the flowers are larger. it is propagated, cultivated, and used as the broad-leaved. variegated-leaved. a sub-variety of the broad-leaved, with variegated foliage. it is generally cultivated as an ornamental plant; and is propagated only by dividing the roots, as directed for the broad-leaved. lemon thyme. _loud._ thymus citriodorus. a low, evergreen shrub, with a somewhat trailing stem, rarely rising more than six or eight inches high. it is readily distinguished from the common or broad-leaved by the soft, pleasant, lemon-like odor of the young shoots and leaves. it is used for flavoring various dishes, and by some is preferred to the broad-leaved. the species is propagated from seeds by dividing the roots, and by layers and cuttings. seedling plants, however, are said to vary in fragrance; and, when a choice stock can be obtained, it is better to propagate by dividing the plants. chapter ix. leguminous plants. american garden-bean. asparagus-bean. lima bean. scarlet-runner. sieva. chick-pea. chickling vetch. english bean. lentil. lupine. pea. pea-nut. vetch, or tare. winged pea. * * * * * american garden-bean. french bean. kidney-bean. haricot, of the french. phaseolus vulgaris. the common garden-bean of the united states is identical with the french or kidney bean of england and france, and is quite distinct from the english or garden bean of french and english catalogues. the american garden-bean is a tender, annual plant from the east indies, with a dwarfish or climbing stem and trifoliate leaves. the flowers are variable in color, and produced in loose clusters; the seeds are produced in long, flattened, or cylindrical, bivalved pods, and vary, in a remarkable degree, in their size, form, and color,--their germinative powers are retained three or four years. as catalogued by seedsmen, the varieties are divided in two classes,--the dwarfs, and the pole or running sorts. _dwarfs._--the plants of this class vary from a foot to two feet in height. they require no stakes or poles for their support; and are grown in hills or drills, as may suit the taste or convenience of the cultivator. all of the varieties are comparatively tender, and should not be planted before settled, mild weather. they succeed best in warm, light soil; but will flourish in almost any soil or situation, except such as are shaded or very wet. when planted in drills, they are made about two inches deep, and from fourteen to twenty inches apart. the seeds are planted from three to six inches apart; the distance in the drills, as well as the space between the drills, being regulated by the habit of the variety cultivated. if planted in hills, they should be three feet apart in one direction, and about two feet in the opposite. if the variety under cultivation is large and vigorous, four or five plants may be allowed to a hill; if of an opposite character, allow twice this number. _to raise seed._--leave a row or a few hills entirely unplucked. seed is of little value when saved at the end of the season from a few scattered pods accidentally left to ripen on plants that have been plucked from time to time for the table. bagnolet. a half-dwarf, french variety. plant strong and vigorous, with remarkably large, deep-green foliage; flowers bright lilac; the pods are straight, seven inches long, half an inch wide, streaked and spotted with purple when sufficiently grown for shelling in their green state, nankeen-yellow when fully ripe, and contain six seeds, which are nearly straight, rounded at the ends, a little flattened on the sides, three-fourths of an inch long, a fourth of an inch thick, and of a violet-black color, variegated or marbled with drab. about sixteen hundred beans are contained in a quart; and, as the plants are vigorous growers, this amount of seed will be sufficient for three hundred feet of drill, or for nearly three hundred hills. if planted in drills, they should be made twenty inches apart, and two plants allowed to a linear foot. the variety is not early, and requires the entire season for its full perfection. when sown as soon as the weather is suitable, the plant will blossom in about seven weeks. in sixty days, pods may be plucked for use; and the crop will be ready for harvesting in fifteen weeks from the time of planting. for its green pods, the seeds may be planted until the middle of july. the bagnolet is of little value as a shelled-bean, either green or ripe. as a string-bean, it is deservedly considered one of the best. the pods are produced in great abundance; and are not only tender, succulent, and well flavored, but remain long on the plants before they become tough, and unfit for use. if the pods are plucked as they attain a suitable size, new pods will rapidly succeed, and the plants will afford a continued supply for several weeks. black-eyed china. plant fifteen inches high, less strong and vigorous than that of the common red-eyed china; the flowers are white; the pods are comparatively short, usually about five inches long, green and straight while young, straw-yellow when sufficiently advanced for shelling, yellow, thick, hard, and parchment-like when ripe, and contain five or six seeds,--these are white, spotted and marked about the eye with black, of an oblong form, usually rounded, but sometimes shortened at the ends, slightly compressed on the sides, and measure half an inch in length, and three-eighths of an inch in thickness. a quart contains fifteen hundred beans, and will plant a drill, or row, of two hundred feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. the variety is early. when sown at the commencement of the season, the plants will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for the table in seven weeks, pods for shelling in ten weeks, and ripen in eighty-seven days. it yields well, ripens off at once, and, on account of the thick, parchment-like character of the pods, suffers much less from wet and unfavorable seasons than many other sorts. as a string-bean, it is of fair quality, good when shelled in the green state, and farinaceous and mild flavored when ripe. blue pod. a half-dwarf variety, growing from two to three feet high, with a branching stem, deep-green foliage, and white flowers. the pods are five inches long, pale-green while young, light-yellow as the season of maturity approaches, cream-white when fully ripe, and contain five or six seeds. its season is intermediate. if sown early, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, afford pods for stringing in eight weeks, green beans in ten or eleven weeks, and ripen their seeds in ninety-seven days. it is a week earlier than the white marrow, and ten days in advance of the pea-bean. plantings may be made as late as the last week in june, which will yield pods for the table in seven weeks, and ripen the middle of september, or in about twelve weeks. the ripe seed is white, oblong, flattened, rounded on the back, often squarely or angularly shortened at the ends, half an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: twenty-seven hundred will measure a quart. it is a field rather than a garden variety; though the green pods are tender and well flavored. if planted in drills two feet apart, five pecks of seed will be required for an acre; or four pecks for the same quantity of ground, if the rows are two feet and a half apart. if planted in hills, six or eight seeds should be put in each; and, if the hills are three feet apart, twelve quarts of seed will plant an acre. the blue pod is the earliest of the field varieties; more prolific, more generally cultivated, and more abundant in the market, than either the pea-bean or the white marrow. it is, however, much less esteemed; and, even in its greatest perfection, is almost invariably sold at a lower price. on account of its precocity, it is well suited for planting in fields of corn, when the crop may have been partially destroyed by birds or insects, and the season has too far advanced to admit of a replanting of corn. in field-culture, blue-pod beans are planted till the th of june. canada yellow. round american kidney. _law._ the plants of this variety are from fourteen to sixteen inches high, and of medium strength and vigor; flowers lilac-purple; the pods are five inches long, nearly straight, green while young, yellow at maturity, and contain from four to six seeds. season intermediate. if sown early, the plants will blossom in six or seven weeks, supply the table with pods in eight weeks, green shelled-beans in ten weeks, and ripen off in ninety days. when planted after settled warm weather, the variety grows rapidly, and ripens quickly; blossoming in less than six weeks, and ripening in seventy days, from the time of planting. for green shelled-beans, the seeds may be planted till the middle of july. the ripe seeds are of an ovoid or rounded form, and measure half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in thickness. they are of a yellowish-drab color, with a narrow, reddish-brown line about the eye; the drab changing, by age, to dull nankeen-yellow. about seventeen hundred are contained in a quart; and this amount of seeds will plant two hundred and fifty feet of drill, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. the variety is quite productive, and excellent as a shelled bean, green or dry. the young pods are not so tender as those of many other sorts, and are but little used. chilian. plant sixteen or eighteen inches high, sturdy and vigorous; foliage large, deep-green, wrinkled; flowers pale-lilac; the pods are five inches and a half long, slightly curved, pale-green while young, yellowish-white when ripe, and contain five seeds. if planted early in the season, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in about eight weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of planting. the ripe seeds are of a clear, bright pink, or rose color; gradually becoming duller and darker from the time of harvesting. they are kidney-shaped, a little flattened, and of large size; generally measuring three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch thick. twelve hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will be sufficient for planting a row or drill of two hundred feet, or for a hundred and twenty-five hills. the variety is healthy, and moderatively productive; not much esteemed for its young pods, but is worthy of cultivation for the large size and good quality of the beans; which, either in the green or ripe state, are quite farinaceous and mild flavored. crescent-eyed. height fourteen or fifteen inches; flowers white,--the upper petals slightly stained with red; the pods are five inches and a half long, pale-green and somewhat curved when young, yellowish-white when fully ripe, and contain five seeds. season intermediate. if planted early, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for stringing in eight weeks, supply the table with green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in about ninety days. when planted and grown under the influence of summer weather, pods may be plucked for the table in fifty days, and the crop will ripen in about twelve weeks. the beans, when ripe, are white, with a large, rose-red patch about the eye; the colored portion of the surface being striped and marked with brownish-red. the fine rose-red changes by age to a brownish-red, and the red streaks and markings become relatively duller and darker: they are somewhat kidney-shaped, and measure three-fourths of an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in thickness. a quart contains nearly thirteen hundred seeds, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills, or a row of two hundred feet. the variety yields well, and the green pods are tender and well flavored. it is, however, generally cultivated for its seeds, which are of large size and excellent quality, whether used in a green or ripe state. dun-colored. plant of vigorous, branching habit, sixteen inches in height, with broad, deep-green foliage and purplish-white flowers; the pods are five inches and a half long, half an inch broad, green and nearly straight while young, yellow and slender when fully ripe, and contain five or six beans. the ripe seeds are dun-colored or dark-drab, usually with a greenish line encircling the eye, kidney-shaped, five-eighths of an inch long, and about a fourth of an inch thick. a quart contains about seventeen hundred beans, and will plant a row of two hundred and twenty-five feet, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. it is one of the earliest of the dwarf varieties; blossoming in about six weeks, producing young pods in seven weeks, and ripening in eighty-five days, from the time of planting. when sown after settled warm weather, pods may be gathered for use in six weeks; and, for these, plantings may be made until the st of august. as a shelled-bean, green or dry, it is of little value, and hardly worthy of cultivation. as an early string-bean, it is one of the best. the pods are not only succulent and tender, but suitable for use very early in the season. it is also quite prolific; and, if planted at intervals of two weeks till the last of july, will supply the table to the last of september. the variety has long been cultivated in england and other parts of europe, and is much esteemed for its hardiness and productiveness. dwarf cranberry. plant vigorous; and, if the variety is pure, strictly a dwarf, growing about sixteen inches high. as generally found in gardens, the plants send out slender runners, eighteen inches or two feet in length. the flowers are pale-purple; the pods are five inches long, sickle-shaped, pale-green in their young state, nearly white when ripe, and contain five or six seeds. the ripe seeds are smaller than those of the running variety, but of the same form and color: sixteen hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant nearly two hundred feet of drill, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. the genuine dwarf cranberry is not one of the earliest varieties, but rather an intermediate sort. if sown as soon as the weather will admit, the plants will blossom in seven or eight weeks, and the young pods may be gathered for use in nine weeks. in favorable seasons, the crop is perfected in about ninety days. if planted in june, the variety will ripen in ten weeks. it is hardy and productive; and the young pods are not only succulent and tender, but are suitable for use at a more advanced stage of growth than those of most varieties. the beans, in their green state, are farinaceous and well flavored, but, after ripening, are little used; the color being objectionable. a variety with a brownish-red, oval, flattened seed, half an inch in length, is extensively known and cultivated as the dwarf cranberry. it is ten or twelve days earlier, the plants are smaller and less productive, the young pods less tender and succulent, and the seeds (green or ripe) less farinaceous, than those of the true variety. with the exception of its earlier maturity, it is comparatively not worthy of cultivation. dwarf horticultural. variegated dwarf prague. stem about sixteen inches high; plant of vigorous, branching habit; flowers purple; pods five inches long, green while young, but changing to yellow, marbled and streaked with brilliant rose-red, when sufficiently advanced for shelling in their green state. at maturity, the clear, pale-yellow is changed to brownish-white, and the bright-red variegations are either entirely obliterated, or changed to dull, dead purple. if well formed, the pods contain five (rarely six) seeds. it is a medium or half-early sort; and, if planted as soon as the weather becomes favorable, will blossom in seven weeks, produce pods for the table in about eight weeks, and ripen in ninety-five or a hundred days. planted and grown in summer weather, the variety will produce green pods in seven weeks, and ripen in ninety days. the ripe seeds resemble those of the running variety in form and color; but they are smaller, a little more slender, and usually flattened slightly at the sides. when pure, they are egg-shaped; and a much compressed or a longer and more slender form is indicative of degeneracy. fourteen hundred beans are contained in a quart; and this quantity of seed will be sufficient for planting a row of a hundred and seventy-five feet, or a hundred and forty hills. the dwarf horticultural bean is quite productive, and the young pods are tender and of good quality. it is, however, not so generally cultivated for its young pods as for its seeds, which are much esteemed for their mild flavor and farinaceous quality. for shelling in the green state, it is one of the best of the dwarfs, and deserves cultivation. dwarf sabre. dwarf case-knife. dwarf cimeter. a half-dwarf, french variety, two and a half to three feet high. as the running shoots are quite slender, and usually decay before the crop matures, it is always cultivated as other dwarf sorts. foliage large, wrinkled, and blistered; the flowers are white; the pods are very large, seven to eight inches long, and an inch in width, often irregular and distorted, green while young, paler as the season of maturity approaches, brownish-white when ripe, and contain seven or eight seeds. the ripe bean is white, kidney-shaped, flattened, often twisted or contorted, three-fourths of an inch in length, and three-eighths of an inch in width: about twelve hundred are contained in a quart. as the variety is a vigorous grower, and occupies much space, this quantity of seed will plant a row of two hundred feet, or two hundred and twenty-five hills. season intermediate. the plants blossom in seven weeks, produce young pods in about eight weeks, pods for shelling in their green state in eleven or twelve weeks, and ripen in ninety-seven days, from the time of sowing. if cultivated for its green pods, the seeds may be planted to the middle of july. the dwarf sabre is one of the most productive of all varieties; yielding its long, broad pods in great profusion. from the spreading, recumbent character of the plants, the pods often rest or lie upon the surface of the ground; and, being unusually thin and delicate, the crop often suffers to a considerable extent from the effects of rain and dampness in unfavorable seasons. the young pods are remarkable for their tender and succulent character; and the beans, both in a green and dried state, are mild and well flavored. it is hardy, productive, of good quality, and recommended for cultivation. dwarf soissons. a half-dwarf, french bean, similar in habit to the dwarf sabre. while young, the plants produce slender runners, two feet or more in length; but, as they are generally of short duration, the variety is cultivated as a common dwarf. the flowers are white; pods six inches long, pale-green at first, cream-yellow when sufficiently advanced for shelling, dull cream-white when fully ripe, and contain five, and sometimes six, beans. the variety is comparatively early. plants, from seeds sown in spring, will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for use in seven weeks, and ripen in ninety days. if planted and grown in the summer months, the crop will be ready for harvesting in eleven weeks; and sowings for the ripe seeds may be made till the beginning of july. seeds white, kidney-shaped, flattened, often bent or distorted, five-eighths of an inch long, three-eighths of an inch wide, and a fourth of an inch thick: fifteen hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant a drill two hundred and twenty-five feet in length, or about two hundred hills. the variety is productive, and the young pods are of fair quality; the seeds are excellent, whether used green or ripe; the skin is thin; and they are much esteemed for their peculiar whiteness, and delicacy of flavor. early china. china. red-eyed china. plant fifteen inches high, with yellowish-green, wrinkled foliage, and white flowers; the pods are five inches long, green and straight while young, yellowish-green as they approach maturity, yellow when fully ripe, and contain five (rarely six) beans. the ripe seeds are white, colored and spotted about the eye with purplish-red, oblong, nearly cylindrical at the centre, rounded at the ends, six-tenths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch thick: sixteen hundred and fifty measure a quart, and will plant two hundred feet of drill, or two hundred hills. if planted early in the season, the variety will blossom in six weeks, afford young pods for use in seven weeks, green beans in ten weeks, and ripen in eighty-five days. when planted and grown in summer, the crop will ripen in eleven weeks; and plants from seeds sown as late as the first of august will generally afford an abundant supply of tender pods from the middle to the close of september. the early china is very generally disseminated, and is one of the most popular of the dwarf varieties. it is hardy and productive; but the young pods, though succulent and tender, are inferior to those of some other varieties. the seeds, green or ripe, are thin-skinned, mealy, and mild flavored. early rachel. a low-growing, branching variety, twelve to fifteen inches high; flowers white; the pods are five inches and a half long, green while young, becoming paler or greenish-yellow as they approach maturity, cream-white when ripe, and contain five seeds. planted early in the season, the variety will blossom in about seven weeks; and, in eight weeks, the young pods will be fit for use. pods for shelling may be plucked in ten weeks, and the crop will ripen in eighty days. for the green pods, the seeds may be planted till the middle or twentieth of july. the ripe seed is yellowish-brown, white at one of the ends, kidney-shaped, often abruptly shortened, five-eighths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: nearly two thousand are contained in a quart. the early rachel is hardy, and moderately productive, and, as an early string-bean, may be desirable; but as a shell-bean, green or dry, it is of little value. in common with many other early sorts cultivated as string-beans, the pods, though crisp and tender at first, soon become too tough and parchment-like for use. in general, the pods of the later sorts remain crisp and tender a much longer period than those of the earlier descriptions. early valentine. valentine. plant about sixteen inches high, with small, yellowish-green leaves and white flowers; the pods are comparatively short, usually four and a half or five inches long, sickle-shaped, almost cylindrical, green while young, yellow when ripe, and contain five seeds. the variety is productive, and quite early, though not one of the earliest. when sown at the commencement of the season, the plants will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for use in about seven weeks, and ripen in thirteen weeks, or ninety days, from the time of planting. if planted after the beginning of summer weather, pods may be gathered for the table in fifty days, and the beans will ripen in eleven weeks. the beans, when ripe, are of a pale-pink color, marbled or variegated with rose-red, becoming duller and browner by age, oblong, nearly straight, sometimes distorted and irregular as if pressed out of their natural shape, often more or less shortened at the ends, five-eighths of an inch long, three-eighths of an inch wide, and about the same in thickness. a quart will contain eighteen or nineteen hundred seeds; which will be sufficient for a hundred and seventy-five hills, or for a drill, or row, of two hundred or two hundred and twenty-five feet. the early valentine is generally cultivated for its tender and very fleshy pods, which remain long on the plants without becoming hard and tough. they make an excellent, brittle pickle; and, when cooked, are equal to those of any other dwarf variety. the shelled-beans, either in their green or ripe state, are little esteemed. the variety has long been grown in england and other parts of europe, and is common to gardens in almost every section of the united states. golden cranberry. canadian. round american kidney. height about sixteen inches; flowers purple; the pods are five inches and a half long, five-eighths of an inch broad, somewhat irregular in form, yellow when ripe, and contain five seeds. season intermediate. early plantings will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in eight weeks, and ripen in ninety days. the ripe seeds are pale greenish-yellow, with an olive-green line encircling the eye; roundish-ovoid, three-eighths of an inch long, and nearly the same in thickness. a quart contains nearly eighteen hundred seeds, and will plant a row, or drill, of two hundred feet, or two hundred and twenty-five hills. as a string-bean, or for shelling in the green state, it is inferior to many other varieties, and is little cultivated for use in these forms; but as a variety for baking, or for cooking in any form when ripe, it is much esteemed, and recommended for cultivation. hardy and productive. long yellow six-weeks. six-weeks. yellow six-weeks. yellow flageolet. _vil._ the plants of this familiar variety are of vigorous, branching habit, and from fourteen to sixteen inches high; the flowers are pale-purple; the pods are five inches long, six-tenths of an inch broad, often curved or sickle-shaped, green at first, gradually becoming paler, cream-yellow when ripe, and contain five (rarely six) beans. it is one of the earliest of the dwarf varieties. spring plantings will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for the table in seven weeks, and ripen in eighty-seven days. summer plantings will afford pods for the table in about six weeks, and ripen in sixty-three days. when planted as late in the season as the last of july or first of august, the variety will afford an abundant supply of tender pods from the middle to the last of september. the ripe seeds are pale yellowish-drab, with an olive-green line about the eye; the drab rapidly changing by age to dull yellowish-brown. they are kidney-shaped, rather straight, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick. about fourteen hundred beans are contained in a quart, and will plant a row of two hundred feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. it is quite productive, and an excellent early string-bean, but less valuable as a green shelled-bean, or for cooking when ripe. on account of the tender and delicate character of the pods, the ripe seeds are often injured by damp or continued rainy weather. a popular, early garden-bean, much cultivated both in this country and in europe. mohawk. early mohawk. stem about eighteen inches high, sturdy and branching; foliage large, deep-green, wrinkled, and blistered; flowers pale-lilac; the pods are five inches and a half long, five-eighths of an inch wide, and generally contain five seeds,--while young they are green, and nearly straight; as they approach maturity they become paler; and, when ripe, are frequently streaked and spotted with purple. the ripe seeds are variegated with drab, dull purple, and different shades of brown; the brown and dull purple prevailing: they are kidney-shaped, and measure nearly three-fourths of an inch in length, and three-eighths of an inch in width. a quart contains about fourteen hundred and fifty seeds, and will plant a hundred and seventy-five feet of drill, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. it is about a week later than the earliest varieties. spring plantings will blossom in about seven weeks, produce pods for the table in eight weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of sowing. in ordinary seasons, the variety will ripen perfectly if planted the last week in june; and will yield an abundance of pods for the table, if the planting be made as late in the season as the last of july. the early mohawk is quite productive, and one of the hardiest of the dwarf varieties. it is well adapted for early planting, and is extensively grown by market-gardeners as an early string-bean. the young pods are comparatively tender, and of good quality; and, if gathered as they become of suitable size, the plants will continue to yield them in great abundance. the shelled-beans, green or dry, are less esteemed, and considered inferior to many other varieties. newington wonder. a healthy, vigorous variety, with deep-green foliage and bright-purple flowers. the plants often produce slender, barren runners, eighteen inches or two feet in length; but they are generally of short duration, and the variety is treated as other dwarfs. the pods are small and straight; usually about four inches long, and nearly half an inch broad. they are pale-green at first; and afterwards change to yellowish-white, tinted or washed with bright pink. at maturity they are dusky-drab, sometimes clouded or shaded with purple, and contain six or seven beans. the ripe seeds are pale brownish-drab, with a yellowish-brown line about the eye; oblong, flattened, shortened at the ends, nearly half an inch long, and a fourth of an inch deep: about thirty-six hundred are contained in a quart. as the seeds are comparatively small, and the plants of spreading habit, this amount of seeds will plant a row four hundred feet in length, or four hundred hills. the variety is not early, and, when cultivated for its seeds, should have the benefit of the whole season; though, with favorable autumnal weather, the crop will ripen if planted the middle of june. spring plantings will blossom in eight weeks, produce young pods in nine weeks, and ripen in a hundred and six days. the newington wonder is remarkably prolific; and, in its manner of growth and general character, resembles the tampico or turtle-soup. as a string-bean, it is one of the best. the pods, though not large, are crisp, succulent, and tender, and produced in great abundance throughout most of the season. the seeds, in their green state, are small, and of little value for the table: when ripe, they afford an excellent substitute for the tampico or turtle-soup; the difference, aside from the color, being scarcely perceptible. the newington wonder of english and french authors appears to be, in some respects, distinct from the american variety. it is described as very dwarf, about a foot high, early and productive; pods dark-green, moderately long, not broad, thick and fleshy; seeds quite small, light chestnut-colored. pea-bean. plant vigorous, much branched, and, like the blue pod and white marrow, inclined to send up running shoots; foliage comparatively small, deep-green; flowers white; the pods are about four inches long, half an inch wide, nearly straight, green when young, paler as they approach the season of ripening, yellowish when fully ripe, and contain five beans. it is comparatively a late variety. when planted in spring, it will blossom in fifty days, afford green pods in fifty-eight days, and ripen in about fifteen weeks. in favorable autumns, it will ripen if planted as late as the th of june; but it is not so early as the blue pod or white marrow, and, when practicable, should have the advantage of the entire season. the ripe seeds of the pure variety are quite small, roundish-ovoid, five-sixteenths of an inch long, a fourth of an inch in width and thickness, and of a pure yet not glossy white color: about forty-four hundred seeds are contained in a quart. as a garden variety, it is of little value, though the young pods are crisp and tender. it is cultivated almost exclusively as a field-bean. if planted in rows or drills two feet apart, three pecks of seeds will be required for an acre; or eighteen quarts will seed this quantity of land, if the rows are two feet and a half apart. when planted in hills, eight seeds are allowed to a hill; and, if the hills are made three feet apart, eight quarts will plant an acre. the yield varies from fourteen to twenty bushels, according to soil, season, and cultivation. the pea-bean, the white marrow, and the blue pod are the principal if not the only kinds of much commercial importance; the names of other varieties being rarely, if ever, mentioned in the regular reports of the current prices of the markets. if equally well ripened, and, in their respective varieties, equally pure, the pea-bean and the white marrow command about the same prices; the former, however, being more abundant in the market than the latter. by many, and perhaps by a majority, the pea-bean is esteemed the best of all baking varieties. pottawottomie. the plants of this variety are remarkable for their strong, vigorous habit, and large, luxuriant foliage. the flowers are flesh-white; the pods are six inches long, green at first, then mottled and streaked with lively rose-red on a cream-white ground (the markings changing to purple at maturity), and contain five (rarely six) seeds. the variety is comparatively late. if sown early in the season, the plants will flower in seven weeks, afford pods for shelling in eleven weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of planting. the ripe seeds are of a light creamy-pink color, streaked and spotted with a red or reddish-brown: the soft, flesh-like color, however, soon becomes duller and darker, and at last gives place to a dull, cinnamon-brown. they are kidney-shaped, fully three-fourths of an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch broad. about a thousand will measure a quart, and will plant a row two hundred feet in length, or a hundred and twenty-five hills. on account of the large size and spreading habit of the plants, five seeds will be sufficient for a hill; and, in the rows, they should be dropped five or six inches from each other. the young pods are inferior to most varieties in crispness, and tenderness of texture; and are comparatively but little used. the seeds are remarkably large, separate easily from the pods, and, green or ripe, are remarkably farinaceous and well flavored, nearly or quite equalling the dwarf and running horticultural. red flageolet. scarlet flageolet. a half-dwarf, french bean, two to three feet high; flowers pale-purple; the pods are six inches and a half long, somewhat curved, green while young, pale-yellow at maturity, and contain five or six seeds. it is one of the latest of the dwarf varieties. if sown early, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, and pods may be gathered for use in about nine weeks; in thirteen weeks the pods will be sufficiently advanced for shelling, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in a hundred and ten days. it requires the whole season for its full perfection; but, for its young pods or for green beans, plantings may be made to the last week in june. the ripe beans are blood-red when first harvested, but gradually change by age to deep-purple: they are kidney-shaped, nearly straight, slightly flattened, three-fourths of an inch long, three-eighths of an inch broad, and nearly the same in thickness. fifteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart. the red flageolet yields abundantly; and the young pods are not only of good size, but remarkably crisp and tender. if plucked as they become fit for use, the plants continue to produce fresh pods for many weeks. the green beans are farinaceous, and excellent for table use; but are seldom cooked in their ripened state. red-speckled. plant branching, and of strong growth,--nearly a foot and a half high; foliage remarkably large; flowers pale-purple; pods five inches and a half long, nearly straight, green while young, paler with occasional marks and spots of purple when more advanced, yellowish-white when ripe, and containing five (rarely six) seeds. season intermediate. plants from seeds sown after settled warm weather will blossom in six weeks, and green pods may be plucked for use in fifty days. for shelling in their green state, pods may be gathered in ten weeks, and the crop will ripen off in ninety days. for its young pods, or for green beans, plantings may be made to the last week in june; but the crop will not mature, unless the weather continues favorable till the st of october. the ripe seeds are variegated with deep-red and pale-drab, the red predominating; kidney-shaped, nearly straight, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch deep. a quart contains fourteen hundred and fifty seeds, and will plant a row of two hundred and twenty-five feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. the variety is hardy and productive. it is extensively cultivated as a garden-bean in england and france, and has been common to the gardens of this country for nearly two centuries. the young pods are of medium quality; but the seeds, green or dry, are mealy and well flavored. on account of the parchment-like character of the pods, the seeds seldom suffer from the effects of wet weather. refugee. thousand to one. plant sixteen to eighteen inches high, and readily distinguished from most varieties by its small, smooth, deep-green, and elongated leaves; flowers purple; pods five inches long, nearly cylindrical, pale-green while young, greenish-white streaked with purple when sufficiently advanced for shelling, yellow when ripe, and usually yielding five beans. the refugee is not an early sort. the plants blossom in seven weeks, produce young pods in eight weeks, and ripen in eighty-seven days, from the time of sowing. plantings for the ripened product may be made till the middle of june; and for the green pods, to the middle of july. the ripe seeds are light-drab, with numerous spots and broad patches of bright-purple, nearly straight, cylindrical at the middle, tapering to the ends (which are generally rounded), five-eighths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick. eighteen hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant a row two hundred and fifty feet in length, or two hundred hills. the variety is hardy, yields abundantly, and the young pods are thick, fleshy, and tender in texture. as a string-bean, or for pickling, it is considered one of the best of all varieties, and is recommended for general cultivation. the seeds are comparatively small, and are rarely used either in a green or ripened state. rice. _vil._ half-dwarf, about two feet high; flowers white; pods very small, scarcely more than three inches in length, and only two-fifths of an inch in width, usually containing six seeds. the variety requires a full season for its perfection. plants from seeds sown early in spring will blossom in seven weeks, yield young pods in ten weeks, and ripen in a hundred and twelve days. the ripe seeds are very small, and of a peculiar yellowish-white, semi-transparent, rice-like color and appearance. they are quite irregular in form, usually somewhat oblong or ovoid, often abruptly shortened at the ends, three-eighths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick. nearly five thousand are contained in a quart. the young pods are tender and excellent; but the green beans are small, and rarely used. the ripe seeds are peculiar, both in consistency and flavor: they are quite brittle and rice-like; and, when cooked, much relished by some, and little esteemed by others. rob-roy. plant half-dwarf,--early in the season, producing slender, transient, barren runners two or three feet in length; flowers purplish-white; the pods are five inches long, often produced in pairs, yellow as they approach maturity, yellowish-white when ripe, and contain five or six seeds. it is one of the earliest of the dwarfs. spring plantings will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for the table in seven weeks, and ripen in eighty-two days. if planted in june, pods may be plucked for use in six weeks, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in sixty-eight days. the ripe seeds are clear, bright-yellow; the surface being generally veined, and the eye surrounded with an olive-green line. they are of an oblong form, nearly straight on the side of the eye, rounded at the back, five-eighths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch deep. fifteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart, and will be sufficient to plant a row of two hundred feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. the rob-roy generally matures in great perfection; being seldom stained or otherwise injured by rain or the dampness of ordinary seasons. it is also one of the earliest of the dwarf varieties, but desirable as a string-bean rather than for its qualities as a green shelled-bean, or for cooking when ripe. if cultivated for its pods only, plantings may be made until the first of august. round yellow six-weeks. round yellow. dwarf yellow. fourteen to sixteen inches high; flowers pale-purple; pods about five inches long, half an inch broad, pale yellowish-green as they approach maturity, and, when fully ripe, remarkably slender, and more curved than in their green state,--they contain five or six beans. the variety is early; blossoming in six weeks, producing young pods in seven weeks, and ripening in ninety days, from the time of planting. when planted in june, pods may be plucked for use in seven weeks, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in eighty days. for its green pods, plantings may be made to the last of july. the ripe seeds are orange-yellow, with a narrow, reddish-brown belt, or line, encircling the eye; oblong or ovoid, half an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick. a quart contains two thousand seeds, and will plant a row two hundred and twenty-five feet in length, or two hundred and twenty-five hills. as an early string-bean, the variety is worthy of cultivation, but is little used, and is really of little value, as a shelled-bean, green or ripe. it has been common to the gardens of this country for more than a century; and, during this period, no apparent change has taken place in the character of the plant, or in the size, form, or color of the seed. solitaire. a french variety. the ripe seeds are similar to those of the refugee; but the plants are quite distinct in foliage and general habit. its height is about eighteen inches; the flowers are purple; the pods are six inches long, slender, nearly cylindrical, green at first, paler and streaked with purple when more advanced, and contain six seeds. it is not early. spring plantings will blossom in sixty days, produce pods for the table in seventy days, and ripen in about fifteen weeks. it may be planted for its green pods until the first of july. the beans, when ripe, are variegated with light-drab and deep-purple, the purple prevailing. they are often straight, sometimes curved, nearly cylindrical at the eye, usually rounded, but sometimes shortened, at the ends, three-fourths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: two thousand measure a quart. on account of the size and branching character of the plants, more space must be allowed in cultivation than is usually given to common dwarf varieties. if planted in rows, they should be at least eighteen inches apart, and the plants eight or ten inches from each other in the rows; and, if planted in hills, they should be thinned to four or five plants, and the hills should not be less than three feet apart. it is not much esteemed as a shelled-bean, either green or ripe. as a string-bean, it is one of the best. its pods are long, cylindrical, remarkably slender, succulent, and tender. it is also a very prolific variety, and the pods remain for an unusual period without becoming tough or too hard for the table. recommended for cultivation. swiss crimson. scarlet swiss. _vil._ plant vigorous, often producing running shoots; flowers pale-purple; pods nearly straight, six inches long, pale-green while young, yellow streaked with brilliant rose-red as they approach maturity, and containing five (rarely six) seeds. it is comparatively a late variety. if planted as early as the weather will permit, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, the young pods will be ready for use in nine weeks, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in a hundred and five days. planted and grown in summer weather, it will produce young pods in sixty days, and ripen in thirteen weeks. plantings for the green seeds may be made to the first of july. the ripe seeds are clear bright-pink, striped and spotted with deep purplish-red: the pink changes gradually to dull, dark-red, and the variegations to dark-brown. they are kidney-shaped, comparatively straight, somewhat flattened, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch broad. thirteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a row two hundred feet in length, or a hundred and fifty hills. it is hardy and productive, and, as a shelled-bean, of excellent quality, either in its green or ripened state. as a variety for stringing, it is not above medium quality. turtle-soup. tampico. plant vigorous, producing numerous slender, barren runners two feet or more in length; flowers rich deep-purple; pods five inches long, green and sickle-shaped while young, pale greenish-white stained with purple when more advanced, yellow clouded with purple when ripe, and containing five or six seeds. the variety is quite late, and requires most of the season for its full perfection. plants from early sowings will blossom in eight weeks, the young pods will be sufficiently grown for use in ten weeks, and the crop will ripen in a hundred and eight days. as the young pods are tender and of excellent quality, and are also produced in great abundance, a planting for these may be made as late as the last week in june, which will supply the table from the last of august till the plants are destroyed by frost. the ripe seeds are small, glossy-black, somewhat oblong, and much flattened: thirty-six hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant four hundred feet of drill, or three hundred and fifty hills. it is very productive, and deserving of cultivation for its young and tender pods; but is of little or no value for shelling while green. the ripened seeds are used, as the name implies, in the preparation of a soup, which, as respects color and flavor, bears some resemblance to that made from the green turtle. victoria. this is one of the earliest of the dwarf varieties. early plantings will blossom in six weeks, yield pods for the table in seven weeks, produce pods of suitable size for shelling in about ten weeks, and ripen in eighty-four days. when planted after the season has somewhat advanced,--the young plants thus receiving the benefit of summer temperature,--pods may be gathered for the table in about six weeks, and the crop will ripen in sixty-three days. stalk fourteen to sixteen inches high, with comparatively few branches; flowers purple; pods four and a half to five inches long, streaked and spotted with purple, tough and parchment-like when ripe, and containing five or six seeds. the ripe seeds are flesh-colored, striped and spotted with purple (the ground changing by age to dull reddish-brown, and the spots and markings to chocolate-brown), oblong, somewhat flattened, shortened or rounded at the ends, five-eighths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick: fourteen hundred are contained in a quart. the variety is remarkably early; and, on this account, is worthy of cultivation. for table use, the young pods and the seeds, green or dry, are inferior to many other sorts. white's early. a remarkably hardy and vigorous variety, eighteen to twenty inches high. flowers white, tinged with purple; pods five inches and a half long, curved or sickle-shaped, green at first, yellowish-white striped with purple when fully ripe, and containing five seeds. early plantings will blossom in about six weeks, young pods may be plucked for use in seven weeks, and the crop will ripen in eighty-two days. if planted as late in the season as the first week in july, the variety will generally ripen perfectly; and, when cultivated for its green pods, plantings may be made at any time during the month. the ripe seeds are either drab or light-slate,--both colors being common,--marked and spotted with light-drab. in some specimens, drab is the prevailing color. they are kidney-shaped, irregularly compressed or flattened, nearly three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch deep. a quart contains about sixteen hundred seeds, and is sufficient for planting a row two hundred and fifty feet in length, or two hundred hills. this variety, as an early string-bean, is decidedly one of the best, and is also one of the hardiest and most prolific. the pods should be plucked when comparatively young; and, if often gathered, the plants will continue a long time in bearing. as a shelled-bean, either in its green or ripened state, it is only of medium quality. the long peduncles, or stems, that support its spikes of flowers, its stocky habit, and fine, deep-green, luxurious foliage, distinguish the variety from all others. white flageolet. from sixteen to eighteen inches high, of strong and branching habit. flowers white; pods five inches and a half long, sickle-shaped, green while young, yellowish-white at maturity, and containing six (rarely seven) seeds. it is a half-early variety; blossoming in six weeks, yielding pods for the table in seven weeks, pods for shelling in eleven weeks, and ripening in ninety days, from the time of planting. later plantings will ripen in a shorter period, or in about eighty days; and, if cultivated as a string-bean, seed sown as late in the season as the last week of july will supply the table from the middle of september with an abundance of well-flavored and tender pods. the ripe bean is white, kidney-shaped, flattened, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch broad: about twenty-two hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant a drill, or row, of two hundred and seventy-five feet, or nearly three hundred hills. the white flageolet is very productive, and is recommended for cultivation: the young pods are crisp and tender, and the seeds, green or ripe, are farinaceous, and remarkable for delicacy of flavor. white kidney. kidney. large white kidney. royal dwarf. the plants of this variety are from sixteen to eighteen inches high, and readily distinguishable, from their large and broad leaves, and strong, branching habit of growth; the flowers are white; the pods are somewhat irregular in form, six inches long, green at first, yellow when ripe, and contain five (rarely six) beans. the white kidney-bean is not early: it blossoms in seven weeks, produces young pods in nine weeks, pods for shelling in eleven weeks, and ripens in a hundred and ten days, from the time of planting. the ripe seeds are white, more or less veined, pale-yellow about the hilum, kidney-shaped, nearly straight, slightly flattened, fully three-fourths of an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch thick: from twelve to thirteen hundred are contained in a quart; and this quantity of seeds will plant a hundred and seventy-five feet of drill, or a hundred and forty hills. as a string-bean, the variety has little merit; but as a shelled-bean, green or ripe, it is decidedly one of the best of the dwarfs, and well deserving of cultivation. the seeds are of large size, pure white, separate readily from the pods, and are tender and delicate. white marrow. white marrowfat. dwarf white cranberry. white egg. plants vigorous, much branched, and inclined to produce running shoots; flowers white; pods five inches long, nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, pale-green at first, then changing to clear yellow, afterwards becoming pure waxen-white, cream-yellow when ripe, and containing five seeds. when planted at the commencement of favorable weather, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in eight weeks, and ripen in a hundred and five days. when grown for the ripened product, the planting should not be delayed beyond the th of june. planted at this season, or the last week in june, the crop will blossom the first week in august; and, about the middle of the month, pods may be gathered for the table. by the second week in september, the pods will be of sufficient size for shelling; and, if the season be ordinarily favorable, the crop will ripen the last of the month. it must not, however, be regarded as an early variety; and, when practicable, should be planted before the th of june. the ripe seeds are clear white, ovoid or egg-shaped, nine-sixteenths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch thick. in size, form, or color, they are scarcely distinguishable from those of the white running cranberry. if well grown, twelve hundred seeds will measure a quart. as a string-bean, the white marrow is of average quality: but, for shelling in the green state, it is surpassed by few, if any, of the garden varieties; and deserves more general cultivation. when ripe, it is remarkably farinaceous, of a delicate fleshy-white when properly cooked, and by many preferred to the pea-bean. in almost every section of the united states, as well as in the canadas, it is largely cultivated for market; and is next in importance to the last named for commercial purposes. in field-culture, it is planted in drills two feet apart; the seeds being dropped in groups, three or four together, a foot apart in the drills. some plant in hills two and a half or three feet apart by eighteen inches in the opposite direction, seeding at the rate of forty-four quarts to the acre; and others plant in drills eighteen inches apart, dropping the seeds singly, six or eight inches from each other in the drills. the yield varies from twenty to thirty bushels to the acre, though crops are recorded of nearly forty bushels. yellow-eyed china. plant sixteen to eighteen inches high, more branched and of stronger habit than the black or red eyed; flowers white; pods six inches long, nearly straight, pale-green while young, cream-white at maturity, and containing five or six seeds. it is an early variety. when sown in may, or at the beginning of settled weather, the plants will blossom in six weeks, afford string-beans in seven weeks, pods for shelling in ten or eleven weeks, and ripen in ninety days, from the time of planting. from sowings made later in the season (the plants thereby receiving more directly the influence of summer weather), pods may be plucked for the table in about six weeks, and ripened beans in seventy-five days. plantings for supplying the table with string-beans may be made until the last week in july. the ripe beans are white, spotted and marked about the eye with rusty-yellow, oblong, inclining to kidney-shape, more flattened than those of the red or black eyed, five-eighths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in breadth: fifteen hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant two hundred feet of drill, or a hundred and fifty hills. the plants are large and spreading, and most productive when not grown too closely together. the yellow-eyed china is one of the most healthy, vigorous, and prolific of the dwarf varieties; of good quality as a string-bean; and, in its ripened state, excellent for baking, or in whatever manner it may be cooked. it also ripens its seeds in great perfection; the crop being rarely affected by wet weather, or injured by blight or mildew. * * * * * pole or running beans. as a class, these are less hardy than the dwarfs, and are not usually planted so early in the season. the common practice is to plant in hills three feet or three and a half apart; though the lower-growing sorts are sometimes planted in drills fourteen or fifteen inches apart, and bushed in the manner of the taller descriptions of pease. if planted in hills, they should be slightly raised, and the stake, or pole, set before the planting of the seeds. the maturity of some of the later sorts will be somewhat facilitated by cutting or nipping off the leading runners when they have attained a height of four or five feet. case-knife. this variety, common to almost every garden, is readily distinguished by its strong and tall habit of growth, and its broad, deep-green, blistered leaves. the flowers are white. the pods are remarkably large; often measuring nine or ten inches in length, and nearly an inch in width. they are of a green color till near maturity, when they change to yellowish-green, and, when fully ripe, to cream-white. a well-formed pod contains eight or nine seeds. early plantings will blossom in seven or eight weeks, yield pods for stringing in about ten weeks, green beans in twelve or thirteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and five days. later plantings, with the exclusive advantage of summer weather, will supply string-beans in seven weeks, pods for shelling in eight or nine weeks, and ripen in ninety-six days. plantings for the green beans may be made till nearly the middle of july; and, for the young pods, to the th of the month. the ripe seeds are clear white, kidney-shaped, irregularly flattened or compressed, often diagonally shortened at one or both of the ends, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch deep. a quart contains about fifteen hundred seeds, and will plant a hundred and seventy-five hills. it is one of the most prolific of the running varieties. as a shelled-bean, it is of excellent quality in its green state; and, when ripe, farinaceous, and well flavored in whatever form prepared. the large pods, if plucked early, are succulent and tender, but coarser in texture than those of many other sorts, and not so well flavored. the case-knife, in its habit and general appearance, much resembles the sabre, or cimeter, of the french; and perhaps is but a sub-variety. plants, however, from imported sabre-beans, were shorter, not so stocky, a little earlier, and the pods, generally, less perfectly formed. corn-bean. stem six feet and upwards in height; flowers bright-lilac; the pods are five inches and a half long, green while young, cream-white at maturity, and contain six or seven seeds. the variety is late, but remarkable for hardiness and productiveness. the shelled-beans, green or ripe, are little used; the young pods are crisp, succulent, and excellent for the table; and the variety deserves more general cultivation. if plucked as fast as they become of suitable size, the plants will continue to produce them in abundance for six or eight weeks. the ripe seeds are chocolate-brown, somewhat quadrangular, flattened, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch broad. in size and form, they somewhat resemble grains of indian corn: whence the name. twelve hundred and fifty seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. horticultural. marbled prague. _vil._ london horticultural. stem six feet or more in height; flowers purple; the pods are from five to six inches long, nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, pale-green while young, greenish-white streaked and blotched with brilliant rose-red when more advanced, much contorted, hard, parchment-like and very tenacious of their contents when ripe, and enclose five or six seeds. when planted at the commencement of the season, the variety will blossom in about seven weeks, produce pods for stringing in nine weeks, green beans in twelve weeks, and ripen in a hundred days. plantings made during the last week in june will mature their crop, if the season be favorable. for the green beans, plantings may be made until the last of june; and, for the young pods, until the first of july. the ripe beans are flesh-white, streaked and spotted with bright-pink, or red, with a russet-yellow line encircling the eye. they are egg-shaped, rather more than half an inch in length, and four-tenths of an inch in width and depth. from the time of ripening, the soft, flesh-like tint gradually loses its freshness, and finally becomes cinnamon-brown; the variegations growing relatively duller and darker. a quart contains about eleven hundred seeds, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. the horticultural bean was introduced into this country from england about the year . it has now become very generally disseminated, and is one of the most popular of the running sorts. as a string-bean, it is of good quality; shelled in its green state, remarkably farinaceous and well flavored; and, when ripe, one of the best for baking or stewing. it is hardy and productive, but is liable to deteriorate when raised many years in succession from seed saved in the vegetable garden from the scattered pods accidentally left to ripen on the poles. to raise good seed, leave each year a few hills unplucked; allowing the entire product to ripen. indian chief. wax-bean. butter-bean. algerian. d'alger, of the french. stem six or seven feet high, with large, broad foliage and purple flowers; the pods are five inches long, nearly as thick as broad, sickle-shaped, green at first, but soon change to a fine, waxen, semi-transparent cream-white,--the line marking the divisions being orange-yellow. at this stage of growth, the color indicates approaching maturity; but the pods will be found crisp and succulent, and are in their greatest perfection for the table. when ripe, they are nearly white, much shrivelled, and contain six or seven seeds. when cultivated for the ripened product, the seed should be planted as early in the season as the weather will permit. the plants will then blossom in eight or nine weeks, afford young pods in about eleven weeks, pods for shelling in thirteen or fourteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and twenty-four days. plantings for green pods may be made until the first of july. at the time of harvesting, the seeds are deep indigo-blue, the hilum being white. they are oblong, often shortened abruptly at the ends, half an inch long, nearly the same in depth, and three-tenths of an inch thick. fourteen hundred seeds measure a quart, and will plant a hundred and seventy-five hills. its fine, tender, succulent, and richly colored pods are its chief recommendation; and for these it is well worthy of cultivation. they are produced in profuse abundance, and continue fit for use longer than those of most varieties. in moist seasons, the pods remain crisp and tender till the seeds have grown sufficiently to be used in the green state. the ripe seeds are little used. mottled cranberry. a comparatively strong-growing, but not tall variety. the flowers are white; the pods are short and broad, four inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch wide, yellow at maturity, and contain four or five seeds. if planted early, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in eight or nine weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in a hundred days. when planted after settled warm weather, it will ripen in ninety days. the ripe seeds are white, the eye surrounded with a broad patch of purple, which is also extended over one of the ends: they are of a rounded-oval form, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in width and thickness. a quart contains fourteen hundred and fifty seeds, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills. as the plants are of dwarfish character, the seeds are sometimes sown in drills; a quart being required for two hundred feet. the mottled cranberry is moderately productive, and the young pods are tender and well flavored: the seeds, while green, are farinaceous, and, though of good quality when ripe, are but little used. mottled prolific. plant branching, healthy, and vigorous, six feet or more in height; flowers purple; the pods are four inches and a half long, usually produced in pairs, green at first, washed with purple when more advanced, light-brown at maturity, and contain six seeds. it is a late variety. plantings made during the first of the season will not produce pods for use until the last of july, or beginning of august; but, if these are plucked as they become of suitable size, the plants will continue in bearing until destroyed by frost. the ripe beans are drab, thickly and minutely spotted with black, and also distinctly marked with regular lines of the same color. they are of an oblong form, flattened, often squarely or diagonally shortened at the ends, nearly half an inch in length, and three-tenths of an inch in width. a quart contains thirty-one hundred seeds, and will plant about three hundred hills. as a shelled-bean, in its green or ripened state, the variety has little merit. its recommendations are its fine, tender pods, its remarkable productiveness, and its uniformly healthy habit. prÉdhomme. _vil._ introduced from france. plant four or five feet high, with broad, deep-green, blistered foliage and white flowers; the pods are nearly cylindrical, three inches long, green while young, cream-white when ripe, and contain from six to eight seeds, set very closely together. the ripe beans are dull-white, veined, oblong, often shortened at the ends, a third of an inch long, and nearly a fourth of an inch in width and thickness. a quart contains about thirty-five hundred seeds, and will plant three hundred and fifty hills. early plantings will blossom in eight weeks, afford pods for the table in about ten weeks, and ripen in a hundred and eight days. it may be planted for its green pods to the first of july. it is of little value as a shelled-bean in its green state. when ripe, it is of good quality, and, as a string-bean, one of the best; the pods being very brittle, succulent, and fine flavored. they remain long upon the plants without becoming tough and hard; and are tender, and good for use, until almost ripe. on account of their thin and delicate character, the seeds, in unfavorable seasons, are often stained and otherwise injured by dampness at the time of ripening. princess. _vil._ a french variety. plant six feet or more in height, with lively-green foliage and white flowers; the pods are five inches long, pale-green while young, yellow at maturity, and contain six or seven, and sometimes eight, seeds. the ripe bean is white, egg-shaped, two-fifths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: nearly three thousand are contained in a quart, and will plant three hundred and fifty hills. the variety somewhat resembles the prédhomme; but the seeds are larger and brighter, the pods are longer, the seeds are less close in the pods, and it is some days earlier. it ripens in about three months from the time of planting. a good sort for stringing, and of excellent quality when ripe. red cranberry. this is one of the oldest and most familiar of garden-beans, and has probably been longer and more generally cultivated in this country than any other variety. the plants are five or six feet high, of medium strength and vigor; flowers pale-lilac. the pods are quite irregular in form; often reversely curved, or sickle-shaped; four inches and a half long; yellowish-green while young; clear-white when suitable for shelling; yellowish-white, shrivelled, and contorted, when ripe; and contain five or six seeds. its season is intermediate. if planted early, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield young pods in nine weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in ninety-five days. in favorable seasons, the crop will ripen if the seeds are planted the last of june; but, for the young pods or for green beans, plantings may be made to near the middle of july. seeds clear, deep-purple, the hilum white, round-ovoid, slightly compressed, half an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch in depth and thickness. fourteen hundred and fifty seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills. it is a hardy and productive variety, principally grown as a string-bean. the pods are succulent and tender; and these qualities are retained to a very advanced stage of growth, or until quite of suitable size for shelling. the dark color of the bean, which is to some extent imparted to the pods in the process of cooking, is by some considered an objection; and the white cranberry, though perhaps less prolific, is preferred. as a shelled-bean, it is of good quality in its green state; but, in its ripened state, little used, though dry and farinaceous. red orleans. scarlet orleans. five to six feet high; flowers white; the pods are sickle-shaped, five inches long, green when young, often tinged with red when more advanced, yellow at full maturity, and contain five or six seeds, packed closely together. it is one of the earliest of the running varieties. spring plantings will blossom in about seven weeks, afford pods for the table in eight weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in eighty-five-days. planted later in the season, pods sufficiently large for stringing may be gathered in six weeks, and the crop will begin to ripen in about seventy days. as a string-bean, the variety may be planted until the first of august. at the time of harvesting, the ripe seeds are of a bright blood-red color, but change rapidly by age to brownish-red. they are of an oblong form, often squarely or diagonally shortened at the ends by contact with each other in the pods, half an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch broad. a quart, which contains nearly twenty-four hundred seeds, will plant about two hundred and seventy-five hills. the red orleans is quite prolific, and a desirable sort for soups and stews. the young pods are tender, and well flavored; but its remarkable precocity must be considered its chief recommendation. french writers describe the ripe seeds as exceeding the above dimensions; but specimens received from paris seedsmen correspond in size, form, and color with the description before given. rhode-island butter. plant seven feet and upwards in height, with large, broad, deep-green, wrinkled foliage; flowers blush-white; the pods are six inches long, nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, green while young, paler when more advanced, cream-white and much shrivelled when ripe, and contain seven seeds. if planted early in the season, green pods may be plucked for the table in nine or ten weeks, pods for shelling in twelve weeks, and the crop will ripen in a hundred and twenty-three days. planted early in june, the pods will generally all ripen; but, if the planting is delayed to the last of the month, the crop will but partially mature, unless the season prove more than usually favorable. the vines will, however, yield a plentiful supply of pods, and also of green beans. the seeds, at maturity, are cream-yellow, with well-defined spots and stripes of deep yellowish-buff. they are broad-kidney-shaped, flattened, five-eighths of an inch long, and nearly half an inch broad. the cream-yellow gradually changes by age to brown, and the markings become relatively darker. fourteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills. the variety yields abundantly; and the large pods are tender, succulent, and excellent for table use. the beans, in their green state, are of good quality, though little used when ripe. sabre, or cimeter. stem seven or eight feet high; leaves broad, large, deep-green, and much wrinkled or corrugated; flowers white; pods large, broad, and thin, curved at the ends in the form of a sabre, or cimeter, green when young, cream-white when ripe, and contain eight beans. the variety will blossom in eight weeks, afford young pods for the table in ten weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of planting. if sown in june, the crop will mature in ninety days. plantings for the green seeds may be made till the last of june, and for the young pods to the middle of july. the ripe seeds are clear-white, kidney-form, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch broad. sixteen hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and sixty hills. the sabre bean is remarkably productive; the young pods are crisp and tender, excellent for table use, and good for pickling; the seeds, green or dry, are farinaceous, and of delicate flavor and appearance. in height and foliage, size and form of the pods, color and size of the ripe seeds, it resembles the case-knife. the principal difference between the varieties is in the earlier maturity of the sabre. soissons. _vil._ introduced from france. stem six feet or more high; foliage large, broad, wrinkled; flowers white; the pods are eight inches long, three-fourths of an inch broad, sword-shaped, yellowish-green when near maturity, yellowish-white when ripe, and contain six or seven seeds. the variety requires the whole season for its full perfection. if planted early, it blossoms in nine weeks, produces young pods in eleven weeks, and ripens off in gradual succession till the plants are destroyed by frost. if cultivated for its young pods, plantings may be made to the last week in june. the ripe seeds are remarkably large,--often measuring nearly an inch in length and half an inch in breadth,--pure, glossy-white, kidney-shaped, and generally irregularly compressed. seven hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant about eighty hills. the young pods, while quite young and small, are crisp and tender, and the ripe seeds are farinaceous and well flavored. it is also an excellent sort for shelling in the green state; but the plants are not hardy, and thrive well only in warm soil and sheltered situations. under ordinary culture, many of the pods are imperfect, and frequently contain but two or three seeds. white cranberry. stem five or six feet high; flowers white; the pods are five inches and a half long, pale-green while young, striped and marbled with red when near maturity, yellowish-buff when ripe, and contain five or six beans. it is not an early variety. from plantings made at the usual season, young pods may be gathered in about nine weeks, pods for shelling green in twelve weeks, and ripened beans in a hundred and five days. for stringing, or for shelling in a green state, the variety may be planted the first of july; but, in ordinary seasons, few of the pods will reach maturity. the ripe seeds are white, egg-shaped, sometimes nearly spherical, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in breadth and thickness. in size, form, and color, they strongly resemble the dwarf white marrow; and are not easily distinguished from the seeds of that variety. about twelve hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. the white cranberry is hardy, yields well, and the young pods are tender and well flavored. for shelling green, it is decidedly one of the best of all varieties; and for baking, or otherwise cooking, is, when ripe, fully equal to the pea-bean or white marrow. wild-goose. plant seven or eight feet high, of healthy, vigorous habit; flowers bright-purple; the pods are sickle-shaped, pale-green at first, cream-yellow streaked and marbled with purple when ripe, and contain six seeds, closely set together. the variety requires the entire season for its full perfection. when planted early, it will blossom in nine weeks, produce young pods in eleven weeks, green beans in thirteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and twenty days. if planted and grown under the influence of summer weather, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, yield young pods in nine weeks, green beans in twelve weeks, and ripen in a hundred days. plantings for the green seeds may be made to the middle of june, and for the young pods to the first of july. the ripe beans are pale cream-white, spotted with deep purplish-black (the cream-white gradually changing by age to cinnamon-brown), round-ovoid, four-tenths of an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch in width and thickness. a quart contains nearly seventeen hundred seeds, and will plant two hundred hills. the variety has been long cultivated both in europe and this country. it is hardy and productive. the young pods are of fair quality; and the seeds, green or ripe, are excellent for table use, in whatever form prepared. yellow cranberry. five to six feet high, with yellowish-green foliage and pale-purple flowers: the pods are five inches long, three-fourths of an inch broad, often sickle-shaped; pale-green at first; cream-yellow, shrivelled, and irregular in form, like those of the red variety, at maturity; and contain five or six seeds. it is a few days later than the white cranberry, and nearly two weeks later than the red. planted at the commencement of the season, it will blossom in eight weeks, yield pods for the table in about ten weeks, pods for shelling in twelve or thirteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and ten days. early summer-plantings will blossom in seven weeks, produce pods for the table in less than nine weeks, and ripen in about a hundred days. when grown for the ripened crop, it should have the advantage of the entire season; but, when cultivated for its young pods, plantings may be made till the first of july. seeds yellow, with a narrow, dark line encircling the hilum: round-ovoid, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in breadth and thickness: thirteen hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. the variety is hardy and prolific; of good quality as a string-bean, or for shelling in the green state. when ripe, the seeds are nearly equal to the white marrow for baking, though the color is less agreeable. * * * * * asparagus-bean. long-podded dolichos. dolichos sesquipedalis. the asparagus-bean, in its manner of growth, inflorescence, and in the size and character of its pods, is quite distinct from the class of beans before described. it is a native of tropical america, and requires a long, warm season for its full perfection. the stem is from six to seven feet high; the leaves are long, narrow, smooth, and shining; the flowers are large, greenish-yellow, and produced two or three together at the extremity of quite a long peduncle; the pods are nearly cylindrical, pale-green, pendent, and grow with remarkable rapidity,--when fully developed, they are eighteen or twenty inches long, and contain eight or nine seeds. these should be sown as early in spring as the appearance of settled warm weather; and the plants will then blossom in ten or eleven weeks, afford pods for use in fourteen weeks, and ripen off their crop in gradual succession until destroyed by frost. the ripe seeds are cinnamon-brown, with a narrow, dark line about the hilum; kidney-shaped, half an inch long, and a fourth of an inch broad: nearly four thousand are contained in a quart, and will plant four hundred and fifty hills. the seeds are quite small, and are rarely eaten, either in a green or ripe state. the variety is cultivated exclusively for its long, peculiar pods, which are crisp, tender, of good flavor, and much esteemed for pickling. it is, however, much less productive than many of the running kinds of garden-beans, and must be considered more curious than really useful. * * * * * lima bean. phaseolus lunatus. stem ten feet or more in height; leaves comparatively long and narrow, smooth and shining; flowers small, greenish-yellow, in spikes; the pods are four inches and a half long, an inch and a quarter broad, much flattened, green and wrinkled while young, yellowish when ripe, and contain three or four beans. the lima is one of the latest, as well as one of the most tender, of all garden-beans; and seldom, if ever, entirely perfects its crop in the northern states. little will be gained by very early planting; as the seeds are not only liable to decay before vegetating, but the plants suffer greatly from cold, damp weather. in the northern and eastern states, the seeds should not be planted in the open ground before the beginning of may; nor should the planting be delayed beyond the tenth or middle of the month. in ordinary seasons, the lima bean will blossom in eight or nine weeks, and pods may be plucked for use the last of august, or beginning of september. only a small proportion of the pods attain a sufficient size for use; a large part of the crop being prematurely destroyed by frost. the ripe seeds are dull-white or greenish-white, with veins radiating from the eye; broad, kidney-shaped, much flattened, seven-eighths of an inch long, and two-thirds of an inch broad. a quart contains about seven hundred seeds, and will plant eighty hills. the pods are tough and parchment-like in all stages of their growth, and are never eaten. the seeds, green or ripe, are universally esteemed for their peculiar flavor and excellence; and, by most persons, are considered the finest of all the garden varieties. if gathered when suitable for use in their green state, and dried in the pods in a cool and shaded situation, they may be preserved during the winter. when required for use, they are shelled, soaked a short time in clear water, and cooked as green beans: thus treated, they will be nearly as tender and well flavored as when freshly plucked from the plants. the seeds are sometimes started on a hot-bed, in thumb-pots, or on inverted turf, or sods, cut in convenient pieces; and about the last of may, if the weather is warm and pleasant, transplanted to hills in the open ground. by the following method, an early and abundant crop may be obtained in comparatively favorable seasons:-- "as soon in spring as the weather is settled, and the soil warm and in good working condition, set poles about six feet in length, three feet apart each way, and plant five or six beans in each hill; being careful to set each bean with its germ downward, and covering an inch deep. after they have grown a while, and before they begin to run, pull up the weakest, and leave but three of the most vigorous plants to a hill. as these increase in height, they should, if necessary, be tied to the stakes, or poles, using bass-matting, or other soft, fibrous material, for the purpose. when they have ascended to the tops of the poles, the ends should be cut or pinched off; as also the ends of all the branches, whenever they rise above that height. this practice checks their liability to run to vines, and tends to make them blossom earlier, and bear sooner and more abundantly, than they otherwise would do." in tropical climates, the lima bean is perennial. green lima. a sub-variety of the common lima, differing principally in the pea-green color of the seeds. as generally found in the market, the seeds of the common and green lima are more or less intermixed. by some, the green is considered more tender, and thought to remain longer on the plants without becoming hard, than the white. the habits of the plants are the same, and there is no difference in the season of maturity. a careful selection of seeds for planting, and skilful culture, would undoubtedly give a degree of permanency to this difference in color; which appears to be the principal, if not the only, point of variation. mottled lima. this, like the green, is a sub-variety of the common lima. the ripe seeds are dull-white or greenish-white, mottled and clouded with purple. in the habit of the plant, in the foliage, pods, form, or size of the seeds, or season of maturity, there are no marks of distinction when compared with the common lima. * * * * * scarlet-runner. phaseolus multiflorus. from south america. though nearly allied to the common kidney-bean, it is considered by botanists a distinct species; differing in its inflorescence, in the form of its pods, and particularly in the fact that the cotyledons, or lobes of the planted seed, do not rise to the surface of the ground in the process of germination. it is, besides, a perennial plant. the roots are tuberous, and, though small, not unlike those of the dahlia. if taken up before frost in the autumn, they may be preserved in a conservatory, or warm parlor or sitting-room, during winter, and reset in the open ground on the approach of warm weather; when new shoots will soon make their appearance, and the plants will blossom a second time early and abundantly. the plants are twelve feet or more in height or length, with deep-green foliage and brilliant scarlet flowers; the latter being produced in spikes, on long footstalks. the pods are six inches long, nearly an inch broad, somewhat hairy while young, sickle-shaped and wrinkled when more advanced, light reddish-brown when ripe, and contain four or five seeds. it requires the whole season for its perfection, and should be planted as early as the weather will admit. the plants will then blossom in seven or eight weeks, produce young pods in nine weeks, green seeds in twelve weeks, and ripen in a hundred and fifteen days. the ripe seeds are lilac-purple, variegated with black, or deep purplish-brown,--the edge, or border, little, if any, marked; hilum long and white; form broad-kidney-shaped; size large,--if well grown, measuring seven-eighths of an inch long, six-tenths of an inch broad, and three-eighths of an inch thick. about five hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant eighty hills. in this country, it is usually cultivated as an ornamental, climbing annual; the spikes of rich, scarlet flowers, and its deep-green foliage, rendering the plant one of the most showy and attractive objects of the garden. though inferior to some of the finer sorts of garden-beans, its value as an esculent has not been generally appreciated. the young pods are tender and well flavored; and the seeds, green or ripe, are much esteemed in many localities. "in britain, the green pods only are used; on the continent, the ripened seeds are as much an object of culture; in holland, the runners are grown in every cottage-garden for both purposes; while, in france and switzerland, they are grown chiefly for the ripened seeds. in england, they occupy a place in most cottage-gardens, and are made both ornamental and useful. they cover arbors, are trained over pales and up the walls of cottages, which they enliven by the brightness of their blossoms; while every day produces a supply of wholesome and nutritious food for the owner. the french, now enthusiastically fond of this legume, at one time held it in utter detestation." painted lady-runner. a sub-variety of the scarlet-runner, with variegated flowers; the upper petals being scarlet, the lower white. the ripe seeds are paler, and the spots and markings duller. cultivation and uses the same. white-runner. a variety of the scarlet-runner. the plants are less vigorous, the pods are longer and less wrinkled, and the flowers and seeds pure white. the green pods are used in the same manner as those of the scarlet-runner, and are similar in texture and flavor; but the shelled-beans, either green or ripe, are generally considered superior to those of the scarlet variety. they are sometimes seen in vegetable markets under the name of the "lima;" and are probably often cultivated, as well as purchased and consumed, as the lima. the white-runner beans, however, are easily distinguished by their greater thickness, more rounded form, and especially by their uniform whiteness. * * * * * sieva. carolina. saba. west-indian. small lima. carolina sewee. phaseolus lunatus, var. the sieva is a variety of the lima, attaining a height of ten or twelve feet. the leaves and flowers resemble those of the common lima. the pods, however, are much smaller, and remarkable for their uniform size; generally measuring three inches in length, and about seven-eighths of an inch in width: they are green and wrinkled while young, pale yellowish-brown when ripe, and contain three, and sometimes four, seeds. though several days earlier than the lima, the sieva bean requires the whole season for its complete maturity; and even when planted early, and receiving the advantage of a warm summer and a favorable autumn, it is seldom fully perfected in the northern states: for, though much of the crop may ripen, a large portion almost invariably is prematurely destroyed by frost. the variety will blossom in eight weeks from the time of planting, afford pods for shelling in twelve weeks, and ripen from near the middle of september till destroyed by frost. the seeds are white or dull yellowish-white, broad-kidney-shaped, much flattened, five-eighths of an inch long, and nearly half an inch broad. a quart contains about sixteen hundred, and will plant about a hundred and fifty hills. the sieva is one of the most productive of all varieties. the young pods, however, are tough and hard, and are never eaten. the beans, in their green or ripe state, are similar to the lima, and are nearly as delicate and richly flavored. it is from two to three weeks earlier than the last named, and would yield a certain abundance in seasons when the lima would uniformly fail. as a shelled-bean, green or dry, it must be classed as one of the best, and is recommended for cultivation. mottled sieva. a sub-variety of the common sieva; the principal if not the only mark of distinction being in the variegated character of the seeds, which are dull-white, spotted and streaked with purple. it is sometimes described as being earlier than the common variety; but, from various experiments in the cultivation of both varieties, there appears to be little if any difference in their seasons of maturity. the color and form of the flower are the same as the sieva; the pods are of the same size and shape; and the leaves have the same elongated form, and smooth, glossy appearance. * * * * * chick-pea. egyptian pea. cicer arietinum. the chick-pea is a hardy, annual plant, originally from the south of europe, but also indigenous to the north of africa and some parts of asia. the stem is two or three feet high, erect and branching; the leaves are pinnate, with from six to nine pairs of oval, grayish, toothed leaflets; the flowers resemble those of the common pea, and are produced on long peduncles, generally singly, but sometimes in pairs; the pods are about an inch long, three-fourths of an inch broad, somewhat rhomboidal, hairy, inflated or bladder-like, and contain two or three globular, wrinkled, pea-like seeds. _sowing and cultivation._--the seed should be sown in april, in the manner of the garden-pea; making the drills about three feet apart, an inch and a half deep, and dropping the seeds two inches asunder in the drills. all the culture required is simply to keep the ground between the rows free from weeds. the crop should be harvested before the complete maturity of the seeds. _use._--"the pease, though not very digestible, are largely employed in soups, and form the basis of the _purée aux croutons_, or bread and pea soup, so highly esteemed in paris." they are also extensively used, roasted and ground, as a substitute for coffee. there are three varieties, as follow:-- red chick-pea. a variety with rose-colored flowers, and red or brownish-red seeds. white chick-pea. both the flowers and seeds white; plant similar to those of the other varieties. yellow chick-pea. this variety has white blossoms and yellow seeds. the plant, in height, foliage, or general habit, differs little from the white or the red seeded. * * * * * chickling vetch. _law._ lentil, of spain. cultivated lathyrus. lathyrus sativus. stem three or four feet high or long, attaching itself to trellises, branches, or whatever may be provided for its support, in the manner of pease; the leaves are small and grass-like; flowers solitary, smaller than those of the common pea, and generally bright-blue; the pods are an inch and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad, flattened, winged along the back, and enclose two compressed but irregularly shaped seeds of a dun or brownish color and pleasant flavor. _cultivation and use._--the seeds are sown at the time and in the manner of the taller kinds of garden-pease. the plant is principally cultivated for its seeds, the flour of which is mixed with that of wheat or rye, and made into bread. it is also fed to stock; and, in some localities, the plants are given as green food to horses and cattle. "in , its cultivation and use were prohibited on account of its supposed pernicious properties; as it was thought to induce rigidity of the limbs, and to otherwise injuriously affect the system." white-flowered chickling vetch. a variety with white flowers and seeds. the foliage is also much paler than that of the common chickling vetch. other species of the genus also produce farinaceous seeds suitable for food, but in too small quantities to admit of being profitably cultivated in this country. * * * * * english bean. horse-bean. garden-bean, of the english. vicia faba. [illustration: english bean.] the english bean differs essentially from the common american garden or kidney bean usually cultivated in this country; and is classed by botanists under a different genera, and not as a distinct species, as intimated in the "american gardener." aside from the great difference in their general appearance and manner of growth, the soil, climate, and mode of cultivation, required by the two classes, are very dissimilar: the american garden-bean thriving best in a light, warm soil, and under a high temperature; and the english bean in stiff, moist soil, and in cool, humid seasons. the english bean is a native of egypt, and is said to be the most ancient of all the now cultivated esculents. it is an annual plant, with an upright, smooth, four-sided, hollow stem, dividing into branches near the ground, and growing from two to four feet and upwards in height. the leaves are alternate, pinnate, and composed of from two to four pairs of oval, smooth, entire leaflets; the flowers are large, nearly stemless, purple or white, veined and spotted with purplish-black; the pods are large and downy; the seeds are rounded, or reniform, flattened, and vary to a considerable extent in size and color in the different varieties,--they will vegetate until more than five years old. _soil and planting._--as before remarked, the english bean requires a moist, strong soil, and a cool situation; the principal obstacles in the way of its successful cultivation in this country being the heat and drought of the summer. the seeds should be planted early, in drills two feet asunder for the smaller-growing varieties, and three feet for the larger sorts; dropping them about six inches from each other, and covering two inches deep. a quart of seed will plant about a hundred and fifty feet of row or drill. _cultivation._--"when the plants have attained a height of five or six inches, they are earthed up slightly for support; and, when more advanced, they are sometimes staked along the rows, and cords extended from stake to stake to keep the plants erect. when the young pods appear, the tops of the plants should be pinched off, to throw that nourishment, which would be expended in uselessly increasing the height of the plant, into its general system, and consequently increase the bulk of crop, as well as hasten its maturity. this often-recommended operation, though disregarded by many, is of very signal importance."--_m'int._ _taking the crop._--the pods should be gathered for use when the seeds are comparatively young, or when they are of the size of a marrowfat-pea. as a general rule, all vegetables are most tender and delicate when young; and to few esculents does this truth apply with greater force than to the class of plants to which the english bean belongs. _use._--the seeds are used in their green state, cooked and served in the same manner as shelled kidney-beans. the young pods are sometimes, though rarely, used as string-beans. _varieties._-- dutch long pod. plant from four to five feet high, dividing into two or three branches; flowers white; pods horizontal, or slightly pendulous, six or seven inches long, about an inch in width, three-fourths of an inch thick, and containing five or six large white or yellowish-white seeds. not early, but prolific, and of good quality. dwarf fan, or cluster. early dwarf. bog-bean. a remarkably dwarfish, early variety, much employed in forcing. stem about a foot high, separating near the ground into two or three branches; flowers white; the pods, which are produced in clusters near the top of the plant, are almost cylindrical, three inches long, three-fourths of an inch thick, and contain three or four small, oblong, yellow seeds. it is one of the smallest and earliest of the english beans, and yields abundantly. early dwarf crimson-seeded. _vil._ vilmorin's dwarf red-seeded. plant sixteen inches high, separating into two or three divisions, or branches; the flowers resemble those of the common varieties, but are somewhat smaller; the pods are erect, three inches and a half long, three-fifths of an inch wide, half an inch thick, and contain three or four seeds, closely set together, and nearly as large in diameter as the pod. the ripe seeds are bright brownish-red or crimson, thick, shortened at the back, and depressed at the sides: six hundred and fifty will measure a quart. the variety is principally esteemed for its dwarfish habit and early maturity. early mazagan. early malta. this variety, though originally from mazagan, on the coast of africa, is one of the hardiest sorts now in cultivation. stem from two to three feet high, and rather slender; pods four to five inches long, containing four or five whitish seeds. the early mazagan is much less productive than many other sorts; but its hardiness and earliness have secured it a place in the garden, and it has been cultivated more or less extensively for upwards of a century. evergreen long pod. _m'int._ green genoa. green long pod. green nonpareil. this variety grows from three to four feet high. the pods are long, somewhat flattened, and generally contain four rather small, oblong, green seeds. it is an excellent bearer, of good quality, and but a few days later than the common long pod. the variety is much esteemed on account of the fine, green color of the beans; which, if gathered at the proper time, retain their green color when dressed. in planting, make the drills three feet apart, and two inches and a half deep; and allow two plants for each linear foot. green china. from two to two feet and a half high; pods long, cylindrical, containing three or four beans, which remain of a green color when dry. it is recommended for its great productiveness and late maturity. green julienne. _vil._ plant about three feet and a half high, usually divided into four branches; the pods are erect, four inches long, three-fourths of an inch thick, and contain two or three small, oblong, green seeds. early and of good quality. green windsor. toker. stem three feet high, separating into two, and sometimes three, branches; flowers white; pods erect, often horizontal, four inches and a half long, an inch and a quarter wide, and containing three large, green, nearly circular, and rather thick seeds. the latter retain their fresh, green color till near maturity, and, to a considerable extent, when fully ripe; and, on this account, are found in the market, and used at table, after most other varieties have disappeared. the variety resembles the common broad windsor; but the seeds are smaller, and retain their green color after maturity. eleven or twelve well-developed seeds will weigh an ounce. horse-bean. _law._ scotch bean. faba vulgaris arvensis. stem from three to five feet high; flowers variable in color; the ripe seeds are from a half to five-eighths of an inch in length by three-eighths in breadth, generally slightly compressed on the sides, and frequently a little hollowed or flattened at the end, of a whitish or light-brownish color, occasionally interspersed with darker blotches, particularly towards the extremities; eye black; average weight per bushel sixty-two pounds. an agricultural sort, generally cultivated in rows, but sometimes sown broadcast. it is not adapted to the climate of the united states, though extensively and profitably grown in england and scotland. johnson's wonderful. _law._ an improved variety of the broad windsor, recently introduced, and apparently of excellent quality. the pods are long, and contain six or eight beans, which are similar in size and form to the windsor. long-podded. _law._ lisbon. hang-down long pod. early long pod. sandwich. turkey long pod. sword long pod. stems from three to five feet high; pods six to seven inches long, an inch and a fourth broad, rather pendulous, and containing four or five whitish, somewhat oblong, flattened seeds, about an inch in length, and five-eighths of an inch in breadth. the variety has been long in cultivation, is remarkably productive, and one of the most esteemed of the english beans. it is about a week later than the early mazagan. marshall's early dwarf prolific. _m'int._ plant from eighteen inches to two feet high, separating into numerous branches. it resembles the early mazagan; but is two weeks earlier, and much more productive. the pods are produced in clusters near the ground, and contain four or five seeds, which are larger than those of the last named. red or scarlet blossomed. stem three or four feet high, separating near the ground into four branches; flowers generally bright-red, approaching scarlet, but varying from pale to purplish-red and blackish-purple, and sometimes to nearly jet-black; the pods, which differ from all other varieties in their dark, rusty-brown color, are erect, four inches long, nearly an inch broad, and contain three and sometimes four seeds. the variety is remarkably hardy and productive; but less esteemed than many others, on account of its dark color. it deserves cultivation as an ornamental plant. red windsor. _law._ _m'int._ scarlet windsor. dark-red. this variety resembles the violet or purple; growing about four feet high. the pods are narrower than those of the broad windsor, and contain about the same number of seeds: in the green state, these are darker than those of the violet, but change to scarlet when fully grown, and to deep-red when ripe. the red windsor is late, but prolific, and of good quality. it is, however, little cultivated, on account of its dark and unattractive appearance. the seed weighs about thirty-one grains. royal dwarf cluster. _m'int._ a very dwarf, and comparatively new variety; growing only twelve or fourteen inches high. it produces its pods in clusters, three or four beans in each pod, which are smaller than marshall's early prolific. on account of its branching habit, it should not have less than ten or twelve inches in the line, which is nearly its proper distance between the rows. much esteemed for the delicacy and smallness of the beans while young, and considered one of the best of the early dwarf sorts. toker. _law._ large toker. height about five feet; pods rather long, and very broad, containing three or four beans of a whitish color,--differing from the common windsor in being of an elongated, oval form. this is a medium late sort, and an excellent bearer, but considered somewhat coarse, and therefore not so much esteemed as the windsor. the ripe seed weighs thirty-six grains. violet or purple. violette. stem about four feet high, with two or three ramifications; flowers white; pods generally erect, sometimes at right angles, a little curved, four inches or upwards in length, an inch and a fourth in width, four-fifths of an inch thick, containing two and sometimes three seeds. when ripe, the beans are large, not regular in form, rather thin, of a violet-red color, changing by age to a mahogany-red; the size and shape being intermediate between the long pod and broad windsor. the variety is of good quality, and productive; but less desirable than many other sorts, on account of its dark color. white-blossomed long pod. _law._ the flowers of this sort differ from all others in being pure white; having no spots on the large upper petal, or on the wings or smaller side petals. it is liable to degenerate; but may easily be distinguished, when in flower, by the above characters. stem about four feet high; pods long, nearly cylindrical, and slightly pendulous, generally containing four and sometimes five seeds, which are black or blackish-brown, three-fourths of an inch long, and half an inch broad. it is a moderate bearer, and of excellent quality; but not used in an advanced state, on account of its color. the variety possesses the singular anomaly of having the whitest flowers and the darkest seeds of any of the english beans. the seed weighs about twelve grains. windsor. white broad windsor. taylor's large windsor. kentish windsor. mumford. wrench's improved windsor. stem about four feet high; flowers white; pods generally horizontal or inclined, five inches long, an inch and a fourth wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and containing two or three beans; seeds large, yellowish, of a flat, circular form, an inch broad, but varying in size according to soil, culture, and season. a quart contains from two hundred and fifty to two hundred and seventy-five seeds. this familiar sort is much esteemed and extensively cultivated. it is considered the earliest of the late garden varieties; and excellent as a summer bean, on account of its remaining longer fit for use than any other, with the exception of the green windsor. it is a sure bearer; and, as the pods are produced in succession, pluckings may be made from day to day for many weeks. the seeds are the heaviest of all the english beans; nine well-grown specimens weighing an ounce. lentil. _law._ ervum lens. a hardy, annual plant, with an erect, angular, branching stem a foot and a half high. the leaves are winged, with about six pairs of narrow leaflets, and terminate in a divided tendril, or clasper; the flowers are small, numerous, and generally produced in pairs; the pods are somewhat quadrangular, flattened, usually in pairs, and enclose one or two round, lens-like seeds, the size and color varying in the different varieties,--about four hundred and fifty are contained in an ounce, and their power of germination is retained three years. _cultivation._--"the soil best adapted for the lentil is that of a dry, light, calcareous, sandy nature." when cultivated as green food for stock, it should be sown broadcast; but, if grown for ripe seeds, it should be sown in drills,--the last of april or beginning of may being the most suitable season for sowing. _use._--"the lentil is a legume of the greatest antiquity, and was much esteemed in the days of the patriarchs. in egypt and syria, the seeds are parched, and sold in shops; being considered by the natives as excellent food for those making long journeys. in france, germany, holland, and other countries of europe, it is grown to a considerable extent, both for its seeds and haum. the former are used in various ways, but principally, when ripe, in soups, as split pease. when given as green food to stock, it should be cut when the first pods are nearly full grown." _varieties._-- common lentil. _law._ yellow lentil. this variety is considered superior to the large lentil, though the seeds are much smaller. in the markets of paris, it is the most esteemed of all the cultivated sorts. its season is the same with that of the last named. green lentil. lentille verte du puy. _vil._ the green lentil somewhat resembles the small lentil, particularly in its habit of growth; though its stem is taller and more slender, and its foliage deeper colored. the principal distinction is in the color of the seeds, which are green, spotted and marbled with black. large lentil. _law._ flowers small, white, generally two, but sometimes three, on each peduncle; the pods are three-fourths of an inch long, half an inch broad, flattened, and generally contain a single seed, which is white or cream-colored, lens-shaped, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and an eighth of an inch in thickness. the plant is about fifteen inches high. it is one of the most productive of all the varieties, though inferior in quality to the common lentil. one-flowered lentil. ervum monanthos. the stem of this quite distinct species is from twelve to fifteen inches high; the flowers are yellow, stained or spotted with black, and produced one on a foot-stalk; the pods are oval, smooth, and contain three or four globular, wrinkled, grayish-brown seeds, nearly a fourth of an inch in diameter. about five hundred and fifty seeds are contained in an ounce. the one-flowered lentil is inferior to most of the other sorts; but is cultivated to some extent, in france and elsewhere, both for its seeds and herbage. red lentil. _law._ seeds of the size and form of those of the common lentil, but of a reddish-brown color; flowers light-red. its season of maturity is the same with that of the last named. small lentil. _law._ lentille petite. _vil._ seeds about an eighth of an inch in diameter; flowers reddish; and pods often containing two seeds. this is the "lentille petite" of the french; and is the variety mostly sown for green food in france, although its ripe seeds are also used. it is rather late, and grows taller than any of the other sorts, except the green lentil. when sown in drills, they should be from ten to fifteen inches apart, and the plants about four or five inches distant in the rows. the lentils are of a close, branching habit of growth; and a single plant will produce a hundred and fifty and often a much greater number of pods. * * * * * lupine. lupinus. the lupines are distinguished among leguminous plants by their strong, erect, branching habit of growth. of the numerous species and varieties, some are cultivated for ornament, others for forage, and some for ploughing under for the purpose of enriching the soil. the only species grown for their farinaceous seeds, or which are considered of much value to the gardener, are the two following:-- white lupine. _law._ lupinus albus. an annual species, with a sturdy, erect stem two feet high; leaves oblong, covered with a silvery down, and produced seven or eight together at the end of a common stem; the flowers are white, in loose, terminal spikes; the pods are straight, hairy, about three inches long, and contain five or six large, white, flattened seeds,--these are slightly bitter when eaten, and are reputed to possess important medical properties. "the white lupine was extensively cultivated by the romans for its ripened seeds, which were used for food; and also for its green herbage, which was employed for the support of their domestic animals." it is of little value as an esculent; and, compared with many other leguminous plants, not worthy of cultivation. the seeds should be sown where the plants are to remain, as they do not succeed well when transplanted. sow early in may, in drills sixteen to eighteen inches apart; cover an inch and a half deep, and thin to five or six inches in the rows. yellow lupine. _law._ lupinus luteus. the yellow lupine is a native of sicily. it is a hardy annual, and resembles the foregoing species in its general character. the flowers are yellow; the pods are about two inches long, hairy, flattened, and enclose four or five large, roundish, speckled seeds. it blossoms and ripens at the same time with the white, and is planted and cultivated in the same manner. this species is grown in italy for the same purposes as the white, but more extensively. it is also grown in some parts of the south of france, on poor, dry grounds, for cutting in a green state, and ploughing under as a fertilizer. * * * * * the pea. pisum sativum. the native country of the pea, like that of many of our garden vegetables, is unknown. it is a hardy, annual plant; and its cultivation and use as an esculent are almost universal. to give in detail the various methods of preparing the soil, sowing, culture, gathering, and use, would occupy a volume. the following directions are condensed from an elaborate treatise on the culture of this vegetable, by charles m'intosh, in his excellent work entitled "the book of the garden:"-- _soil and its preparation._--the pea comes earliest to maturity in light, rich soil, abounding in humus: hence the practice of adding decomposed leaves or vegetable mould has a very beneficial effect. for general crops, a rich, hazel loam, or deep, rich, alluvial soil, is next best; but, for the most abundant of all, a strong loam, inclining to clay. for early crops, mild manure, such as leaf-mould, should be used. if the soil is very poor, stronger manure should be employed. for general crops, a good dressing may be applied; and for the dwarf kinds, such as tom thumb, bishop's new long pod, and the like, the soil can hardly be too rich. _seed and sowing._--a quart of ripe pease is equal to about two pounds' weight; and contains, of the largest-sized varieties, about thirteen hundred, and of the smaller descriptions about two thousand, seeds. a pint of the small-seeded sorts, such as the daniel o'rourke, early frame, and early charlton, will sow a row about sixty feet in length; and the same quantity of larger-growing sorts will sow a row of nearly a hundred feet, on account of being sown so much thinner. a fair average depth for covering the seed is two and a half or three inches; though some practise planting four or five inches deep, which is said to be a preventive against the premature decay of the vines near the roots. as to distance between the rows, when pease are sown in the usual manner (that is, row after row throughout the whole field), they should be as far asunder as the length of the stem of the variety cultivated: thus a pea, that attains a height or length of two feet, should have two feet from row to row, and so on to those taller or lower growing. they are sometimes sown two rows together, about a foot apart, and ten, twenty, or even fifty feet between the double rows; by which every portion of the crop is well exposed to the sun and air, and the produce gathered with great facility. there is no loss of ground by this method; for other crops can be planted within a foot or two of the rows, and this amount of space is necessary for the purpose of gathering. a common practice in ordinary garden culture is to sow in double rows twelve or fourteen inches apart, slightly raising the soil for the purpose. when so planted, all of the sorts not over two feet in height may be successfully grown without sticking. when varieties of much taller growth are sown, a greater yield will be secured by bushing the plants; which is more economically as well as more strongly done if the planting is made in double rows. the staking, or bushing, should be furnished when the plants are three or four inches high, or immediately after the second hoeing: they should be of equal height, and all straggling side-twigs should be removed for appearance' sake. _early crops._--the earliest crops produced in the open garden without artificial aid are obtained by judicious selection of the most approved early varieties, choosing a warm, favorable soil and situation, and sowing the seed either in november, just as the ground is closing, or in february or march, at the first opening of the soil; the latter season, however, being preferable, as the seed then vegetates with much greater certainty, and the crop is nearly or quite as early. great benefit will be derived from reflected heat, when planted at the foot of a wall, building, or tight fence, running east and west. it is necessary, however, when warm sunshine follows cold, frosty nights, to shade the pease from its influence an hour or two in the morning, or to sprinkle them with cold water if they have been at all frozen. they are sometimes covered with a narrow glass frame of a triangular form, and glazed on both sides, or on one only, according as they may be used on rows running from north to south, or from east to west. in the latter case, such frames may have glass in the south side only. _subsequent cultivation._--"when the crop has attained the height of about five inches, a little earth should be drawn around the stems, but not so closely as to press upon them: it should form a sort of ridge, with a slight channel in the middle. the intention here is not, as in many other cases, to encourage the roots to diverge in a horizontal direction (for they have no disposition to do so), but rather to give a slight support to the plants until they take hold of the stakes that are to support them. those crops which are not to be staked require this support the most: and they should have the earth drawn up upon one side only, that the vines may be thrown to one side; which will both facilitate the operation of gathering, and keep the ground between them clear at the same time, while it supports the necks of the plants better than if the earth was drawn up on both sides." _mildew._--one of the most successful cultivators (t. a. knight) says, "that the secondary and immediate cause of this disease is a want of a sufficient supply of moisture from the soil, with excess of humidity in the air; particularly if the plants be exposed to a temperature below that to which they have been accustomed. if damp and cloudy weather succeed that which has been warm and bright, without the intervention of sufficient rain to moisten the ground to some depth, the crop is generally much injured by mildew." "while engaged in the production of those excellent pease which bear his name, he proved this theory by warding off mildew by copious waterings of the roots. the fashionable remedy, at present, is the application of sulphur. this, no doubt, subdues the disease, but does not remove the cause."--_m'int._ _gathering._--the crop should be gathered as it becomes fit for use. if even a few of the pods begin to ripen, young pods will not only cease to form, but those partly advanced will cease to enlarge. _use._--"in a sanitary point of view, pease cannot be eaten too young, nor too soon after they are gathered; and hence people who depend on the public markets for their supply seldom have this very popular vegetable in perfection, and too often only when it is almost unfit for use. this is a formidable objection to the use of pease brought from long distances. it is, of course, for the interest of the producer to keep back his pease till they are fully grown, because they measure better, and, we believe, by many are purchased quicker, as they get greater bulk for their money. this may be so far excusable on the part of such: but it is inexcusable that a gentleman, having a garden of his own, should be served with pease otherwise than in the very highest state of perfection; which they are not, if allowed to become too old, or even too large."--_m'int._ "pease, in a green state, are with difficulty sent to a distance, as, when packed closely together, heat and fermentation speedily take place. this is one of the causes why pease from the south, or those brought by long distances to market, are discolored, devoid of flavor, and, worst of all, very unwholesome to eat. pease intended for long transportation should be packed in open baskets (not in boxes or tight barrels), and laid in layers not more than two inches thick; and, between such layers, a thick stratum of clean straw or other dry material should be placed." _varieties._--these are very numerous, and, like those of the broccoli lettuce, not only greatly confused, but often based on trifling and unimportant distinctions. from experiments made a few years since in the gardens of the london horticultural society, under the direction of mr. thompson, who planted no less than two hundred and thirty-five reputed sorts (all of which were then enumerated in seedsmen's catalogues), only twenty-seven of the number were selected as being really useful. about the same time, upwards of a hundred sorts were grown by mr. m'intosh, from which twelve were selected as being truly distinct and valuable. "new sorts are yearly introduced: and it would be injudicious not to give them a fair trial; for as we progress in pea-culture, as in every other branch of horticulture, we may reasonably expect that really improved and meritorious sorts will arise, and be substituted for others that may be inferior." auvergne. _cot. gard._ white sabre. white cimeter. the plant is of moderately strong habit of growth, producing a single stem from four to five feet high, according to the soil in which it is grown; and bears from twelve to fifteen pods. these are generally single, but sometimes in pairs; when fully grown, four inches and a half long, and over half an inch broad; tapering to the point, and very much curved. they contain from eight to ten peas, which are closely compressed, and of the size of the early frames. even the small pods contain as many as six or seven peas in each. the ripe seed is white. plants from seed sown may were in blossom june ; and the pods were sufficiently grown for plucking, july . the auvergne pea was introduced from france into england some years ago by the london horticultural society. although it very far surpasses most of the varieties of the white pea, it has never become much disseminated, and is very little known or cultivated. it is, however, a most characteristic variety, and always easily distinguishable by its long, curved pods. it is one of the most productive of all the garden pease. batt's wonder. _trans._ plant three feet in height, of robust growth; foliage dark-green; pods narrow, nearly straight, but exceedingly well filled, containing seven or eight peas of medium size, which, when ripe, are small, smooth, and of a bluish-green color. planted may , the variety will flower about july , and the pods will be fit for use the middle of the month. the variety withstands drought well, and the pods hang long before the peas become too hard for use. it is an excellent pea for a second crop. beck's prize-taker. _trans._ prize-taker. rising sun. plant four and a half to five feet in height; pods roundish, curved or hooked near the end, well filled, containing seven to eight middle-sized peas of a fine green color when young, and mixed olive and white when ripe. sown may , the variety will blossom june , and the pods will be suitable for plucking about the th of july. it is one of the best varieties for the main crop. similar to, if not identical with, bellamy's early green marrow. bedman's imperial. _cot. gard._ the plant generally produces a single stem, which is from three to four feet high; the pods are usually in pairs, but sometimes single, three inches and a quarter long, five-eighths of an inch broad, somewhat curved, and terminate abruptly at the points. each pod contains six to seven peas, which are of an ovate form, and about a third of an inch in their greatest diameter. the ripe seed is pale-blue. planted may , the variety blossomed the last of june, and furnished pease for use about the th of july. for many years, this variety stood foremost among the imperials; but is now giving place to other and greatly superior sorts. bellamy's early green marrow. _cot. gard._ plant of strong and robust habit of growth, sometimes with a single and often with a branching stem, four and a half or five feet high, and producing from twelve to eighteen pods: these are in pairs, rarely single, three inches and a half long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, slightly curved, thick-backed, and terminate abruptly at the point. the surface is smooth, and of a very dark-green color. they contain, on an average, from six to seven large bluish-green peas. the ripe seed has a mixed appearance; some being dull yellowish-white, and others light olive-green, in about equal proportions. plants from seed sown the first week in may were in blossom the last week in june, and pods were plucked for use about the middle of july. the variety is highly recommended, both as a good bearer and a pea of excellent quality, whether for private use or for marketing: for the latter purpose it is peculiarly adapted, as the pod is of a fine deep-color, handsomely and regularly shaped, and always plumply filled. bishop's early dwarf. _law._ pods single or in pairs, about two inches long, bent back at both ends, and increasing in size towards the middle; pea about a fourth of an inch in diameter, and irregularly shaped, cream-colored, with blotches of white, particularly about the eye. the plant grows little more than a foot high, and is fairly productive. early sowings will give a supply for the table in about ten weeks. this once-popular, early dwarf sort is now rapidly giving place to bishop's new long-podded,--a more prolific and much superior variety. bishop's new long-podded. stem about two feet high; pods nearly straight, almost cylindrical, containing six or seven white peas. it is an early variety, an abundant bearer, of excellent quality, and in all respects much superior to the common bishop's early dwarf. planted the st of may, it will blossom june , and yield pease for the table the th of july. m'intosh describes it as "a most abundant bearer, producing a succession of pods during most of the pea-season. like all pease of its class, it requires a rich soil, and from four to six inches between the seed in the line. it is one of the most valuable sorts for small gardens and for domestic use. it originated in england with mr. david bishop; and is a hybrid between bishop's early dwarf and one of the marrowfats, carrying with it the characters of both its parents." black-eyed marrow. plant about five feet high, strong and vigorous; pods generally single, sometimes in pairs, three inches and a quarter in length, three-fourths of an inch in breadth, becoming rough or wrinkled on the surface as they approach maturity, and containing about six large, round, cream-white or brownish-white black-eyed seeds, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. its season is nearly the same with the dwarf and missouri marrow. if sown the st of may, the plants will blossom the th or th of june, and yield pease for the table about july : the crop will ripen the last of the same month. this is a very prolific as well as excellent variety. it is little cultivated in gardens at the north, though sometimes grown as a field-pea in the canadas. in the middle states, and at the south, it is a popular market-sort, and its cultivation is much more extensive. the dark color of the eye of the ripened seed distinguishes the variety from all others. blue cimeter. _thomp._ sabre. dwarf sabre. blue sabre. new sabre. beck's eclipse. plant about three feet high; pods generally in pairs, well filled, long, roundish, gradually curved from the stem to the point, or cimeter-shaped; seeds of good quality, larger than those of the prussian blue, from which the variety doubtless originated, and to which, when grown in poor soil, it has a tendency to return. if planted the st of may, it will blossom about the th of june, and the pods will be suitable for plucking about the middle of july. it bears abundantly, but not in succession; and, for this reason, is much prized by market-gardeners. the most of the pods being fit to pluck at the same time, the crop is harvested at once, and the land immediately occupied with other vegetables. blue imperial. dwarf blue imperial. plant strong and vigorous, four feet in height, with large, healthy foliage; pods single and in pairs, three inches and a quarter in length, three-fourths of an inch in breadth, containing six or seven large peas. the ripe seed is somewhat indented and irregularly compressed, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and of a greenish-blue color. with respect to season, the variety is intermediate. if planted the st of may, it will blossom the th of june, and the pods will attain a size fit for plucking about the th of july. it is very hardy; yields abundantly; thrives well in almost any description of soil or situation; and, though not so sweet and tender as some of the more recent sorts, is of good quality. it vegetates with much greater certainty, and its crops are more reliable, than the higher-flavored varieties; and these qualities will still secure its cultivation by those who prefer a certain and plentiful supply of fair quality, to a precarious and limited yield of extraordinary sweetness and excellence. it has long been grown in this country, and is considered a standard variety. blue prussian. _cot. gard._ dwarf blue prussian. prussian blue. green prussian. plant of a vigorous but not robust habit of growth, with a single stem about three feet high, which is sometimes branching. the pods are generally produced in pairs, but are also sometimes single, and vary from twelve to sixteen on each plant. they are from two and three-fourths of an inch to three inches long, three-fourths of an inch wide, somewhat curved, and rather broader towards the point, where they terminate abruptly. they contain about seven peas, which are four-tenths of an inch long, seven-twentieths of an inch wide, about the same in thickness, and compressed on the sides, from being so close together. the ripe seed is blue. sown the st of may, the plants blossomed june , and yielded pease for use the middle of july. it produces abundantly, and is a valuable sort for late summer use. "it is unquestionably the parent of the blue imperial and all like varieties." blue spanish dwarf. _cot. gard._ groom's superb. blue fan. plant from a foot and a half to three feet high. the pods are single and in pairs, in about equal proportion, two inches and a half long, containing from six to seven peas each. the ripe seed is pale-blue. plants from sowings made the first of may will blossom the last of june, and yield pease for use the middle of july. it is a useful variety for small gardens, as it is a low grower and a fair bearer; but it is now much surpassed by bishop's long-podded and burbridge's eclipse, both of which are considered more prolific and better flavored. british queen. _cot. gard._ hair's defiance. tall white mammoth. erin's queen. the plant is of a showy and robust habit of growth, from six to seven feet high, sometimes with a single stem, but generally branching within nine inches or a foot of the ground, and frequently furnished with two and even three laterals, which are of the same height as the whole plant. the pods begin to be produced at the first joint above the first lateral shoot, and are in number from thirteen to eighteen on each plant. they are generally single, but frequently in pairs, from three inches and a quarter to three inches and three-quarters long, rather flattened and broad when first fit to gather, but becoming round and plump when more advanced. they are quite smooth, of a bright-green color, slightly curved, wavy on the upper edge, and contain from five to seven exceedingly large peas, which are not so close together as to compress each other. the ripe seed is white, large, and wrinkled. sown the st of may, the plants will blossom about the th of june, and pods may be plucked for use about the th of july. they will ripen off about the st of august. this is one of the best late peas in cultivation. it belongs to the class known as wrinkled, or knight's marrow; but is much superior in every respect to all the old varieties usually called knight's marrows, being much more prolific and richly flavored. as an intermediate variety, it deserves a place in every garden. burbridge's eclipse. _cot. gard._ stubbs's dwarf. plant a robust grower, always with a simple stem, attaining the height of a foot and a half to about two feet; pods in pairs, rarely single, and from three inches to three inches and a quarter long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, perfectly straight, and of equal width throughout, with a slight waving on the upper edge,--they contain from five to seven peas, which are ovate, nearly half an inch long, a third of an inch broad, and the same in thickness. seed was planted may , the plants blossomed june , and pods were plucked for use july . this may be classed among the valuable contributions which have been made to the list of peas during the last few years. unlike most of the dwarf varieties, it is a most productive sort; and thus its dwarf character is not its chief recommendation. for private gardens, or for cultivation for market, few peas surpass this and bishop's long-podded. carter's victoria. _trans._ carter's eclipse. plant six to seven feet high; pods large, slightly curved, containing seven or eight large peas, which are sweet and of excellent quality. the ripe seeds are white, and much shrivelled or wrinkled. plants from seeds sown may blossomed july , and the pods were fit for plucking the th of the month. the variety continues long in bearing, and the peas exceed in size those of knight's tall white marrow. it is one of the best late tall peas. charlton. _cot. gard. law. thomp._ early charlton. the original character of this variety may be described as follows:-- plant about five feet high, and of vigorous growth; leaves large, with short petioles; tendrils small; pods broad, containing six or seven peas of excellent quality. they are rather larger than those of the early frame, with which this is often confounded. the early charlton may, however, be distinguished by its stronger habit of growth, flat pods, larger seeds, and by being fit for use about a fortnight later than the early frame; so that, when sown at the same time, it forms a succession. according to the messrs. lawson, this is the oldest, and for a long period was the best known and most extensively cultivated, of all the varieties of white garden-pease. its history can be traced as far back as ; and from that time till about , or nearly a century, it continued to stand first in catalogues as the earliest pea, until it was supplanted by the early frame about . it is further said by some to be the source from which the most esteemed early garden varieties have arisen; and that they are nothing else than the early charlton pea, considerably modified in character from the effects of cultivation and selection. although this idea may seem far-fetched, it is not improbable, especially when we take into consideration the susceptibility of change, from cultivation and other causes, which the pea is ascertained to possess. thus if the early charlton, or any other variety, be sown for several years, and only the very earliest and very latest flowering-plants selected for seed each season, the difference in the time of ripening between the two will ultimately become so great as to give them the appearance of two distinct varieties; and by sowing the earlier portion on light, early soils, and the later on strong, black, coarse, or low soils, the difference will become materially increased. it is therefore probable, that the early frame, with its numerous sub-varieties (including the dan o'rourke, prince albert, early kent, and a multitude of others), may have originated in the charlton, though some of them differ essentially in their habit of growth. the various names by which it has been known are reading hotspur, master's or flander's hotspur, golden hotspur, brompton hotspur, essex hotspur, early nicol's hotspur, charlton hotspur, and finally early charlton; the last name becoming general about . an english writer remarks, "that the variety now exists only in name. that which is sold for the early charlton is often a degenerated stock of early frames, or any stock of frames which cannot be warranted or depended upon, but which are, nevertheless, of such a character as to admit of their being grown as garden varieties. the early charlton, if grown at all by seed-growers as a distinct variety, is certainly cultivated to a very limited extent." of the popular american improved early sorts, the hill's early, hovey's extra early, landreth's extra early, are hardy, as well as very prolific; and are not only well adapted for private gardens, but may be recommended as the most profitable kinds for cultivating for early marketing. in an experimental trial of these kinds with the early daniel o'rourke, and some of the most approved of the earliest foreign varieties, they proved to be nearly or quite as early, fully as prolific, continued longer in bearing, and were much more stocky and vigorous in habit. champion of paris. _cot. gard._ excelsior. paradise marrow. stuart's paradise. plant of vigorous growth, with a simple stem five to six feet high, rarely branched, producing from eight to ten pods. these last are generally single, but sometimes in pairs, from three inches and a quarter to three inches and three-quarters long, and five-eighths of an inch wide. they are curved almost as much as those of the cimeter; and, when near maturity, become quite fleshy, wrinkled, and thick-backed. they contain from six to seven large peas, which are close together without being compressed. the ripe seed is white, medium-sized, somewhat flattened and pitted. if sown may , the plants will blossom june , and the pods will be ready for plucking july . this is a very excellent pea, an abundant cropper, and considerably earlier than the auvergne and shillings grotto; to both of which it is also greatly superior. climax. _trans._ napoléon. plant three feet and a half high, of robust habit; pods single or in pairs, three inches long, containing five or six peas; when ripe, these are of medium size, pale-blue or olive, sometimes yellowish, shaded with blue, and, like the eugénie, much wrinkled and indented. if sown the beginning of may, the variety will blossom about the th of june, pods may be plucked for use the th of july, and the crop will ripen the th of the same month. english catalogues represent the napoléon as being "the earliest blue pea in cultivation, podding from the bottom of the haum to the top, with fine large pods." in a trial growth, it proved early and productive; not only forming a great number of pods, but well filling the pods after being formed. in quality it is tender, very sweet and well flavored, resembling the champion of england. its season is nearly the same with that of the eugénie, and the variety is well deserving of cultivation. mr. harrison, the originator of the eugénie and napoléon, states that both of the peas were originally taken from one pod. dantzic. _law._ plant six to seven feet high, branching; pods in pairs, two and a half inches long, half an inch broad, compact, and slightly bent. when ripe, the seed is the smallest of all the light peas, quite round or spherical, of a bright-yellow color, beautifully transparent, with whitish eyes. if sown the st of may, the plants will blossom the th of july, afford pease for the table about the th of the same month, and ripen from the th to the middle of august. it is not a productive variety, and is seldom cultivated in england or in this country; but is grown extensively on the shores of the baltic, and exported for splitting, or boiling whole. dickson's favorite. _trans._ dickson's early favorite. plant five feet high, stocky, vigorous, and very prolific; pods ten to twelve on a stalk, long, round when fully grown, curved, hooked at the extremity, but not so much so as in the auvergne,--to which, in many respects, it bears a strong resemblance. the pods are remarkably well filled, containing from eight to ten peas of medium size, round, and very white. planted the st of may, the variety blossomed june , and pods were gathered for use the th of july. this pea is highly deserving of cultivation as a second early variety. dillistone's early. _cot. gard._ the plant is of slender habit of growth, produces a single stem two feet high, and bears, on an average, from seven to nine pods: these are smaller than those of the dan o'rourke, generally single, but occasionally in pairs, almost straight, and contain seven peas each. the seed, when ripe, is white. sown at the time of the dan o'rourke, the plants were a mass of bloom three days before the last named had commenced blossoming, and the crop was ready for gathering seven days before the dan o'rourke. this is undoubtedly the earliest pea known, and is quite seven or eight days earlier than the dan o'rourke, which has hitherto been regarded as the earliest variety. a striking feature of dillistone's early is, that its changes take place at once. it blooms in a mass, its pods all appear together, and the whole crop is ready to be gathered at the same time. in the chiswick garden, england, where a hundred and sixteen varieties were experimentally cultivated, during the season of , under the supervision of robert hogg, ll.d., this variety was beginning to die off, when the dan o'rourke was yet green and growing. dwarf marrow. dwarf white marrow. dwarf marrowfat. early dwarf marrowfat. plant from three to four feet in height, generally with a single stem, but sometimes branching; pods somewhat flattened, generally single, but sometimes produced in pairs, three inches to three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad at the middle, tapering with a slight but regular curve to both ends, and containing about six closely-set peas: these are cream-colored and white; the white prevailing about the eye, and at the union of the two sections of the pea; not perfectly round, but more or less compressed, slightly wrinkled, and measuring nearly three-eighths of an inch in diameter. planted the st of may, the variety blossomed the last of june, and afforded pease for the table the th of july. the dwarf marrow is hardy and productive. though not so sweet or well flavored as some of the more recent sorts, its yield is abundant and long continued; and, for these qualities, it is extensively cultivated. the variety, however, is rarely found in an unmixed state; much of the seed sown under this name producing plants of stronger habit of growth than those of the true dwarf marrow, and more resembling the tall white variety. early dan o'rourke. dunnett's first early. waite's dan o'rourke. carter's earliest. sangster's number one. _cot. gard._ plant from three and a half to four feet high,--in general habit not unlike the early frame, of which it is probably an improved variety; pods usually single, two inches and three-fourths long, containing five or six peas. when fully ripe, the pea is round, cream-colored, white at the eye and at the junction of the cotyledons, and nearly a fourth of an inch in diameter. plants from seeds sown may were in bloom june , and pods were gathered for use from the th of the month. the dan o'rourke is remarkable for its precocity; and, with the exception of dillistone's early and one or two american varieties, is the earliest of all the sorts now in cultivation. it is hardy, prolific, seldom fails to produce a good crop, appears to be well adapted to our soil and climate, is excellent for small private gardens, and one of the best for extensive culture for market. its character as an early pea can be sustained only by careful culture, and judicious selection of seeds for propagation. if grown in cold soil, from late-ripened seeds, the variety will rapidly degenerate; and, if from the past any thing can be judged of the future, the dan o'rourke, under the ordinary forms of propagation and culture, will shortly follow its numerous and once equally popular predecessors to quiet retirement as a synonyme of the early frame or charlton. early frame. _thomp._ early dwarf frame. early double-blossomed frame. _law._ essex champion. single-blossomed frame. plant three to four feet in height; pods in pairs, slightly bent backwards, well filled, terminating rather abruptly at both ends, and about two and a half inches long by from three-eighths to half an inch in breadth. the pease, when fully ripe, are round and plump, cream-colored, white towards the eye and at the union of the cotyledons, and measure nearly a fourth of an inch in diameter. sown the st of may, the variety blossomed june , and the pods were ready for plucking the th of july. this well-known pea, for a long period, was the most popular of all the early varieties. at present, it is less extensively cultivated; having been superseded by much earlier and equally hardy and prolific sorts. "the flowers sometimes come single, and sometimes double; the stalk from the same axil dividing into two branches, each terminating in a flower: hence the names of 'single-blossomed' and 'double-blossomed' have both been occasionally applied to this variety." early hotspur. early golden hotspur. golden hotspur. superfine early. reading hotspur. similar to the early frame. mr. thompson represents it as identical. the messrs. lawson describe it as follows: "pods generally in pairs, three inches long, half an inch broad, nearly straight, and well filled; pea similar to the double-blossomed early frame, but rather larger." early warwick. race-horse. once at the head of early pease: now considered by the most experienced cultivators to be identical with the early frame. early washington. cedo nulli. a sub-variety of the early frame; differing slightly, if at all, either in the size or form of the pod, color and size of the seed, or in productiveness. once popular, and almost universally cultivated: now rarely found on seedsmen's catalogues. eugÉnie. plant about three feet in height, with pale-green foliage; pods single or in pairs, three inches long, containing five or six peas. when ripe, the peas are of medium size, cream-colored, and much shrivelled and indented. plants from sowings made may were in blossom june , green pease were plucked july , and the pods ripened from the th to the th of the same month. english catalogues describe the variety as being "the earliest white, wrinkled marrow-pea in cultivation; podding from the bottom of the stalk to the top, with fine large pods." in a trial-growth, it proved hardy and very prolific; and the pease, while young, were nearly as sweet as those of the champion of england. the pods were not remarkable for diameter; but, on the contrary, were apparently slender. the peas, however, were large; and, the pods being thin in texture, the pease, when shelled, seemed to be equal in diameter to the pods themselves. as a new variety, it certainly promises well, and appears to be worthy of general cultivation. it will come to the table immediately after the earliest sorts, and yield a supply till the marrows are ready for plucking. fairbeard's champion of england. _cot. gard._ champion of england. plant of strong and luxuriant habit of growth, with a stem from five to six feet in height, which is often undivided, but also frequently branching. the laterals are produced within about eighteen inches of the ground, and sometimes assume a vigorous growth, and attain as great a height as the main stem. they produce pods at the first joint above the lateral, and are continued at every succeeding joint to the greatest extremity of the plant. the pods are generally single, but frequently in pairs, about three inches and a half long, slightly curved, and terminate abruptly at the point; the surface is quite smooth, and the color light-green till maturity, when they become paler and shrivelled. they contain six or seven quite large peas, which are closely packed together and compressed. the ripe seed is wrinkled, and of a pale olive-green. sown the st of may, the plants were in flower june , and pods were gathered for use the th of july. this variety was originated in england, by mr. william fairbeard, in ; and, with the early surprise, came out of the same pod,--the produce of a plant found in a crop of the dwarf white knight's marrows, to which class it properly belongs. it is, without doubt, one of the most valuable acquisitions which have been obtained for many years; being remarkably tender and sugary, and, in all respects, of first-rate excellence. the rapid progress of its popularity, and its universal cultivation, are, however, the best indications of its superiority. the variety was introduced into this country soon after it was originated, and was first sold at five dollars per quart. fairbeard's nonpareil. _cot. gard._ stem branching, three and a half to four feet high, with a habit of growth and vigor similar to the early frames. the pods are full and plump, but do not become thick-backed and fleshy as they ripen, like those of the frames. they contain from six to eight peas, which are close together, much compressed, and of that sweet flavor which is peculiar to the knight's marrows. the ripe seed is small and wrinkled, and of the same color as the other white, wrinkled pease. the variety was originated by mr. william fairbeard, who also raised the champion of england. it is earlier than the last-named sort, nearly as early as the frames, and a most valuable acquisition. fairbeard's surprise. _cot. gard._ early surprise. surprise. the plant of this variety is of a free but not robust habit of growth, and always with a simple stem, which is about four feet high. the pods are produced at every joint, beginning at about two feet and a half from the ground. they are generally single, but sometimes in pairs, three inches long, slightly curved, but not quite so much as those of the champion of england. they contain from six to seven peas, which are of good size, but not so sweet as those of the last-named sort. the ripe seed is somewhat oval, and of a pale, olive-green color. the variety is a day or two earlier than the champion of england. it originated from the dwarf white knight's marrow, and was taken from the pod in which was found the champion of england. flack's imperial. _cot. gard._ flack's victory. flack's victoria. flack's new large victoria. the plant is of a robust habit of growth, with a stem which is always branching, and generally about three feet in height; the pods are numerous, varying from twelve to eighteen on a plant, generally produced in pairs, but often singly, three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad, and considerably curved,--terminating abruptly at the point, where they are somewhat broader than at any other part. each pod contains from six to eight very large peas, which are of an ovate shape, half an inch long, seven-twentieths of an inch broad, and the same in thickness. the ripe seed is blue. plants from seed sown may will blossom june , and supply the table july . it is one of the most prolific peas in cultivation; grows to a convenient height; and, whether considered for private gardens or for market supplies, is one of the most valuable varieties which has been introduced for years. general wyndham. _cot. gard._ the plant is of a robust habit, six to seven feet high, and frequently branched; the foliage is dark-green and blotched; the pods are either single or in pairs, and number from ten to fourteen on each plant,--they contain eight very large peas, which are of the deep, dull-green color of the early green marrow. the ripe seed is white and olive mixed. this is a valuable acquisition, and was evidently procured from the ne plus ultra; but it is a more robust grower, and produces much larger pods. the plant continues growing, blooming, and podding till very late in the season; and, when this is in the full vigor of growth, the ne plus ultra is ripening off. the pease, when cooked, are of a fine, bright-green color, and unlike those of any other variety. hair's dwarf mammoth. plant strong and vigorous, from three to three feet and a half high, branching, with short joints; pods single or in pairs, broad, comparatively flat, containing about six very large peas, which are sugary, tender, and excellent. the ripe seeds are shrivelled, and vary in color; some being cream-white, and others bluish-green. sown may , the plants will blossom july , and the pods will be ready for use the th of the same month. very prolific, and deserving of cultivation. harrison's glory. _trans._ plant three feet high, of a bushy, robust habit of growth; pods rather short, nearly straight, and flattish, containing five or six medium-sized peas, of good quality: when ripe, the seeds are light-olive, mixed with white, and also slightly indented. if planted may , the variety will flower june , and the pods will be fit for gathering about the th of july. a good variety; but, like harrison's glory, the pods are frequently not well filled. harrison's perfection. _trans._ plant three feet in height, of vigorous habit; pods small, straight, containing five peas of good size and quality. sown the st of may, the variety will flower june , and the pods will be fit for plucking about the th of july. the only defect in this variety is, that the pods are often not well filled. when growing, it is scarcely distinguishable from harrison's glory; but, in the mature state, the seeds of the former are smooth and white, while those of the latter are indented, and of an olive-color. king of the marrows. plant six feet in height, stocky, and of remarkably vigorous habit; pods single or in pairs, containing five or six large seeds, which, when ripe, are yellowish-green, and much shrivelled and indented, like those of the champion of england. if planted may , the variety will blossom the last of june, and pods for the table may be plucked about the th of july. though comparatively late, it is one of the best of the more recently introduced sorts, and well deserving of general cultivation. when the pods are gathered as fast as they become fit for use, the plants will continue to put forth new blossoms, and form new pods for an extraordinary length of time; in favorable seasons, often supplying the table for five or six weeks. it is very tender and sugary, and little, if at all, inferior to the champion of england. in common with most of the colored pease, the ripe seeds, when grown in this country, are much paler than those of foreign production; and, when long cultivated in the climate of the united states, the blue or green is frequently changed to pale-blue or yellowish-green, and often ultimately becomes nearly cream-white. knight's dwarf blue marrow. a dwarfish sub-variety of knight's marrows, with wrinkled, blue seeds. knight's dwarf green marrow. knight's dwarf green wrinkled. plant about three feet high; pods in pairs, three inches long, three-fourths of an inch wide, flattish, and slightly bent. the ripe pease are of a light bluish-green color. it differs from the foregoing principally in the height of the plant, but also to some extent in the form of the pods. knight's dwarf white marrow. _law._ knight's dwarf white wrinkled marrow. plant three feet high; pods in pairs, three inches long, three-fourths of an inch wide, straight, or nearly so, well filled, and terminating abruptly at both ends; pea, on an average, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, flattened, and very much wrinkled; color white, and sometimes of a greenish tinge. it is a few days earlier than the dwarf green. knight's tall blue marrow. a sub-variety of knight's tall marrows, with blue, wrinkled, and indented seeds. it resembles the tall white and tall green marrows. knight's tall green marrow. _law._ _thomp._ plant from six to seven feet in height, of strong growth; pods large, broad, and well filled; the seed, when ripe, is green, and much wrinkled or indented. if planted the first of may, the variety will blossom towards the last of june, and supply the table the middle of july. the peas are exceedingly tender and sugary; the skin also is very thin. "from their remarkably wrinkled appearance, together with the peculiar sweetness which they all possess, knight's marrows may be said to form a distinct class of garden-pease; possessing qualities which, together with their general productiveness, render them a valuable acquisition, both to cultivators and consumers." if planted not less than six feet apart, these pease will bear most abundantly from the ground to the top: they also yield their pods in succession, and are the best for late crops. knight's tall white marrow. knight's tall white wrinkled marrow. height and general character of the plant similar to knight's tall green marrow. pods in pairs. the ripe seed is white. very productive and excellent. matchless marrow. _cot. gard._ this is a good marrow-pea, but now surpassed by the improved varieties of the early green marrow. it possesses no qualities superior to that variety, and is not so early. the plant grows from five to six feet in height; and the pods contain about seven large peas, which are closely compressed together. milford marrow. _cot. gard._ the plant is of a strong and robust habit of growth, always with a single stem, attaining the height of four and a half or five feet, and producing from twelve to sixteen pods, which are almost always in pairs, three inches and three-quarters long, and three-quarters of an inch wide. they do not become broad-backed, thick, or fleshy, but rather shrivelled, and contain from six to seven very large peas, which are roundish and somewhat compressed, half an inch long, nearly the same broad, and nine-twentieths thick. its season is near that of bellamy's early green marrow; if planted may , blossoming june , and being fit for plucking about the middle of july. missouri marrow. missouri marrowfat. plant three feet and a half or four feet high, strong and vigorous, generally simple, but sometimes divided into branches; pods single and in pairs, three inches long, wrinkled on the surface as they ripen, nearly straight, and containing about six peas, rather closely set together. when ripe, the pea is similar to the dwarf marrow in form, but is larger, paler, more wrinkled, and much more regular in size. plants from seed sown may were in blossom the th of june, and pods were gathered for use the th of july. it is a few days later than fairbeard's champion of england, and nearly of the season of the dwarf marrowfat, of which it is probably but an improved or sub-variety. it is of american origin, very productive, of good quality, and well deserving of cultivation. ne plus ultra. _cot. gard._ jay's conqueror. this is comparatively a recent variety. it belongs to the wrinkled class of pease; is as early as bellamy's green marrow; and possesses, both in pod and pea, the same fine, deep, olive-green color. the plant is of strong and robust habit of growth, six to seven feet high, with a branching stem. it begins to produce pods at two or two and a half feet from the ground; and the number, in all, is from twelve to eighteen. the pods are generally in pairs, three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch wide, very plump and full, almost round, slightly curved, and terminate abruptly at the end. their color is deep, bright-green, and the surface smooth. they contain seven very large peas, each of which is half an inch long, nearly the same broad; and, although they are not so closely packed as to compress each other, they fill the pods well. when sown the first of may, the variety will blossom the last of june, and afford peas for use the th of july. it is one of the best tall marrows in cultivation. the ripe seed is mixed white and olive. noble's early green marrow. _cot. gard._ a sub-variety of bellamy's early green marrow. it is a much more abundant bearer; producing from eighteen to twenty pods on a plant, which are singularly regular in their size and form. prince albert. early prince albert. early may. early kent. plant from two and a half to three feet in height, usually without branches; pods generally in pairs, two inches and a half in length, half an inch broad, tapering abruptly at both ends, slightly bent backwards, and well filled; pea, when fully ripe, round, cream-colored, approaching to white about the eye and at the line of the division of the lobes, and measuring about a fourth of an inch in diameter. sown may , the plants blossomed june , and pods were plucked for use july . the prince albert was, at one period, the most popular of all the early varieties, and was cultivated in almost every part of the united states. as now found in the garden, the variety is not distinguishable from some forms of the early frame; and it is everywhere giving place to the early dan o'rourke, dillistone's early, and other more recent and superior sorts. queen of the dwarfs. _cot. gard._ a very dwarfish variety, from six to nine inches high. stem thick and succulent; foliage dark bluish-green. each plant produces from four to six pods, which are of a curious, elliptic form, and contain three or four large peas. ripe seed white, of medium size, egg-shaped, unevenly compressed. the plants are tender; the pods do not fill freely; and the variety cannot be recommended for cultivation. ringwood marrow. flanagan's early. early ringwood. _cot. gard._ beck's gem. plant three and a half to four feet high, usually simple, but sometimes sending out shoots near the ground. the pods are single and in pairs; and, as they ripen, become thick and fleshy, with a rough, pitted, and shrivelled surface: they contain from six to seven large peas, which are nearly round, and about seven-tenths of an inch in diameter in the green state. the ripe seed is white. the variety is comparatively early. if planted may , it will blossom about the th of june, and the pods will be ready to pluck about the th of july. a very valuable sort, producing a large, well-filled pod, and is a most abundant bearer. it has, however, a peculiarity, which by many is considered an objection,--the pod is white, instead of green, and presents, when only full grown, the appearance of over-maturity. this objection is chiefly made by those who grow it for markets, and who find it difficult to convince their customers, that, notwithstanding the pod is white, it is still in its highest perfection. so far from being soon out of season, it retains its tender and marrowy character longer than many other varieties. a new sort, called the "lincoln green," is said to possess all the excellences of the ringwood marrow, without the objectionable white pod. royal dwarf or white prussian. _cot. gard._ dwarf prolific. poor man's profit. plant of medium growth, with an erect stem, which is three feet high, generally simple, but occasionally branching. the pods are usually single, but sometimes in pairs, nearly three inches long, half an inch broad, almost straight, and somewhat tapering towards the point. the surface is quite smooth, and the color bright-green. they are generally well filled, and contain from five to six peas, which are ovate, not compressed, four-tenths of an inch long, a third of an inch broad, and the same in thickness. the ripe seed is white. plants from seed sown the st of may will blossom june , and supply the table about the middle of july. the crop will ripen the th of the same month. this is an old and prolific variety, well adapted for field culture, and long a favorite in gardens, but now, to a great extent, superseded. sebastopol. plant of rather slender habit, three feet and a half in height; pods usually single, two inches and three quarters in length, containing from five to seven peas, which, when ripe, are nearly round and smooth, cream-colored, and scarcely distinguishable, in their size, form, or color, from the early frame and kindred kinds. if planted may , the variety will blossom june , afford pods of sufficient size for shelling about july , and ripen the th of the same month. it is early, very productive, of superior quality, and an excellent sort for growing for market, or in small gardens for family use. in an experimental cultivation of the variety, it proved one of the most prolific of all the early sorts. shillings grotto. _cot. gard._ plant with a simple stem, four feet and a half to five feet high; the pods are generally single, but frequently in pairs, three inches and a half long, about half an inch wide, slightly curved, and, when fully matured, assuming a thick-backed and somewhat quadrangular form. each pod contains, on an average, seven large peas. the ripe seed is white. a great objection to this variety is the tardiness with which it fills; the pods being fully grown, and apparently filled, when the peas are quite small and only half grown. though considered a standard sort, it is not superior to the champion of england; and will probably soon give place to it, or some other of the more recent varieties. spanish dwarf. _cot. gard._ early spanish dwarf. dwarf fan. strawberry. plant about a foot high, branching on each side in the manner of a fan; and hence often called the "dwarf fan." the pods are sometimes single, but generally in pairs, two inches and a half long, half an inch broad, terminate rather abruptly at the point, and contain from five to six rather large peas. the ripe seed is cream-white. sown may , the plants were in blossom june , and pods were plucked for use july . the spanish dwarf is an old variety, and still maintains its position as an early dwarf for small gardens, though it can hardly be considered equal to burbridge's eclipse or bishop's long-podded. there is a variety of this which is called the improved spanish dwarf, and grows fully nine inches taller than the old variety; but it possesses no particular merit to recommend it. tall white marrow. large carolina. tall marrowfat. plant six to seven feet in height, seldom branched; pods three to three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad, more bluntly pointed than those of the dwarf variety, and containing six or seven peas. when ripe, the pea is nearly of the color of the dwarf marrow, but is more perfectly spherical, less wrinkled, and, when compared in bulk, has a smoother, harder, and more glossy appearance. planted may , the variety will blossom near the st of july, and will come to the table from the th to the th of the same month. it is a few days later than the dwarf. in this country, it has been longer cultivated than any other sort; and, in some of the forms of its very numerous sub-varieties, is now to be found in almost every garden. it is hardy, abundant, long-continued in its yield, and of excellent quality. in england, the variety is cultivated in single rows three feet apart. in this country, where the growth of the pea is much less luxuriant, it may be grown in double rows three feet and a half apart, and twelve inches between the single rows. taylor's early. similar in habit, production, and early maturity, to the early dan o'rourke. thurston's reliance. _cot. gard._ plant strong and robust, six to seven feet high; pods generally single, but occasionally in pairs, and from three inches and a half to four inches and a quarter long. they are broad and flat, shaped like the pods of the blue cimeter, and contain seven or eight very large peas. ripe seed white, large, and unevenly compressed. this is a quite distinct and useful pea; an abundant bearer; and the pods are of a fine deep-green color, which is a recommendation for it when grown for market. it comes in at the same time as the auvergne and shillings grotto, but is of a more tender constitution. tom thumb. beck's gem. bush pea. pois nain hatif extra, of the french. plant of remarkably low growth, seldom much exceeding nine inches in height, stout and branching; pods single, rarely in pairs, two inches and a half in length, half an inch broad, containing five or six peas, which are cream-yellow, and measure about a fourth of an inch in diameter. planted the st of may, the variety blossomed the th of june, and the pods were of suitable size for plucking july . in the color of its foliage, its height and general habit, the variety is very distinct, and readily distinguishable from all other kinds. it is early, of good quality, and, the height of the plant considered, yields abundantly. it may be cultivated in rows ten inches apart. mr. landreth, of philadelphia, remarks as follows: "for sowing at this season (november, in the middle states), we recommend trial of a new variety, which we have designated 'tom thumb,' in allusion to its extreme dwarfness. it seldom rises over twelve inches, is an abundant bearer, and is, withal, quite early. it seems to be admirably adapted to autumn sowings in the south, where, on apprehended frost, protection may be given: it is also equally well suited to early spring planting for the same reason. it is curious, as well as useful; and, if planted on ground well enriched, will yield as much to a given quantity of land as any pea known to us." it is a desirable variety in the kitchen garden; as, from its exceeding dwarfish habit, it may be so sown as to form a neat edging for the walk or border. veitch's perfection. _trans._ plant three feet and a half to four feet high, of strong, robust growth, somewhat branched; pods ten or twelve on a stalk or branch, large, flat, straight, containing six or eight large peas, which are very sugary and excellent. the ripe seeds are large, of a light olive-green color; some being nearly white. planted the st of may, the variety will be in flower june , and the pods will be fit for use about the middle or th of july. it is one of the best pease for main or late crops. victoria marrow. _thomp._ plant from six to seven feet high; pods remarkably large, nearly four inches in length, generally in pairs, straight, roundish, well filled, containing from six to eight peas of extraordinary size and of good quality. the ripe pease are olive-green. the victoria marrow is not early. planted may , it will blossom the last of june, and be fit for the table from the middle of july. this variety bears some resemblance to knight's tall marrow; but, like nearly all others, it is less sugary. those who have a fancy for large pease will find this perhaps the largest. warner's early emperor. _thomp._ warner's early conqueror. early railway. early wonder. beck's morning-star. early emperor. this variety grows somewhat taller, and is a few days earlier, than the prince albert: the pods and pease are also somewhat larger. it is an abundant bearer; and, on the whole, must be considered a good sub-variety of the early frame. woodford's marrow. _cot. gard._ nonpareil. plant of strong and robust habit of growth, like a vigorous-growing marrow; rising with a stem three feet and a half high, which is sometimes simple, but generally branching at about half its height from the ground. the pods begin to be produced at little more than half the height of the plant; and, from that point to the top, every joint produces single or double pods, amounting, in all, to ten or twelve on each. they are single or in pairs, in nearly equal proportions, about three inches and a half long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, quite smooth, and of a dark-green color. when ready to gather, they are rather flattened, but become round as they ripen. they contain, on an average, seven peas, which are of a dark olive-green color, rather thick in the skin, and closely packed; so much so as to be quite flattened on the sides adjoining. sown may , the variety blossomed june , and pease were gathered for the table july . this is a very characteristic pea, and may at once be detected from all others, either by the ripe seed or growing plants, from the peculiar dark-green color, which, when true, it always exhibits. it is well adapted for a market-pea; its dark-green color favoring the popular prejudices. * * * * * eatable-podded or sugar pease. string-pease. skinless pease. pisum macrocarpum. _dec._ in this class are included such of the varieties as want the tough, inner film, or parchment lining, common to the other sorts. the pods are generally of large size, tender and succulent, and are used in the green state like string-beans; though the seeds may be used as other pease, either in the green state or when ripe. "when not ripe, the pods of some of the sorts have the appearance of being swollen or distended with air; but, on ripening, they become much shrivelled, and collapse closely on the seeds." the varieties are not numerous, when compared with the extensive catalogue of the kinds of the common pea offered for sale by seedsmen, and described by horticultural writers. the principal are the following:-- common dwarf sugar. _law. vil._ dwarf crooked-podded sugar. stalk about two feet high, dividing into branches when cultivated in good soil; flower white; pods single or in pairs, six-seeded, three inches long by five-eighths of an inch broad, crooked or jointed-like with the seeds, as in all of the sugar pease, very prominent, especially on becoming ripe and dry; pea fully a fourth of an inch in diameter, white, and slightly wrinkled. the variety is quite late. sown the beginning of may, the plants blossomed the last week in june, and pods were gathered for use july . it is prolific, of good quality as a shelled-pea, and the young pods are tender and well flavored. early dwarf dutch sugar. _vil._ early dwarf de grace. plant about twenty inches high, branching; leaves of medium size, yellowish-green; flowers white; pods two inches and three-quarters in length, half an inch wide, somewhat sickle-shaped, swollen on the sides, flattened at the lower end, and containing five or six peas, which, when ripe, are roundish, often irregularly flattened or indented, wrinkled, and of a yellowish-white color. the variety is the lowest-growing and earliest of all the eatable-podded kinds. if sown at the time of the common dwarf sugar, it will be fit for use twelve or fourteen days in advance of that variety. it requires a good soil; and the pods are succulent and tender, but are not considered superior to those of the common dwarf sugar. giant eatable-podded. _vil._ giant sugar. stalk four to five feet high; leaves large, yellowish-green, stained with red at their union with the stalk of the plant; flower reddish; pods transparent yellowish-green, very thick and fleshy, distended on the surface by the seeds, which are widely distributed, curved, and much contorted, six inches long, and sometimes nearly an inch and a half in diameter,--exceeding in size that of any other variety. they contain but five or six seeds, which, when ripe, are irregular in form, and of a greenish-yellow color, spotted or speckled with brown. it is about a week later than the large crooked sugar. large crooked sugar. _thomp._ broadsword. six-inch-pod sugar. plant nearly six feet in height, and branching when grown in good soil; the leaves are large, yellowish-green; flowers white; pods very large,--measuring from four to five inches in length and an inch in width,--broad, flat, and crooked. when young, they are tender, and easily snap or break in pieces, like the young pods of kidney-beans; and are then fit for use. the sides of the pods exhibit prominent marks where pushed out by the seeds, even at an early stage of growth. the ripe pease are somewhat indented or irregularly compressed, and of a yellowish-white color. it is one of the best of the eatable-podded sorts, and is hardy and productive. it is, however, quite late; blossoming, if sown may , about the last of june, and producing pods for use in the green state about the th of july. purple-podded or australian. _law._ blue-podded. botany-bay pea. plant five feet high, generally without branches; pods usually in pairs, flattened, with thick, fleshy skins, and commonly of a dark-purple color; but this characteristic is not permanent, as they are sometimes found with green pods; in which case, they are, however, easily distinguished from those of other pease by their thick and fleshy nature. when ripe, the pease are of medium size, often much indented and irregularly compressed, and of a light, dunnish, or brown color. season intermediate. it is very productive, and seems possessed of properties which entitle it to cultivation. red-flowered sugar. _vil._ chocolate. stem four or five feet in height, generally simple, but branching when grown in rich soil; leaves long, yellowish-green, tinged with red where they connect with the stalk of the plant; flowers pale-red; pods three inches long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, more or less contorted, containing six to eight peas; seed comparatively large, pale-brown, marbled with reddish-brown. season nearly the same as that of the common dwarf sugar. it is productive, remarkably hardy, and may be sown very early in spring, as it is little affected by cool and wet weather; but the green pease are not much esteemed, as they possess a strong and rather unpleasant flavor. the green pods are tender and good; and, for these, the variety may be worthy of cultivation. tamarind sugar. late dwarf sugar. tamarind pea. plant similar to the common dwarf sugar, but of more luxuriant habit, and with larger foliage; flowers white; pods single or in pairs, six to eight seeded, very long and broad,--often measuring four inches in length and an inch in breadth,--succulent, and generally contorted and irregular in form. a few days later than the common dwarf sugar. hardy, prolific, and deserves more general cultivation. white-podded sugar. _vil._ stem four to five feet high; leaves yellowish-green, and, like those of the giant eatable-podded, stained with red at their insertion with the stalk; flowers purple; pods nearly three inches long, five-eighths of an inch wide, sickle-shaped and contorted, of a yellowish-white color, containing five or six peas. the ripe seeds are irregularly flattened and indented, of a greenish-yellow color, marbled or spotted with brown or black. the variety is quite late. sown may , the pods were not fit for use till july . the pods are crisp and succulent, though inferior in flavor to most of the eatable-podded varieties. yellow-podded sugar. _vil._ stem three to four feet high; leaves large, yellowish-green; flowers white, tinted with yellow; pods four inches long, tapering slightly at the ends, greenish-yellow, thick and fleshy, containing six or seven peas, widely separated. the ripe seeds are oblong, rather regular in form, and of a creamy-white color. it is one of the earliest of the eatable-podded sorts; coming to the table, if planted may , about the middle of july. it is of good quality, but not hardy or productive; and seems to have little to recommend it, aside from the singular color of its pods. * * * * * pea-nut. ground bean. earth nut. _vil._ pindar nut. ground nut. arachys hypogea. a native of africa, and also of central and tropical america. it is an annual plant; and the stem, when full grown, is about fifteen inches in height. the leaves are pinnate, with four leaflets, and a leafy, emarginate appendage at the base of the petioles; the flowers are yellow, and are produced singly, in the axils of the leaves; the fruit, or pod, is of an oblong form, from an inch to an inch and a half in length, rather more than three-eighths of an inch in diameter, often contracted at the middle, but sometimes bottle-formed, reticulated, and of a yellowish color; the kernels, of which the pods contain from one to three, are oblong, quite white, and enclosed in a thin, brown skin, or pellicle. a remarkable peculiarity of this plant is, that the lower blossoms (which alone produce fruit), after the decay of the petals, insinuate their ovaries into the earth; beneath which, at the depth of several inches, the fruit is afterwards perfected. the seed, or kernel, retains its germinative property but a single season; and, when designed for planting, should be preserved unbroken in the pod, or shell. _soil and cultivation._--the pea-nut succeeds best in a warm, light, loamy soil. this should be deeply ploughed and well pulverized, and afterwards laid out in slightly raised ridges two feet apart. as the plants require the whole season for their perfection, the seed should be planted as early in spring as the weather becomes suitable. drop nine inches apart in the drills, and cover an inch and a half or two inches deep. weeding must be performed early in the season; as, after the blossoming of the plants, they are greatly injured if disturbed by the hoe, or if weeds are removed about the roots. it is rather tropical in its character, and cannot be cultivated with success either in the northern or middle states. "the seeds are sometimes dibbled in rows, so as to leave the plants a foot apart each way. as soon as the flowers appear, the vines are earthed up from time to time, so as to keep them chiefly within the ground. when cultivated alone, and there is sufficient moisture, the yield of nuts is from sixty to seventy-five bushels to the acre. if allowed to grow without earthing up, the vines will yield half a ton of hay to the acre. they are killed by the first frost; when the nuts will be mature, and ready for use." _varieties._-- african pea-nut. a comparatively small, smooth, and regularly formed sort. shell thin, usually enclosing two kernels. wilmington pea-nut. carolina. similar to the african. the pods, however, are longer, and the shell is thicker and paler. they rarely contain less than two, and often enclose three, kernels. extensively cultivated in the carolinas and gulf states. tennessee pea-nut. pods large, thick, and irregular in form; the reticulations very coarse and deep. the pods usually contain two kernels. less esteemed than either of the preceding varieties. * * * * * vetch, or tare. vicia sativa. the vetch, or tare, in its properties and habits, somewhat resembles the common pea. there are numerous species as well as varieties, and the seeds of all may be used for food; but they are generally too small, or produced too sparingly, to repay the cost of cultivation. the only variety of much importance to the garden is the following:-- white tare, or vetch. _law._ lentil, of canada. napoléon pea. annual; stem slender and climbing, about three feet high, the leaves terminating in a branching tendril, or clasper; flowers purplish; pods brown, slender, containing from eight to twelve seeds, or grains, which are globular, sometimes slightly flattened, smooth, and of a yellowish-white color; they retain their germinative quality three years; an ounce contains about six hundred seeds. in france and canada, the seeds are used as a substitute for pease, both green and ripe, in soups and other dishes. they are also ground, and made into bread; but in this case their flour is generally mixed with that of wheat, or other of the edible grains. the seeds may be sown in drills, in april or may, in the manner of garden-pease, or broadcast with oats for agricultural purposes. _varieties._-- summer tare, or vetch. an agricultural variety, grown at the north of england and in scotland. it is sown broadcast, and cultivated as wheat or barley. both the haum and seed are used. winter tare, or vetch. extensively grown in england and scotland; usually sown in autumn, mixed with rye, for early spring food for stock. the seeds are smaller than those of the summer variety. not sufficiently hardy to survive the winters of the northern states. * * * * * winged pea. red birdsfoot trefoil. _mill._ lotus tetragonolobus. a hardy, creeping, or climbing, annual plant, fifteen or eighteen inches in height, or length; leaves trifoliate; flowers large, solitary, bright-scarlet; pods three inches and a half long, with four longitudinal, leafy membranes, or wings; seeds globular, slightly compressed, yellowish-white. _use._--the ripened seeds are sometimes used as a substitute for coffee; and the pods, while young and tender, form an agreeable dish, not unlike string-beans. it is often cultivated as an ornamental plant; and, for this purpose, is generally sown in patches, four or five seeds together on the border, where the plants are intended to remain. when grown as an esculent, sow in double drills an inch and a half deep, and two feet apart; the single rows being made twelve inches from each other. chapter x. medicinal plants. bene-plant. camomile. coltsfoot. elecampane. hoarhound. hyssop. licorice. pennyroyal. poppy. palmate-leaved or turkey rhubarb. rue. saffron. southernwood. wormwood. * * * * * bene-plant. oily grain. sesamum, sp. this plant is said to have been introduced into this country from africa by the negroes. it is cultivated in the south of europe, and in egypt is grown to a considerable extent for forage and culinary purposes. it is a hardy annual, with an erect, four-sided stem from two to four feet high, and opposite, lobed, or entire leaves; the flowers terminate the stalk in loose spikes, and are of a dingy-white color; the seeds are oval, flattened, and produced in an oblong, pointed capsule. _propagation and cultivation._--it is propagated from seeds, which should be sown in spring, as soon as the ground has become well settled. they may be sown where the plants are to remain; or in a nursery-bed, to be afterwards transplanted. the plants should be grown in rows eighteen inches or two feet apart, and about a foot apart in the rows. the after-culture consists simply in keeping the ground loose, and free from weeds. the plant is said to yield a much greater amount of herbage if the top is broken or cut off when it is about half grown. _use._--"the seeds were at one time used for food; being first parched, then mixed with water, and afterwards stewed with other ingredients. a sort of pudding is made of the seeds, in the same manner as rice; and is by some persons much esteemed. from the seeds of the first-named sort an oil is extracted, which will keep many years without having any rancid smell or taste. in two years, the warm taste which the new oil possesses wears off, and it becomes quite mild and pleasant, and may be used as a salad-oil, or for all the purposes of olive-oil. two quarts of oil have been extracted from nine pounds of the seeds." the properties of the plant are cooling and healing, with some degree of astringency. a few of the leaves, immersed a short time in a tumbler of water, give it a jelly-like consistence, without imparting color or flavor; and in this form it is generally used. there are three varieties:-- biformed-leaved. _mill._ plant larger than that of the oval-leaved; the lower leaves are three-parted, while those of the upper part of the stalk are oval or entire. oval-leaved. stem about two feet high, with a few short branches; the leaves are oblong, and entire on the borders. trifid-leaved. _mill._ taller and more vigorous than either of the preceding. the upper as well as the lower leaves are trifid, or three-parted. * * * * * camomile. anthemis nobilis. this is a half-hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, growing wild in various parts of england, by roadsides and in gravelly pastures. its stems rest upon the surface of the ground, and send out roots, by which the plants spread and are rapidly increased. _soil and culture._--camomile flourishes best in light, poor soil; and is generally propagated by dividing the roots, and setting them in rows a foot apart, and eight or ten inches from each other in the rows. they will soon entirely occupy the ground. _gathering._--the flowers should be gathered in a dry day, and when they are fully expanded. they are generally spread in an airy, shady situation for a few days, and afterwards removed to a heated apartment to perfect the drying. common camomile. the flowers of this variety are single. though considered more efficacious for medicinal purposes, it is not so generally cultivated as the double-flowering. its leaves are finely cut, or divided; and, when bruised, emit a peculiar, pungent odor. it may be grown from seeds, or slips, and from divisions of the plants, or roots. double-flowering camomile. a variety of the foregoing, with large, white, double flowers. the leaves are of the same form, but milder in their odor and taste. it is equally hardy with the single-flowering, and much more ornamental. though generally considered less efficacious than the last named, it is generally cultivated for use and the market on account of the greater bulk and weight of its flowers. it is propagated by slips, with a few of the small roots attached. both of the sorts are classed as hardy perennials; but, in the northern and eastern states, the plants are frequently destroyed in severe winters. _use._--"the flowers, which are the parts principally used, have long been in high repute, both in the popular and scientific materia medica, and give out their properties by infusion in either water or alcohol. the flowers are also sometimes used in the manufacture of bitter beer, and, along with wormwood, made, to a certain extent, a substitute for hops. in many parts of england, the peasants have what they call a 'camomile seat' at the end of their gardens, which is constructed by cutting out a bench in a bank of earth, and planting it thickly with the double-flowering variety; on which they delight to sit, and fancy it conducive to health."--_m'int._ it is considered a safe bitter, and tonic; though strong infusions, when taken warm, sometimes act as an emetic. * * * * * common coltsfoot. tussilago farfara. a hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant. the leaves are all radical, roundish-heart-shaped, and from five to seven inches in diameter; the flower-stem (scape) is six or seven inches high, imbricated, and produces a solitary yellow flower, which is about an inch in diameter. the plants blossom in february and march, before the appearance of the leaves, and often while the ground is still frozen and even covered with snow. _propagation and culture._--coltsfoot thrives best in rich, moist soil. it may be propagated from seeds, but is generally increased by dividing its long, creeping roots. the plants require little attention, and will soon occupy all the space allotted. _gathering and use._--the leaves are the parts of the plant used, and are generally cut in july and september. they should not be exposed to the sun for drying, but spread singly in an airy, shaded situation. they are esteemed beneficial in colds and pulmonary disorders. * * * * * elecampane. inula helenium. a hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, introduced from europe, but growing spontaneously in moist places, by roadsides, and in the vicinity of gardens where it has been cultivated. stem from three to five feet high, thick and strong, branching towards the top; the leaves are from nine inches to a foot in length, ovate, toothed on the margin, downy beneath; the flowers are yellow, spreading, and resemble a small sunflower; the seeds are narrow, four-sided, and crowned with down. the plants blossom in july and august, and there is but one variety cultivated. _propagation and culture._--it is generally propagated by dividing the roots; but may be grown from seeds, which are sown just after ripening. the plants should be set in rows two feet asunder, and a foot from each other in the rows. _use._--elecampane is cultivated for its roots, which are carminative, sudorific, tonic, and alleviating in pulmonary diseases. they are in their greatest perfection when of two years' growth. * * * * * hoarhound. marrubium vulgare. hoarhound is a hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, introduced from europe, and naturalized to a considerable extent in localities where it has been once cultivated. stem hoary, about two feet high; leaves round-ovate; flowers white; seeds small, of an angular-ovoid form and grayish-brown color. _propagation and cultivation._--the plant prefers a rich, warm soil; and is generally propagated by dividing its long, creeping roots, but may also be raised from seeds. when once established, it will grow almost spontaneously, and yield abundantly. _gathering and use._--the plants are cut for use as they come into flower; and, if required, the foliage may be cut twice in the season. the leaves possess a strong and somewhat unpleasant odor, and their taste is "bitter, penetrating, and durable." the plant has long been esteemed for its efficacy in colds and pulmonary consumption. * * * * * hyssop. hyssopus officinalis. hyssop is a hardy, evergreen, dwarfish, aromatic shrub, from the south of europe. three kinds are cultivated, as follow:-- common or blue-flowering. more generally found in gardens than either of the following varieties. the stems are square and tender at first, but afterwards become round and woody; the leaves are opposite, small, narrow, with six or eight bract-like leaves at the same joint; the flowers are blue, in terminal spikes; seeds small, black, oblong. red-flowering hyssop. quite distinct from the common or blue-flowering. the stem is shorter, the plants are more branching in their habit, and the spikes more dense or compact; flowers fine red. it is not so hardy as the white or the blue flowering, and is often injured by severe winters. white-flowering hyssop. this is a sub-variety of the common blue-flowering; the principal if not the only mark of distinction being its white flowers. its properties, and modes of culture, are the same. _soil and cultivation._--the plants require a light, warm, mellow soil; and are propagated from seeds, cuttings, or by dividing the roots. the seeds are sown in april; and, when the seedlings are two or three inches high, they are transplanted to rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot from each other in the rows. the roots may be divided or the slips set in spring or autumn. _use._--the plant is highly aromatic. the leaves and young shoots are the parts used, and are cut, dried, and preserved as other pot-herbs. "hyssop has the general virtues ascribed to aromatic plants; and is recommended in asthmas, coughs, and other pulmonary disorders."--_rog._ * * * * * licorice. glycyrrhiza glabra. licorice is a hardy, perennial plant. the roots are fleshy, creeping, and, when undisturbed, attain a great length, and penetrate far into the earth; the stem is herbaceous, dull-green, and about four feet high; leaves pinnate, composed of four or five pairs of oval leaflets; flowers pale-blue, in terminal spikes. the fruit consists of short, flattened pods, each containing two or three kidney-shaped seeds. _soil, propagation, and culture._--"licorice succeeds best in deep, rich, rather sandy, or in alluvial soil. the ground should be well enriched the year previous to planting: and it should either be trenched three feet deep in autumn, laid in ridges, and allowed to remain in that state till spring; or it may be trenched immediately before planting. the former method is the preferable one. "licorice is propagated by portions of the creeping stem (commonly termed 'the creeping root'), from four to six inches in length, each having two or three buds. these are planted in march or april, or as soon as the ground can be well worked, in rows three feet apart, and eighteen inches from each other in the rows; covering with earth to the depth of two or three inches. every year, late in autumn, when the sap has gone down and the leaves have turned yellow, the old stems should be cut down with a pruning-knife to a level with the ground. at this time, also, the creeping stems are forked up, cut off close to the main stems, and preserved in sand, or in heaps covered with straw and earth, for future plantations. the roots will be ready for taking up three years after planting. this should be done towards winter, after the descent of the sap. a trench three feet must then be thrown out, and the roots extracted; after which, they may be stored in sand for use."--_thomp._ _use._--the roots are the parts of the plant used, and these are extensively employed by porter-brewers. "the sweet, mucilaginous juice extracted from the roots by boiling is much esteemed as an emollient in colds." * * * * * pennyroyal. hedeoma pulegioides. the american pennyroyal is a small, branching, annual plant, common to gravelly localities, and abounding towards autumn among stubble in dry fields from whence crops of wheat or rye have been recently harvested. the stem is erect, branching, and from six to twelve inches high; the leaves are opposite, oval, slightly toothed; flowers bluish, in axillary clusters; seeds very small, deep blackish-brown. _sowing and cultivation._--in its natural state, the seeds ripen towards autumn, lie dormant in the earth during winter, and vegetate the following spring or summer. when cultivated, the seeds should be sown soon after ripening, as they vegetate best when exposed to the action of frost during winter. they are sown broadcast, or in drills ten or twelve inches asunder. when the plants are in full flower, they are cut off, or taken up by the roots, and dried in an airy, shaded situation. _use._--pennyroyal possesses a warm, pungent, somewhat aromatic taste, and is employed exclusively for medical purposes. an infusion of the leaves is stimulating, sudorific, tonic, and beneficial in colds and chills. this plant must not be confounded with the pennyroyal (_mentha pulegium_) of english writers, which is a species of mint, and quite distinct from the plant generally known as pennyroyal in this country. * * * * * poppy, or maw. papaver somniferum, var. nigrum. a hardy annual, growing naturally in different parts of europe, and cultivated to a considerable extent in germany for its seeds, which, under the name of "maw-seed," are an article of some commercial importance. stem five or six feet high, branching; leaves smooth, glaucous, clasping, and much cut or gashed on the borders; flowers large, terminal, purple and white; the bud pendent, or drooping, until the time of flowering, when it becomes erect. the petals soon fall to the ground, remaining on the plant but a few hours after their expansion; and are succeeded by large, roundish heads, or capsules, two inches and upwards in diameter, filled with the small, darkish-blue seeds for which the plant is principally cultivated. _soil, sowing, and culture._--"the soils best suited to the growth of the poppy are such as are of medium texture and in the highest state of fertilization. as the seeds are small, and consequently easily buried, the land should be well pulverized by harrowing and rolling. the seeds are sown in april, in drills about half an inch in depth, and twenty inches or two feet distant from each other. the young plants are afterwards thinned out to from six to ten inches' distance in the rows, and the whole crop kept free from weeds by frequent hoeing. "the period of reaping is about the month of august, when the earliest and generally the largest capsules begin to open. the plants are then cut or pulled, and tied in small bundles, taking care not to allow the heads to recline until they are carried to the place allotted for the reception of the seed; which is then shaken out, and the sheaves again set upon their ends for the ripening of the remaining capsules. "in germany and flanders, a mode of obtaining the first crop is to spread sheets by the side of the row, into which the seeds are shaken by bending over the tops of the plants: these are then pulled, tied in bundles, and removed; when the sheets are drawn forward to the next row, and so on, until the harvesting is completed."--_law._ _use._--maw-seed is imported to some extent from different parts of europe, and is principally used in this country for feeding birds. oil-poppy. _law._ gray poppy. papaver somniferum olifer. stem three feet high, smooth and branching; flowers dull-red, or grayish; capsules very large, oblong; seeds of a brownish color, and produced in great abundance. it is chiefly cultivated in italy, the south of france, germany, and flanders. _use._--"the oil of the seeds of the poppy is of an agreeable flavor; and, in europe, is chiefly applied to domestic purposes, for which it is esteemed nearly equal to that of the olive. its consumption in this country is comparatively trifling; being principally used for the finer kinds of oil-painting and by druggists." opium, or white poppy. _law._ p. somniferum, album vel candidum. plant strong and vigorous,--the stem, in favorable situations, reaching a height of five or six feet; flowers large, white, and of short duration; seed-pods globular, of large size, often measuring upwards of two inches in diameter; seeds small, white, ripening in august and september. _sowing and cultivation._--"being an annual plant, the poppy, when sown in spring, matures its seed the last of summer or early in autumn. it is of easy culture, and can be successfully grown in any section of the northern or middle states. it may be sown at any time during the month of april, or the first week in may. the best method of cultivating the plant is in rows two feet and a half apart; and, on the poppies attaining a few inches in height, they are hoed out to a distance from one another of six or eight inches. "opium is obtained from the capsules or heads of seed, and is extracted after they are fully formed, but while yet green. the process is simple, and may be taught to children in an hour. "two or more vertical incisions are made in the capsule with a sharp knife or other instrument, about an inch in length, and not so deep as to penetrate through the capsule. as soon as the incisions are made, a milky juice will flow out, which, being glutinous, will adhere to the capsule. this may be collected by a small hair-brush such as is used by painters, and squeezed into a small vessel carried by the person who collects the juice. the incisions are repeated at intervals of a few days all round the capsule, and the same process of collecting the exuded juice is also repeated. "the juice thus collected is opium. in a day or two, it is of the consistence to be worked up into a mass. the narcotic matter of the plant may also be collected by boiling; but it is only the exuded juice that forms pure opium. "in the opium countries of the east, the incisions are made at sunset by several-pointed knives or lancets. on the following day the juice is collected, scraped off with a small iron scoop, and deposited in earthen pots; when it is worked by the hand until it becomes consistent. it is then formed in globular cakes, and laid in small earthen basins to be further dried. after the opium is extracted from the capsule, the plant is allowed to stand, and ripen its seeds. "the seeds of the poppy have nothing of the narcotic principle, and are eaten by the people of the east as a nourishing and grateful food; and they yield, by expression, an oil which is regarded as inferior only to that of the olive."--_law._ the expense of labor forms the principal objection to the cultivation of the poppy in the united states for its opium. as, however, the plants succeed well, and can be easily and extensively grown in any section of the country; and as the process of extraction, though minute, is yet simple,--the employment of females or children might render its production remunerative. * * * * * palmate-leaved rhubarb. _law._ turkey rhubarb. rheum palmatum. this species is readily distinguished by its deeply divided or palmate leaves, and is generally considered as that from which the dried roots chiefly used in medicine are obtained. like the pie rhubarb, it requires a deep, rich soil, which should be thoroughly stirred, and put in as fine a state of cultivation as possible, before setting the plants. these should be placed about three feet apart in each direction, and kept free from weeds during the summer. they will not be ready for taking up until five or six years old. the roots are thick and succulent, with a brownish skin and bright-yellow flesh, streaked or variegated with red. after being dug, they are washed clean, cut in rather large pieces, and dried either by the sun, or in kilns formed for the purpose; when they are ready for use. rhubarb from turkey and the neighboring countries is generally preferred; but it is said its superiority, to a great degree, is attributable to the manner in which it is dried and prepared for market. it is propagated by seed, or by a division of the roots. * * * * * rue. ruta graveolens. rue is a hardy, shrubby, nearly evergreen plant, and thrives best in poor but dry and warm soil. it is propagated by seeds, or slips, and by dividing the roots. the seeds are sown in april, and the roots may be separated in spring or autumn. the plants should be set about eighteen inches apart in each direction. when extensively cultivated, they are set in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot asunder in the rows. _use._--"rue has a strong, unpleasant odor, and a bitter, pungent, penetrating taste. the leaves are so acrid as to irritate and inflame the skin, if much handled. its efficacy as a vermifuge is unquestioned; but it should be used with caution. it was formerly employed in soups; and the leaves, after being boiled, were eaten pickled in vinegar." the plant is rarely used in this country, either as an esculent or for medical purposes. the kinds cultivated are the following:-- broad-leaved rue. stem shrubby, four or five feet high; leaves compound, of a grayish-green color and strong odor; flowers yellow, in terminal, spreading clusters; the fruit is a roundish capsule, and contains four rough, black seeds. at one period, this was the sort principally cultivated, and is that referred to in most treatises on medicine. more recently, however, it has given place to the narrow-leaved, which is much hardier, and equally efficacious. narrow-leaved rue. stem three or four feet high; foliage narrower than that of the preceding, but of the same grayish color, and strong, peculiar odor; the flowers are produced in longer and looser clusters than those of the broad-leaved, and the seed-vessels are smaller. now generally cultivated because of its greater hardiness. * * * * * saffron. _law._ safflower. carthamus tinctorius. a hardy, annual plant, with a smooth, woody stem, two and a half or three feet high; leaves ovate, spiny; flowers large, compound, bright-orange, or vermilion; seeds ovate, whitish, or very light-brown, a fifth of an inch long, and a tenth of an inch thick. _soil and cultivation._--it grows best on soils rather light, and not wet; and the seed should be sown the last of april, or early in may, in drills about two feet apart and an inch deep. when the plants are two inches high, they should be thinned to six inches apart in the rows, and afterwards occasionally hoed during the summer, to keep the earth loose, and free the plants of weeds. _use._--"it is cultivated exclusively for its flowers, from which the coloring-matter of saffron, or safflower, is obtained. these are collected when fully expanded, and dried on a kiln, under pressure, to form them into cakes; in which state they are sold in the market. it is extensively cultivated in the levant and several countries of europe, particularly france, spain, and germany; in the latter of which, the first gathering of flowers is obtained in the beginning of september; and others, for six or eight weeks following, as the flowers expand. it flowers somewhat earlier in this country, and seems well adapted to our climate. "though the color of the petals is of a deep-orange, they are used for dying various shades of red; the yellow matter being easily separated from the other. the flowers of saffron are employed in spain and other countries for coloring dishes and confectioneries; and from the seed a fixed oil is obtained, somewhat similar to that of the sunflower: for which purpose alone, it does not, however, seem deserving of cultivation." it was formerly much used in medicine in cases of humors and diseased blood. * * * * * southernwood. artemesia abrotanum. a hardy, shrubby plant, about three feet high. the leaves are pale-green, and cut, or divided, into narrow, thread-like segments; the flowers are numerous, small, yellow, drooping; the seeds resemble those of the common wormwood, and retain their germinative properties two years. the plant is generally propagated by dividing the roots in the manner of other hardy shrubs. _use._--the leaves have a strong, resinous, somewhat aromatic and rather pleasant odor, and are quite bitter to the taste. the root is seldom used; but the leaves and young branches are employed in the same manner and for the same purposes as those of the common wormwood. * * * * * wormwood. artemesia. the cultivated species are as follow:-- common wormwood. artemesia absynthium. this species, everywhere common to gardens in this country, is a native of great britain. it is a hardy, perennial, shrubby plant, two or three feet in height. the leaves are deeply cut, or divided, pale-green above, and hoary beneath; the flowers are small, numerous, pale-yellow; the seeds are quite small, and retain their powers of germination two years. the leaves, when bruised, have a strong, somewhat pungent, yet aromatic odor, and are proverbial for their intense bitterness. roman wormwood. artemesia pontica. this species somewhat resembles the foregoing: but the roots are smaller, less woody, and more fibrous, and the stalks are shorter, and more slender; the leaves are smaller, more finely cut, or divided, pale-green above, and hoary on the under surface, like those of the common wormwood; the flowers, which are produced on the upper branches, are small, and of a pale-yellow color; seeds similar to those of the above species, retaining their vitality two years. it is generally preferred to the common wormwood for medicinal purposes, as the taste is more agreeable, and its odor less pungent. sea wormwood. artemesia maritima. indigenous to great britain, and common to the seacoast of holland and the low countries of europe. roots creeping, tough, and fibrous; stalks two or three feet high, and, like the roots, tough and woody; leaves numerous, long, narrow, and hoary; flowers yellow, produced on the small branches towards the top of the plant; seeds similar to those of the common wormwood. the leaves are somewhat bitter to the taste, and, when bruised, emit a strong, pleasant, aromatic odor. _soil and cultivation._--all the species are hardy, aromatic perennials; and, though they will thrive in almost any soil, their properties are best developed in that which is warm, dry, and light. they are generally propagated, as other hardy shrubs, by dividing the plants; but may be raised from seeds, or slips. the seeds are sown in april, in shallow drills; and the seedlings afterwards transplanted to rows two feet apart, and a foot from each other in the rows. _use._--"an infusion of the leaves and tops of the common wormwood is used as a vermifuge, tonic, and stomachic; and the leaves are found to be beneficial to poultry."--- _thomp._ most of the other species possess the same properties in a greater or less degree, and are used for the same purposes. chapter xi. mushrooms, or esculent fungi. agaricus. boletus. clavaria. morchella, or morel. tuber, or truffle. although many experiments have been made in the culture of different species of edible fungi, "only one has yet been generally introduced into the garden, though there can be no doubt the whole would finally submit to and probably be improved by cultivation. many of them are natives of this country, abounding in our woods and pastures; and may be gathered wild, and freely enjoyed by those who have not the means of raising them artificially. in poland and russia, there are about thirty sorts of edible fungi in common use among the peasantry. they are gathered in all the different stages of their growth, and used in various ways,--raw, boiled, stewed, roasted; and being hung up, and dried in stoves or chimneys, form a part of their winter's stock of provisions. "mushrooms are not, however, everywhere equally abundant, owing as well to climate as to the more general cultivation of the soil: the character of many of the sorts is, therefore, not perfectly known, and most of them are passed over as deleterious. indeed, the greatest caution is requisite in selecting any species of this tribe for food; and we can advise none but an experienced botanist to search after any but the common and familiar sort (_agaricus campestris_) for food."--_loud._ * * * * * common mushroom. _m'int._ _rog._ champignon. agaricus campestris. [illustration: common mushroom.] this mushroom, when it first appears, is of a rounded or button-like form, of a white color, and apparently rests on the surface of the ground. when fully developed, "the stem is solid, two or three inches high, and about half an inch in diameter; its cap measures from an inch to three and sometimes even upwards of four inches in diameter, is of a white color, changing to brown when old, and becoming scurfy, fleshy, and regularly convex, but, with age, flat, and liquefying in decay; the gills are loose, of a pinkish-red, changing to liver-color, in contact with but not united to the stem, very thick-set, some forked next the stem, some next the edge of the cap, some at both ends, and generally, in that case, excluding the intermediate smaller gills." loudon says that it is most readily distinguished, when of middle size, by its fine pink or flesh-colored gills and pleasant smell. in a more advanced stage, the gills become of a chocolate color; and it is then more liable to be confounded with other kinds of dubious quality: but the species which most nearly resembles it is slimy to the touch, and destitute of the fine odor, having rather a disagreeable smell. further, the noxious kind grows in woods, or on the margin of woods; while the true mushroom springs up chiefly in open pastures, and should be gathered only in such places. _cultivation._--"this is the only species that has as yet been subjected to successful cultivation; though there can be little doubt that all or most of the terrestrial-growing sorts would submit to the same process, if their natural habitats were sufficiently studied, and their spawn collected and propagated. in this way, the common mushroom was first brought under the control of man. "the seeds of the common mushroom, in falling from the gills when ripe, are no doubt wafted by the wind, and become attached to the stems and leaves of grasses and other herbage; and notwithstanding they are eaten by such animals as the horse, deer, and sheep, pass through their intestines without undergoing any material change in their vegetative existence: and hence, in the dung of these animals, when placed together, and kept moderately dry, and brought to a slight state of fermentation, we discover the first stage of the existence of the future brood of mushrooms. this is practically called 'spawn,' and consists of a white, fibrous substance, running like broken threads through the mass of dung, which appears to be its only and proper _nidus_."--_m'int._ it is prepared for use as follows:-- "in june and july, take any quantity of fresh horse-droppings,--the more dry and high-fed the better,--mixed with short litter, one-third of cow's dung, and a good portion of mould of a loamy nature; cement them well together, and mash the whole into a thin compost, and spread it on the floor of an open shed, to remain until it becomes firm enough to be formed into flat, square bricks; which done, set them on an edge, and frequently turn them till half dry; then, with a dibble, make two or three holes in each brick, and insert in each hole a piece of good old spawn about the size of a common walnut. the bricks should then be left till they are dry. this being completed, level the surface of a piece of ground, under cover, three feet wide, and of sufficient length to receive the bricks; on which lay a bottom of dry horse-dung six inches thick; then form a pile by placing the bricks in rows one upon another, with the spawn-side uppermost, till the pile is three feet high; next cover it with a small portion of warm horse-dung, sufficient in quantity to diffuse a gentle glow of heat through the whole. when the spawn has spread itself through every part of the bricks, the process is ended, and the bricks may then be laid up in a dry place for use. mushroom-spawn thus made will preserve its vegetative power many years, if well dried before it is laid up; but, if moist, it will grow, and exhaust itself."--_trans._ the next step to be taken is the formation of the bed; in the preparation of which, no dung answers so well as that of the horse, when taken fresh from the stable: the more droppings in it, the better. the process recommended by rogers is as follows:-- "about july or august is the general season for making mushroom-beds, though this may be done all the year round. a quantity of the dung mentioned should be collected and thrown together in a heap, to ferment and acquire heat; and, as this heat generally proves too violent at first, it should, previously to making the bed, be reduced to a proper temperature by frequently turning it in the course of the fortnight or three weeks; which time it will most likely require for all the parts to get into an even state of fermentation. during the above time, should it be showery weather, the bed will require some sort of temporary protection, by covering it with litter or such like, as too much wet would soon deaden its fermenting quality. the like caution should be attended to in making the bed, and after finishing it. as soon as it is observed that the fiery heat and rank steam of the dung have passed off, a dry and sheltered spot of ground should be chosen on which to make the bed. this should be marked out five feet broad; and the length, running north and south, should be according to the quantity of mushrooms likely to be required. if for a moderate family, a bed twelve or fourteen feet long will be found, if it takes well, to produce a good supply of mushrooms for some months, provided proper attention be paid to the covering. "on the space marked for making the bed, a trench should be thrown out about six inches deep. the mould may be laid regularly at the side; and, if good, it will do for earthing the bed hereafter: otherwise, if brought from a distance, that of a more loamy than a sandy nature will be best. "whether in the trench, or upon the surface, there should be laid about four inches of good litter, not too short, for forming the bottom of the bed; then lay on the prepared dung a few inches thick, regularly over the surface, beating it as regularly down with the fork; continue thus, gradually drawing in the sides to the height of five feet, until it is narrow at the top like the ridge of a house. in that state it may remain for ten days or a fortnight, during which time the heat should be examined towards the middle of the bed by thrusting some small sharp sticks down in three or four places; and, when found of a gentle heat (not hot), the bed may be spawned: for which purpose, the spawn-bricks should be broken regularly into pieces about an inch and a half or two inches square, beginning within six inches of the bottom of the bed, and in lines about eight inches apart. the same distance will also do for the pieces of spawn, which are best put in by one hand, raising the manure up a few inches, whilst with the other the spawn can be laid in and covered at the same time. "after spawning the bed, if it is found to be in that regular state of heat before mentioned, it may be earthed. after the surface is levelled with the back of the spade, there should be laid on two inches of mould,--that out of the trench, if dry and good, will do; otherwise make choice of a rich loam, as before directed. after having been laid on, it is to be beaten closely together; and, when the whole is finished, the bed must be covered about a foot thick with good oat or wheat straw; over which should be laid mats, for the double purpose of keeping the bed dry, and of securing the covering from being blown off. in the course of two or three days, the bed should be examined; and, if it is considered that the heat is likely to increase, the covering must be diminished for a few days, which is better than taking it entirely off. "in about a month or five weeks,--but frequently within the former time, if the bed is in a high state of cultivation,--mushrooms will most likely make their appearance; and, in the course of eight and forty hours afterwards, they will have grown to a sufficient size for use. in gathering, instead of cutting them off close to the ground, they should be drawn out with a gentle twist, filling up the cavity with a little fine mould, gently pressed in level with the bed. this method of gathering is much better than cutting, as the part left generally rots, and breeds insects, which are very destructive, both in frames and on mushroom-beds. "where a mushroom-bed is to remain permanently, a covered shed will be found convenient. "sometimes it happens that a bed suddenly ceases to produce any mushrooms. this arises from various causes, but principally from the cold state of the bed in winter, or from a too dry state in summer. in the former case, a slight covering of mulchy hay laid over the bed, and on that six or eight inches of well-worked, hot dung, and the whole covered lightly with the straw that was taken off, will most likely bring it about again. in the latter instance, moisture, if required, should be given moderately, two or three mornings; when, after lying about an hour, the whole may be covered up, and be found of much service. in summer, most mushroom-beds in a bearing state require more or less slight waterings. soft water should be used for the purpose: spring water is of too hard and too cold a nature; and, when at any time applied, checks vegetation. in summer time, a gentle shower of rain, on open beds that are in bearing and seem dry, will add considerably to their productiveness. "a mushroom-bed seldom furnishes any abundance after two or three months: it has often done its best in six or seven weeks. heavy rains are most destructive to mushrooms: therefore care should be taken to remove the wet straw, or litter, and directly replace it with dry. hence the utility of a covered shed, or mushroom-house." in addition to the foregoing, the following native species may be eaten with perfect safety, if gathered young and used while fresh:-- agaricus comatus. "an excellent species, much employed for making catchup; but should be used in a young state. it is found growing abundantly on stumps of trees, appearing both in spring and autumn." agaricus deliciosus. _m'int._ sweet mushroom. found in september and october, growing under fir and pine trees. it is of medium size, yellowish, zoned, with deep orange on the top, somewhat resembling _a. torminosus_ (a deleterious species), but readily distinguished from it, as its juice is, when fresh cut, quite red, afterwards turning green, while that of the latter is white and unchangeable. sir james edward smith says it well deserves its name, and is really the most delicious mushroom known; and mr. sowerby is equally high in its praise, pronouncing it very luscious eating, full of rich gravy, with a little of the flavor of mussels. agaricus exquisitus. _badham._ st. george's mushroom. _m'int._ agaricus georgii. this species often attains a weight of five or six pounds. it is generally considered less delicate than the common cultivated mushroom (_a. campestris_); but in hungary it is regarded as a special gift from the saint whose name it bears. persoon describes it as superior to _a. campestris_ in smell, taste, and digestibility; on which account, he says, it is generally preferred in france. it is found abundantly in many places, generally growing in rings, and re-appearing for many successive years on the same spot; and, though sometimes met with in old pastures, is generally found in thickets, under trees. agaricus personatus. blewits. blue hats. _cooke._ this is one of the species occasionally sold in covent-garden market, london. when mature, it has a soft, convex, moist, smooth pileus, with a solid, somewhat bulbous stem, tinted with lilac. the gills are dirty-white, and rounded towards the stem. the _agaricus personatus_ constitutes one of the very few mushrooms which have a market value in england. it is quite essential that it should be collected in dry weather, as it absorbs moisture readily, and is thereby injured in flavor, and rendered more liable to decay. agaricus prunulus. _vitt._ _m'int._ this is found only in spring, growing in rings on the borders of wood-lands; at which time abundance of its spawn may be procured, and may be continued in the same way that the spawn of the common cultivated mushroom is; namely, by transplanting it into bricks of loam and horse-dung, in which it will keep for months. this mushroom is used both in its green and dried state. in the latter it constitutes what is called "funghi di genoa," and is preserved by being simply cut into four pieces, and dried in the air for a few days; when it is strung up, and kept for use. agaricus oreades. fairy-ring agaricus. there is little difficulty in distinguishing this mushroom, which is found growing in rings. the pileus is of a brownish-ochre color at first; becomes paler as it grows older, until it fades into a rich cream-yellow. dr. badham says, "independent of the excellent flavor of this little mushroom, two circumstances make it valuable in a domestic point of view,--the facility with which it is dried, and its extensive dissemination." it may be kept for years without losing any of its aroma or goodness. * * * * * boletus. _fries._ of this, two species are considered eatable,--the _b. edulis_ and the _b. scaber_; the former resembling the common mushroom in taste, and the latter of good quality while in a young, fresh state, but of little value when dried, as it loses much of its odor, and becomes insipid, and unfit for use. * * * * * clavaria. all the species are edible, and many of them indigenous to our woods; being usually found in damp, shady places. * * * * * the morel. _m'int._ morchella esculenta. [illustration: the morel.] in its natural state, the morel is found growing in orchards, damp woods, and in moist pastures. its height is about four inches. it is distinguished by its white, cylindrical, hollow, or solid, smooth stem; its cap is of a pale-brown or gray color, nearly spherical, hollow, adheres to the stem by its base, and is deeply pitted over its entire surface. it is in perfection early in the season; but should not be gathered soon after rain, or while wet with dew. if gathered when dry, it may be preserved for several months. _use._--the morels are used, like the truffle, as an ingredient to heighten the flavor of ragouts, gravies, and other rich dishes. they are used either fresh or in a dried state. _cultivation._--its cultivation, if ever attempted, has been carried on to a very limited extent. of its capability of submitting to culture, there can be little doubt. if the spawn were collected from its natural habitats in june, and planted in beds differently formed, but approximating as nearly as possible to its natural conditions, a proper mode of cultivation would assuredly be in time arrived at. persoon remarks that "it prefers a chalky or argillaceous soil to one of a sandy nature; and that it not unfrequently springs up where charcoal has been burned, or where cinders have been thrown." "the great value of the morel--which is one of the most expensive luxuries furnished by the italian warehouses, and which is by no means met with in the same abundance as some others of the fungi--deserves to be better known than it is at present." the genus comprises a very few species, and they are all edible. * * * * * common truffle. tuber cibarium. [illustration: the truffle.] on the authority of our most distinguished mycologists, the common truffle has not yet been discovered within the limits of the united states. it is said to be found abundantly in some parts of great britain, particularly in wiltshire, kent, and hampshire. it is collected in large quantities in some portions of france, and is indigenous to other countries of europe. the following description by mascall, in connection with the engraving, will give an accurate idea of its size, form, color, and general character: "the size rarely much exceeds that of a large walnut. its form is rounded, sometimes kidney-shaped, and rough with protuberances. the surface, when the truffle is young, is whitish; but, in those that are full grown, it is either blackish or a deep-black. the color of the inside is whitish, with dark-blue and white, gray, reddish, light-brown or dark-brown veins, of the thickness of a horse-hair, which are usually variously entangled, and which form a kind of network, or mat. between the veins are numerous cavities, filled with mucilage, and small, solid grains. these scarcely visible glands were formerly said to be the seeds, or germs, of the young truffles. the less the inside of the truffle is colored with dark veins, the more tender and delicious is its flesh. "the blackish, external rind is hard, and very rough, by means of fine fissures, grains, and protuberances; and forms, with its small facets (which are almost hexagonal), an appearance by which it somewhat resembles the fir-apples of the larch. whilst the truffle is young, its smell resembles that of putrid plants, or of moist, vegetable earth. when it has nearly attained its full growth, it diffuses an agreeable smell, which is peculiar to it, resembling that of musk, which lasts only a few days: it then becomes stronger; and the nearer the fungus is to its dissolution, which speedily ensues, so much the more unpleasant is its odor, till at last it is quite disagreeable and putrid. whilst young, the flesh is watery, and the taste insipid: when fully formed, its firm flesh, which is like the kernel of the almond, has an extremely aromatic and delicious taste; but as soon as the fungus begins to decay, and worms and putrescence to attack it, its taste is bitter and disagreeable." many attempts have been made in great britain, as well as in other parts of europe, to propagate the truffle by artificial means; but all experiments thus far, if they have not totally failed, have been attended by very unsatisfactory results. _use._--like the common mushroom, it is used principally in stuffings, gravies, and sauces, and in other very highly seasoned culinary preparations. it has long been held in high esteem by epicures and the opulent; but, from its extreme rarity, has always commanded a price which has effectually prohibited its general use. it has been truthfully remarked, "that few know how to raise it, and fewer still possess the proper knowledge to prepare it for the table." piedmontese truffle. _thomp._ tuber magnatum. this species is the most celebrated of all the truffles, and always commands an enormous price. it occurs abundantly in the mountains of piedmont, and probably nowhere else. tuber melanosporum. _thomp._ this is the truffle of the paris markets. it is richly scented, and also greatly superior in flavor to the common sorts. other genera and species of fungi are considered harmless, and are occasionally used for food. some of the edible kinds, however, in size, form, color, and organization, so closely approach certain poisonous or deleterious species, as to confuse even the most experienced student. none of the family (not excepting even the common cultivated mushroom) should therefore be gathered for use, except by those who may possess a thorough knowledge of the various species and their properties. chapter xii. miscellaneous vegetables. alkekengi, or ground cherry. corn. egg-plant. martynia. oil radish. okra, or gumbo. pepper. rhubarb, or pie-plant. sunflower. tobacco. tomato. * * * * * alkekengi. strawberry tomato. winter cherry. ground cherry. barbadoes gooseberry. physalis edulis. a hardy annual plant from central or tropical america. stem angular, very much branched, but not erect,--in good soils, attaining a length or height of more than three feet; leaves large, triangular; flowers solitary, yellow, spotted or marked with purple, and about half an inch in diameter; fruit rounded or obtuse-heart-shaped, half an inch in diameter, yellow, and semi-transparent at maturity, enclosed in a peculiar thin, membranous, inflated, angular calyx, or covering, which is of a pale-green color while the fruit is forming, but at maturity changes to a dusky-white or reddish-drab. the pedicel, or fruit-stem, is weak and slender; and most of the berries fall spontaneously to the ground at the time of ripening. the seeds are small, yellow, lens-shaped, and retain their germinative properties three years. the plants are exceedingly prolific, and will thrive in almost any description of soil. sow at the same time, and thin or transplant to the same distance, as practised in the cultivation of the tomato. on land where it has been grown, it springs up spontaneously in great abundance, and often becomes troublesome in the garden. _use._--the fruit has a juicy pulp, and, when first tasted, a pleasant, strawberry-like flavor, with a certain degree of sweetness and acidity intermixed. the after-taste is, however, much less agreeable, and is similar to that of the common tomato. by many the fruit is much esteemed, and is served in its natural state at the table as a dessert. with the addition of lemon-juice, it is sometimes preserved in the manner of the plum, as well as stewed and served like cranberries. if kept from the action of frost, the fruit retains its natural freshness till march or april. purple alkekengi. purple ground cherry. purple strawberry tomato. purple winter cherry. physalis sp. this species grows naturally and abundantly in some of the western states. the fruit is roundish, somewhat depressed, about an inch in diameter, of a deep purple color, and enclosed in the membranous covering peculiar to the genus. compared with the preceding species, the fruit is more acid, less perfumed, and not so palatable in its crude state, but by many considered superior for preserving. the plant is less pubescent, but has much the same habit, and is cultivated in the same manner. tall alkekengi. tall ground cherry. tall strawberry tomato. physalis pubescens. stem about four feet high, erect and branching; leaves oval, somewhat triangular, soft and velvety; flowers yellow, spotted with deep purple; fruit yellow, of the size of the common yellow alkekengi, enclosed in an angular, inflated calyx, and scarcely distinguishable from the last named. it is grown from seeds, which are sown like those of the tomato. it is later, and much less prolific, than the species first described. * * * * * corn. zea mays. _garden and table varieties._-- adams's early white. a distinct and well-marked table variety. ears seven to eight inches in length, two inches in diameter, twelve or fourteen rowed, and rather abruptly contracted at the tips; kernel white, rounded, somewhat deeper than broad, and indented at the exterior end, which is whiter and less transparent than the interior or opposite extremity. the depth and solidity of the kernel give great comparative weight to the ear; and, as the cob is of small size, the proportion of product is unusually large. in its general appearance, the ear is not unlike some descriptions of southern or western field-corn; from which, aside from its smaller dimensions, it would hardly be distinguishable. in quality, it cannot be considered equal to some of the shrivelled-kernelled, sweet descriptions, but will prove acceptable to those to whom the peculiar, sugary character of these may be objectionable. though later than the jefferson or darlings, it is comparatively early, and may be classed as a good garden variety. much grown for early use and the market in the middle states, but less generally known or cultivated in new england. black sweet. slate sweet. plant, in height and general habit, similar to darling's early; ears six to eight inches in length, uniformly eight-rowed; kernels roundish, flattened, deep slate-color, much shrivelled at maturity. early. the variety is sweet, tender, and well flavored; remains a long period in condition for use; and, aside from its peculiar color (which by some is considered objectionable), is well worthy of cultivation. burr's improved. burr's sweet. an improved variety of the twelve-rowed sweet. the ears are from twelve to sixteen rowed, rarely eighteen, and, in good soils and seasons, often measure eight or ten inches in length, nearly three inches in diameter, and weigh, when in condition for the table, from eighteen to twenty-two ounces; cob white; kernel rounded, flattened, pure white at first, or while suitable for use,--becoming wrinkled, and changing to dull, yellowish, semi-transparent white, when ripe. the variety is hardy and productive; and, though not early, usually perfects its crop. for use in its green state, plantings may be made to the th of june. the kernel is tender, remarkably sugary, hardens slowly, is thin-skinned, and generally considered much superior to the common twelve-rowed. it is always dried or ripened for seed with much difficulty; often moulding or decaying before the glazing or hardening of the kernel takes place. if the crop is sufficiently advanced as not to be injured by freezing, it will ripen and dry off best upon the stalks in the open ground; but if in the milk, or still soft and tender at the approach of freezing weather, it should be gathered and suspended, after being husked, in a dry and airy room or building, taking care to keep the ears entirely separate from each other. darling's early. darling's early sweet. stalk about five feet in height, and comparatively slender; the ears are from six to eight inches in length, an inch and a half in diameter, and, when the variety is unmixed, uniformly eight-rowed; the kernels are roundish, flattened, pure white when suitable for boiling,--much shrivelled or wrinkled, and of a dull, semi-transparent yellow, when ripe; the cob is white. the variety is early, very tender and sugary, yields well, produces little fodder, ears near the ground, and is one of the best sorts for planting for early use, as it seldom, if ever, fails to perfect its crop. in the middle states, and in the milder sections of new england, it may be planted for boiling until near the beginning of july. the hills are made three feet apart in one direction by two feet and a half in the opposite; or the seeds may be planted in drills three feet apart, dropping them in groups of three together every eighteen inches. early jefferson. stalk five to six feet high, producing one or two ears, which are of small size, eight-rowed, and measure six or eight inches in length, and about an inch and a half in diameter at the largest part; cob white; kernel white, roundish, flattened,--the surface of a portion of the ear, especially near its tip, often tinged with a delicate shade of rose-red. the kernel retains its color, and never shrivels or wrinkles, in ripening. the variety is hardy and productive, but is principally cultivated on account of its early maturity; though, in this respect, it is little, if at all, in advance of darling's. the quality is tender and good, but much less sugary than the common shrivelled varieties; on which account, however, it is preferred by some palates. it remains but a short time tender and in good condition for boiling; soon becoming hard, glazed, and unfit for use. golden sweet. golden sugar. stalk and general habit similar to darling's early; ears six to eight inches long, an inch and a half or an inch and three-fourths in diameter, regularly eight-rowed; the kernel, when ripe, is semi-transparent yellow. the variety is apparently a hybrid between the common yellow or canada corn and darling's early. in flavor, as well as appearance, both of these varieties are recognized. it does not run excessively to stalk and foliage, yields well, is hardy, and seldom fails to ripen perfectly in all sections of new england. for boiling in its green state, plantings may be made until the last week of june or first of july. in respect to quality, it is quite tender, sweet, and well flavored, but less sugary than most of the other sugar or sweet varieties. old colony. _hov. mag._ this variety was originated by the late rev. a. r. pope, of somerville, mass. at the time of its production, he was a resident of kingston, plymouth county, mass.; and, in consequence of the locality of its origin, it received the name above given. in a communication at the close of the sixteenth volume of the "magazine of horticulture," mr. pope describes it as follows:-- "it is a hybrid, as any one can readily perceive by inspection, between the southern white and the common sweet corn of new england; and exhibits certain characteristics of the two varieties, combining the size of the ear and kernel and productiveness of the southern with the sweetness and tenderness of the northern parent. "the stalks are from ten to twelve feet in height, and of corresponding circumference. they are also furnished with brace-roots (seldom found upon the common varieties of sweet corn); and the pistils are invariably green, and not pink, as in the southern white." the ears are from five to seven inches in length, and the number of rows varies from twelve to twenty; the kernels are very long or deep; and the cob, which is always white, is quite small compared with the size of the ear. when ripe, the kernels are of a dull, semi-transparent, yellowish white, and much shrivelled. the ears are produced on the stalk, four or five feet from the ground. it is very productive, but late; and though it will rarely fail in the coldest seasons to yield abundant supplies in the green state for the table, yet it requires a long and warm season for its complete maturity. for cultivation in the southern states and tropical climates, it has been found to be peculiarly adapted; as it not only possesses there the sweetness and excellence that distinguish the sweet corn of the temperate and cooler sections, but does not deteriorate by long cultivation, as other sweet varieties almost invariably are found to do. parching corn (white kernel). pop-corn. stalk six feet high, usually producing two ears, which are from six to eight inches long, quite slender, and uniformly eight-rowed; cob white; kernel roundish, flattened, glossy, flinty, or rice-like, and of a dull, semi-transparent, white color. when parched, it is of pure snowy whiteness, very brittle, tender, and well flavored, and generally considered the best of all the sorts used for this purpose. in some parts of massachusetts, as also in new hampshire, the variety is somewhat extensively cultivated for commercial purposes. its peculiar properties seem to be most perfectly developed in dry, gravelly, or silicious soils, and under the influence of short and warm seasons. in field culture, it is either planted in hills three feet apart, or in drills three feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the drills. the product per acre is usually about the same number of bushels of ears that the same land would yield of shelled-corn of the ordinary field varieties. increase of size is a sure indication of deterioration. the cultivator should aim to keep the variety as pure as possible by selecting slender and small-sized but well-filled ears for seed, and in no case to plant such as may have yellow or any foreign sort intermixed. the value of a crop will be diminished nearly in a relative proportion to the increase of the size of the ears. parching corn (yellow). a yellow variety of the preceding. it retains its color to some extent after being parched; and this is considered an objection. it is tender, but not so mild flavored as the white, and is little cultivated. the size and form of the ears are the same, and it is equally productive. red-cob sweet. ears about eight inches in length by a diameter of two inches,--usually twelve but sometimes fourteen rowed; kernels roundish, flattened, white when suitable for boiling, shrivelled, and of a dull, semi-transparent white when ripe; the cob is red, which may be called its distinguishing characteristic. quality good; the kernel being tender and sweet. it remains long in good condition for the table, and is recommended for general cultivation. season intermediate. a sub-variety occurs with eight rows; the form and size of the ear and kernel resembling darling's early. rice (red kernel). this is a variety of the white rice, with deep purplish-red or blood-red kernels. the ears are of the same size and form. its quality, though inferior to the white, is much superior to the yellow. productiveness, and season of maturity, the same. rice (white kernel). stalk six feet or more in height; ears five or six inches long, an inch and a half in diameter, somewhat conical, broadest at the base, and tapering to the top, which is often more or less sharply pointed; the cob is white; the kernels are long and slender, angular, sharply pointed at the outward extremity, as well as to some extent at the opposite, and extremely hard and flinty. they are not formed at right angles on the cob, as in most varieties of corn, but point upward, and rest in an imbricated manner, one over the other. the variety is hardy and prolific; and, though not late, should have the benefit of the whole season. for parching, it is inferior to the common parching corn before described, though it yields as much bulk in proportion to the size of the kernel, and is equally as white: but the sharp points often remain sound; and it is, consequently, less crisp and tender. rice (yellow kernel). another sub-variety of the white rice; the ear and kernel being of the same form and size. it is equally productive, and matures as early; but, when parched, is inferior to the white both in crispness and flavor. stowell's evergreen. stowell's evergreen sweet. stalk from six to seven feet in height, and of average diameter; ears of a conical form, six or seven inches long, and two inches and a quarter in diameter at the base; kernels long or deep, pure white when suitable for boiling, of a dull, yellowish-white, and much shrivelled when ripe; cob white, and, in consequence of the depth of the kernels, small in comparison to the diameter of the ear. the variety is intermediate in its season; and, if planted at the same time with darling's or equally early kinds, will keep the table supplied till october. it is hardy and productive, very tender and sugary, and, as implied by the name, remains a long period in a fresh condition, and suitable for boiling. tuscarora. turkey wheat. plant five to six feet in height, moderately strong and vigorous; ears eight-rowed, and of remarkable size,--exceeding, in this respect, almost every sort used for the table in the green state. in good soil, they are often a foot and upwards in length, and from two inches and three-fourths to three inches in diameter at the base. the kernel, which is much larger than that of any other table variety, is pure white, rounded, flattened, and, when divided in the direction of its width, apparently filled with fine flour of snowy whiteness; the cob is red, and of medium size. in point of maturity, the tuscarora is an intermediate variety. in its green state, it is of fair quality, and considered a valuable sort by those to whom the sweetness of the sugar varieties is objectionable. in their ripened state, the kernels, to a great extent, retain their fresh and full appearance, not shrivelling in the manner of the sugar sort, though almost invariably indented at the ends like some of the southern horse-toothed field varieties. when ground in the ripe state, it is much less farinaceous and valuable for cooking or feeding stock than the fine, white, floury appearance of the kernel, when cut or broken, would seem to indicate. twelve-rowed sweet. a large, comparatively late variety. stalk seven feet high; the ears are from ten to fourteen rowed, seven to nine inches long, often two inches and a half in diameter in the green state, and taper slightly towards the top, which is bluntly rounded; cob white; the kernels are large, round or circular, sometimes tooth-shaped, pure white when suitable for the table, dull white and shrivelled when ripe. the variety is hardy, yields a certain crop, and is sweet, tender, and of good quality. it is the parent of one or two varieties of superior size and excellence, to which it is now gradually giving place. _field varieties._-- canada yellow. early canada. ear small, about seven inches in length, symmetrical, broadest at the base, and tapering to the tip, uniformly eight-rowed, in four double rows; kernel roundish, smooth, and of a rich, glossy, orange-yellow color; cob small, white; stalk four to five feet high, slender; the leaves are not abundant, and the ears, of which the plant very rarely produces more than two, near the ground. on account of the small size of the ear, the yield per acre is much less than that of almost any other field variety; twenty-five or thirty bushels being an average crop. the dwarfish character of the plants, however, admits of close culture,--three feet in one direction by two or two and a half in the opposite,--affording ample space for their full development; four plants being allowed to a hill. its chief merit is its early maturity. in ordinary seasons, the crop will be fully ripened in august. if cultivated for a series of years in the eastern or middle states, or in a latitude much warmer than that of the canadas, the plant increases in size, the ears and kernels grow larger, and it is slower in coming to maturity. dutton. early dutton. ears nine or ten inches long, broadest at the base, tapering slightly towards the tip, ten or twelve rowed, and rarely found with the broad clefts or longitudinal spaces which often mark the divisions into double rows in the eight-rowed varieties,--the outline being almost invariably smooth and regular; kernel as broad as deep, smooth, and of a rich, clear, glossy, yellow color; cob comparatively large, white; stalk of medium height and strength, producing one or two ears. one of the handsomest of the field varieties, nearly as early as the king philip, and remarkable for the uniformly perfect manner in which, in good seasons, the ears are tipped, or filled out. in point of productiveness, it compares favorably with the common new-england eight-rowed; the yield per acre varying from fifty to seventy bushels, according to soil, culture, and season. much prized for mealing, both on account of its quality, and its peculiar, bright, rich color. in cultivation, the hills are made three feet and a half apart in each direction, and five or six plants allowed to a hill. hill. whitman. whitman's improved. webster. smutty white. old-colony premium. stalk six feet or more in height, moderately strong at the ground, but comparatively slender above the ear; foliage not abundant; the ears are produced low on the stalk, often in pairs, are uniformly eight-rowed, well filled at the tips, and, when fully grown, ten or eleven inches in length; cob white, and comparatively small; kernel dusky, transparent-white, large and broad, but not deep. the hill corn is nearly of the season of the common new-england eight-rowed, and is unquestionably the most productive of all field varieties. in plymouth county, mass., numerous crops have been raised of a hundred and fifteen bushels and upwards to the acre; and, in two instances, the product exceeded a hundred and forty. this extraordinary yield is in a degree attributable to the small size of the plant, and the relative large size of the ear. the largest crops were obtained by planting three kernels together, in rows three feet asunder, and from fifteen to eighteen inches apart in the rows. no variety is better adapted for cultivation for farm consumption; but for market, whether in the kernel or in the form of meal, its dull, white color is unattractive, and it commands a less price than the yellow descriptions. from the most reliable authority, the variety was originated by mr. leonard hill, of east bridgewater, plymouth county, mass.; and was introduced to public notice in - . though at present almost universally known as the "whitman," it appears to have been originally recognized as the "hill;" and, of the numerous names by which it has since been called, this is unquestionably the only true and legitimate one. illinois yellow. western yellow. stalk ten feet or more high; foliage abundant; ears high on the stalk, single or in pairs, twelve to sixteen rowed, eleven to thirteen inches long, broadest at the base, and tapering gradually towards the tip, which is bluntly rounded; kernel bright-yellow, long and narrow, or tooth-formed, paler at the outer end, but not indented; cob white. the variety ripens perfectly in the middle states, but is not suited to the climate of new england. illinois white. western white. similar in its general character to the illinois yellow. kernel rice-white; cob generally white, but sometimes red. king philip, or brown. improved king philip. ears ten to twelve inches in length, uniformly eight-rowed when the variety is pure or unmixed; kernel copper-red, rather large, somewhat broader than deep, smooth and glossy; cob comparatively small, pinkish-white; stalk six feet in height, producing one or two ears, about two feet and a half from the ground. in warm seasons, it is sometimes fully ripened in ninety days from the time of planting; and may be considered as a week or ten days earlier than the common new-england eight-rowed, of which it is apparently an improved variety. very productive, and recommended as one of the best field sorts now in cultivation. in good soil and favorable seasons, the yield per acre is from seventy-five to ninety bushels; although crops are recorded of a hundred and ten, and even of a hundred and twenty bushels. as grown in different localities, and even in the product of the same field, there is often a marked variation in the depth of color, arising either from the selection of paler seed, or from the natural tendency of the variety toward the clear yellow of the new-england eight-rowed. a change of color from yellowish-red to paler red or yellow should be regarded as indicative of degeneracy. said to have originated on one of the islands in lake winnipiseogee, n.h. new-england eight-rowed. stalk six or seven feet high, producing one or two ears, which are from ten to eleven inches long, and uniformly eight-rowed; kernel broader than deep, bright-yellow, smooth and glossy; cob comparatively small, white. the variety is generally grown in hills three feet and a half apart in each direction, and five or six plants allowed to a hill; the yield varying from fifty to seventy bushels to the acre, according to season, soil, and cultivation. it is a few days later than the king philip, but ripens perfectly in the middle states and throughout new england; except, perhaps, at the extreme northern boundary, where the canada yellow would probably succeed better. it often occurs with a profuse intermixture of red, sometimes streaked and spotted, sometimes copper-red, like the king philip, and occasionally of a rich, bright, clear blood-red. as the presence of this color impairs its value for marketing, and particularly for mealing, more care should be exercised in the selection of ears for seed; and this, continued for a few seasons, will restore it to the clear yellow of the dutton or early canada. many local sub-varieties occur, the result of selection and cultivation, differing in the size and form of the ear; size, form, and color of the kernel; and also in the season of maturity. the dutton, early canada, king philip, and numerous other less important sorts, are but improved forms of the new-england eight-rowed. parker. a variety remarkable for the extraordinary size of the ears, which, if well grown, often measure thirteen or fourteen inches in length: they are comparatively slender, and uniformly eight-rowed. cob white and slim; kernels bright-yellow, rounded, broader than deep. productive, but some days later than the common new-england eight-rowed. white horse-tooth. southern white. stalk twelve feet or more in height, with large, luxuriant foliage; ears single, often in pairs, short and very thick, sixteen to twenty-two rowed; kernel remarkably large, milk-white, wedge-formed, indented at the outer end; cob red. yellow horse-tooth. southern yellow. plant similar to that of the white horse-tooth; kernel very large, bright-yellow, indented; cob red. extensively cultivated throughout the southern states, but not adapted to the climate of the middle or northern. * * * * * egg-plant. solanum melongena. the egg-plant is a native of africa, and is also indigenous to tropical america. it is a tender annual, with an erect, branching stem, and oblong, bluish-green, powdered leaves. the flowers are one-petaled, purple, and produced on short stems in the axils of the branches; the fruit is often somewhat oblong, but exceedingly variable in form, size, and color; the seeds are small, yellowish, reniform, flattened, and retain their germinative properties seven years. _soil._--the egg-plant will thrive well in any good garden soil, but should have the benefit of a sheltered situation. _sowing and culture._--the seed should be sown in a hot-bed in march, at the time and in the manner of sowing tomato seed. the young plants are, however, more tender; and should not be allowed to get chilled, as they recover from its effects very slowly. the plant being decidedly tropical in character, the seedlings should not be transplanted into the open ground until the commencement of summer weather; when they may be set out in rows two feet apart, and two feet asunder in the rows. keep the ground free from weeds, earth up the plants a little in the process of cultivation, and by the last of august, or beginning of september, abundance of fruit will be produced for the table. if no hot-bed is at hand, sufficient seedling plants for a small garden may be easily raised by sowing a few seeds in march in common flower-pots, and placing them in the sunny window of the sitting-room or kitchen. in favorable seasons, a crop may be obtained by sowing the seeds in may in the open ground, and transplanting the seedlings, when two or three inches high, in a warm and sheltered situation. _use._--"it is used both boiled and stewed in sauces like the tomato. a favorite method among the french is to scoop out the seeds, fill up the cavity with sweet herbs, and fry the fruit whole."--_m'int._ a common method of cooking and serving is as follows: cut the fruit in slices half an inch thick; press out as much of the juice as possible, and parboil; after which, fry the slices in batter, or in fresh butter in which grated bread has been mixed; season with pepper, salt, and sweet herbs, to suit; or, if preferred, the slices may be broiled as steaks or chops. _varieties._-- american large purple. [illustration: american large purple egg-plant.] fruit remarkably large,--often measuring eight inches in depth, seven inches in diameter, and weighing four or five pounds; skin deep-purple, with occasional stripes of green about the stem; plant hardy and stocky. the american large purple is more generally cultivated in this country than any other variety. the plants produce two (and rarely three) fruits; but the first formed are invariably the best developed. it is similar to, if not identical with, the round purple of english and french authors. chinese long white. _vil._ quite distinct from the common white or the purple. plant of low growth, with comparatively pale foliage; fruit white, eight or nine inches long, two inches and a half in diameter, and often more or less curved, particularly when the end is in contact with the ground. it is later than the white or purple varieties, and nearly of the season of the scarlet-fruited. to obtain the fruit in full perfection, the plants must be started in a hot-bed. guadaloupe striped. _vil._ fruit nearly ovoid, smaller than the round or long purple; skin white, streaked and variegated with red. long purple. _trans._ the plants of this variety are of the height of the round purple, but are subject to some variation in the color of the branches and in the production of spines; flowers large, purple, with a spiny calyx; the fruit is oblong, somewhat club-shaped, six or eight inches in length, sometimes straight, but often slightly bent; at maturity, the skin is generally deep-purple, but the color varies much more than the large round; it is sometimes pale-purple, slightly striped, sometimes variegated with longitudinal, yellowish stripes, and always more deeply colored on the exposed side. it is early, of easy culture, hardy and productive, excellent for the table, thrives well in almost any section of the northern states, and, if started in a hot-bed, would perfect its fruit in the canadas. new-york improved. a sub-variety of the large round, producing the same number of fruits, which are generally of a deeper color, and average of larger size. the leaves are often spiny; and, if the variety is genuine, the plants will be readily distinguished from those of the last named by their more dense or compact habit of growth. it is, however, comparatively late, and better suited to the climate of the middle states than to that of new england; though it is successfully cultivated in the vicinity of boston, mass., by starting the plants in a hot-bed, and setting them in a warm and sheltered situation. round purple. _trans._ large round purple. plant from two to three feet high, branching, generally tinged with purple, producing two and sometimes three fruits; the leaves are large, downy, oblong, lobed on the borders, with scattered spines on the midribs; flowers large, pale-purple,--the flower-stem and calyx invested with purple spines; the fruit is obovate, four or five inches in diameter, six or seven inches deep, slightly indented at the apex, and of a fine deep-purple when well matured,--specimens sometimes occur slightly striped or rayed with yellowish-green. the american large purple, if not the same, is but an improved form of this variety. scarlet-fruited egg-plant. _hov. mag._ a highly ornamental variety, introduced from portugal. the plant attains the height of three feet, with leaves about six inches long. in general appearance, it resembles the common egg-plant; but the fruit, which is about the size of a hen's egg, is of a beautiful scarlet. it is rarely if ever used for food, but is principally cultivated for its peculiar, richly colored, and ornamental fruit, which makes a fine garnish. the variety is late, and comparatively tender. the seeds should be started early in a hot-bed, and the plants grown in a warm and sheltered situation. white egg-plant. fruit milk-white, egg-shaped, varying from three to five inches in length, and from two inches and a half to three inches and a half in diameter. it is the earliest, hardiest, and most productive of all varieties. the plants frequently produce five or six fruits each; but the first formed are generally the largest. if sown in the open ground early in may, the plants will often perfect a portion of their fruit; but they are most productive when started in a hot-bed. the fruit is sometimes eaten cooked in the manner of the purple varieties, but is less esteemed. * * * * * martynia. unicorn plant. _gray._ martynia proboscidea. [illustration: the martynia.] a hardy, annual plant, with a strong, branching stem two feet and a half or three feet high. the leaves are large, heart-shaped, entire or undulated, downy, viscous, and of a peculiar, musk-like odor when bruised or roughly handled; the flowers are large, bell-shaped, somewhat two-lipped, dull-white, tinged or spotted with yellow and purple, and produced in long, leafless racemes, or clusters; the seed-pods are green, very downy or hairy, fleshy, oval, an inch and a half in their greatest diameter, and taper to a long, comparatively slender, incurved horn, or beak. the fleshy, succulent character of the pods is of short duration: they soon become fibrous, the elongated beak splits at the point, the two parts diverge, the outer green covering falls off, and the pod becomes black, shrivelled, hard, and woody. the seeds are large, black, wrinkled, irregular in form, and retain their germinative properties three years. _sowing and cultivation._--the martynia is of easy cultivation. as the plants are large and spreading, they should be two feet and a half or three feet apart in each direction. the seeds may be sown in april or may, in the open ground where the plants are to remain; or a few seeds may be sown in a hot-bed, and the seedlings afterwards transplanted. _gathering and use._--the young pods are the parts of the plant used. these are produced in great abundance, and should be gathered when about half grown, or while tender and succulent: after the hardening of the flesh, they are worthless. they are used for pickling, and by many are considered superior to the cucumber, or any other vegetable employed for the purpose. * * * * * oil radish. _law._ raphanus sativus. a variety of the common radish, particularly adapted for the production of oil, and distinguished by the name _r. sativus olifer_, or oil radish. its stems are dwarf, from a foot and a half to two feet in height, much branched, spreading, and produce more seed-pods than the common radish. it is grown rather extensively in china for its oil; from whence it has been introduced into and cultivated in some parts of europe: but it does not appear with any particular success, though much has been said and written in its favor. it seems best suited for southern latitudes, where it may be sown in september, and harvested the following may or june: but, in the northern portions of the united states, it will be found too tender to withstand the winter; and the seed will therefore require to be sown in spring. the oil is obtained from the seed, and is considered superior to rape-seed oil, but is extracted with greater difficulty. * * * * * okra, or gumbo. ocra. hibiscus esculentus. okra is a half-hardy annual, from central america. stem simple, sometimes branched at the top, and from two to six feet in height, according to the variety; the leaves are large, palmate, deep-green; the flowers are large, five-petaled, yellowish on the border, purple at the centre; the seed-pods are angular, or grooved, more or less sharply pointed, an inch or an inch and a half in diameter at the base, and from four to eight inches in length; the seeds are large, round-kidney-shaped, of a greenish-drab color, black or dark-brown at the eye, and retain their power of germination five years. _soil, sowing, and cultivation._--okra may be raised in any common garden soil, and is propagated by seeds sown in april or may. the dwarf varieties may be grown in rows two feet apart, and a foot from each other in the rows; but the taller sorts require a space of at least three feet between the rows, and nearly two feet from plant to plant in the rows. keep the soil about the plants loose and open; and, in the process of cultivation, earth up the stems slightly in the manner of earthing pease. the pods will be fit for use in august and september. it requires a long, warm season; and is most productive when started in a hot-bed, and grown in a warm, sheltered situation. _use._--the green pods are used while quite young, sliced in soups and similar dishes, to which they impart a thick, viscous, or gummy consistency. thus served, they are esteemed not only healthful, but very nutritious. the ripe seeds, roasted and ground, furnish a palatable substitute for coffee. _varieties._-- buist's dwarf okra. _count. gent._ a variety recently introduced by mr. robert buist, of philadelphia. height two feet; being about half that of the old variety. its superiority consists in its greater productiveness, and the little space required for its development; while the fruit is of larger size and superior quality. it is said to produce pods at every joint. dwarf okra. [illustration: dwarf okra.] stem two feet and a half high, sometimes branched at the top, but generally undivided; leaves large, and, as in all varieties, five-lobed; flowers yellow, purple at the centre; pods erect, obtusely pointed, nearly as large in diameter as those of the giant, but generally about five inches in length. it is the earliest of the okras, and the best variety for cultivation in the northern and eastern states. between this and the tall, or giant, there are numerous sub-varieties; the result both of cultivation and climate. the tall sorts become dwarfish and earlier if long cultivated at the north; and the dwarfs, on the contrary, increase in height, and grow later, if long grown in tropical climates. the seeds of all the sorts are similar in size, form, and color. pendent-podded. the plants of this variety differ slightly, if at all, from those of the common or dwarf okra. it is principally, if not solely, distinguished by the pendulous or drooping character of its pods; those of all other sorts being erect. tall or giant okra. white-podded. stem five to six feet in height; pods erect, sharply tapering to a point, eight to ten inches in length, and about an inch and a half in diameter near the stem or at the broadest part. with the exception of its larger size, it is similar to the dwarf; and, if long cultivated under the influence of short and cool seasons, would probably prove identical. it yields abundantly, but is best adapted to the climate of the middle and southern states. * * * * * pepper. capsicum. capsicum annuum. of the capsicum there are many species, both annual and perennial; some of the latter being of a shrubby or woody character, and from four to six feet in height. as they are mostly tropical, and consequently tender, none but the annual species can be successfully grown in open culture in the middle states or new england. the _capsicum annuum_, or common garden-pepper, is a native of india. the stalks vary in height from a foot to nearly three feet; the flowers are generally white or purple; the pods differ in a remarkable degree in size, form, color, and acridness; the seeds are yellow, nearly circular, flattened, and, like the flesh or rind of the fruit, remarkable for their intense piquancy,--nearly forty-five hundred are contained in an ounce, and their vitality is retained five years. _propagation and cultivation._--the plants are always propagated from seeds. early in april, sow in a hot-bed, in shallow drills six inches apart, and transplant to the open ground when summer weather has commenced. the plants should be set in warm, mellow soil, in rows sixteen inches apart, and about the same distance apart in the rows; or, in ordinary seasons, the following simple method may be adopted for a small garden, and will afford an abundant supply of peppers for family use: when all danger from frost is past, and the soil is warm and settled, sow the seeds in the open ground, in drills three-fourths of an inch deep, and fourteen inches apart; and, while young, thin out the plants to ten inches apart in the rows. cultivate in the usual manner, and the crop will be fit for use early in september. _use._--"the pod, or fruit, is much used in pickles, seasonings, and made dishes; as both the pod and seeds yield a warm, acrid oil, the heat of which, being imparted to the stomach, promotes digestion, and corrects the flatulency of vegetable aliments. the larger and more common sorts are raised in great quantities, by market gardeners in the vicinity of populous towns, for the supply of pickle-warehouses." _species and varieties._-- bell-pepper. large bell. bull-nose. [illustration: bell-pepper.] plant two feet and upwards in height, stocky and branching, the stem and branches often stained or clouded with purple; leaves large, on long stems, smaller, smoother, and less sharply pointed, than those of the squash-pepper; flowers white, sometimes measuring nearly an inch and a half in diameter. the pods, which are remarkably large, and often measure nearly four inches deep and three inches in diameter, are pendent, broadest at the stem, slightly tapering, and generally terminate in four obtuse, cone-like points. at maturity, the fruit changes to brilliant, glossy, coral red. the bell-pepper is early, sweet and pleasant to the taste, and much less acrid or pungent than most of the other sorts. in many places, it is preferred to the squash-pepper for pickling, not only because of its mildness, but for its thick, fleshy, and tender rind. in open culture, sow in may, in drills sixteen inches apart, and thin the plants to twelve inches in the drills. in england, they are pickled as follows: the pods are plucked while green, slit down on one side, and, after the seeds are taken out, immersed in salt and water for twenty-four hours; changing the water at the end of the first twelve. after soaking the full time, they are laid to drain an hour or two; put into bottles or jars; and boiled vinegar, after being allowed to cool, poured over them till they are entirely covered. the jars are then closely stopped for a few weeks, when the pods will be fit for use. in this form, they have been pronounced the best and most wholesome of all pickles. bird-pepper. _vil._ stem fifteen to eighteen inches high; leaves very small; flowers white, about two-thirds of an inch in diameter; pods erect, sharply conical, an inch and three-quarters long, about half an inch in diameter, and of a brilliant coral-red when ripe. the variety is late. if sown in the open ground, some of the pods, if the season be favorable, will be fit for use before the plants are destroyed by frost; but few will be fully perfected unless the plants are started under glass. the bird-pepper is one of the most piquant of all varieties, and is less valuable as a green pickle than many milder and thicker-fleshed sorts. it is cultivated in rows fourteen inches apart, and ten or twelve inches asunder in the rows. if sown in the open ground, make the rows the same distance apart, and thin the young plants to the same space in the rows. the "cayenne pepper-pot" of commerce is prepared from bird-pepper in the following manner: "dry ripe peppers well in the sun, pack them in earthen or stone pots, mixing common flour between every layer of pods, and put all into an oven after the baking of bread, that they may be thoroughly dried; after which, they must be well cleansed from the flour, and reduced to a fine powder. to every ounce of this, add a pound of wheat-flour, and as much leaven as is sufficient for the quantity intended. after this has been properly mixed and wrought, it should be made into small cakes, and baked in the same manner as common cakes of the same size; then cut them into small parts, and bake them again, that they may be as dry and hard as biscuit, which, being powdered and sifted, is to be kept for use." cayenne pepper. c. frutescens. the pods of this variety are quite small, cone-shaped, coral-red when ripe, intensely acrid, and furnish the cayenne pepper of commerce. like the other species of the family, it is of tropical origin; and being a perennial, and of a shrubby character, will not succeed in open culture at the north. both the green and ripe pods are used as pickles, and also for making chili vinegar or pepper-sauce; which is done by simply putting a handful of the pods in a bottle, afterwards filled with the best vinegar, and stopping it closely. in a few weeks, it will be fit for use. the process of preparing cayenne pepper is as follows. the pods are gathered when fully ripe. "in india, they are dried in the sun; but in cooler climates they should be dried on a slow hot-plate, or in a moderately heated oven: they are then pulverized, and sifted through a fine sieve, mixed with salt, and, when dried, put into close, corked bottles, for the purpose of excluding the air. this article is subject to great adulteration, flour being often mixed with it; and, still worse, red lead, which is much of the same color, and greatly increases the weight. "a better method is to dry the pods in a slow oven, split them open, extract the seeds, and then pulverize them (the pods) to a fine powder, sifting the powder through a thin muslin sieve, and pulverizing the parts that do not pass through, and sifting again, until the whole is reduced to the finest possible state. place the powder in air-tight glass bottles; but add no salt or other ingredient whatever."--_m'int._ the pods of either of the long-fruited sorts, or those of the cherry-pepper, prepared as above, will furnish a quality of "cayenne" pepper greatly superior to that ordinarily sold by grocers, or even by apothecaries and druggists. the larger and milder kinds, powdered in the same manner, make a wholesome and pleasant grade of pepper of sufficient pungency for a majority of palates. cherry-pepper. capsicum cerasiforme. [illustration: cherry-pepper.] stem twelve to fifteen inches high, strong and branching; leaves comparatively small, long, narrow, and sharply pointed; flowers white, three-fourths of an inch in diameter; pod, or fruit, erect, nearly globular or cherry-form, and, at maturity, of a deep, rich, glossy, scarlet color. it is remarkable for its intense piquancy; exceeding in this respect nearly all the annual varieties. it is not so early as some of the larger sorts; but in favorable seasons will perfect a sufficient portion of its crop in the open ground, both for seed and pickling. for the latter purpose, the peppers should be plucked while still green, put into a common jar or wide-mouthed bottle, and vinegar added to fill the vessel. in a few weeks, they will be fit for use. when in perfection, the plants are very ornamental; the glossy, coral-red of the numerous pods presenting a fine contrast with the deep-green foliage by which they are surrounded. a variety occurs with larger, more conical, and pendent pods. the plant is also much larger, and quite distinct in its general character. cherry-pepper. yellow-fruited. this is a variety of the red cherry. the plants have the same general habit, require the same treatment, and perfect their fruit at the same season. there is little real difference between the sorts, with the exception of the color of the fruit; this being clear yellow. to preserve either of these varieties for use in the dry state, all that is necessary is to cut off the plants close to the roots when the fruit is ripe, and hang them, with the fruit attached, in any warm and dry situation. they will retain their piquancy for years. chili pepper. _vil._ pods pendent, sharply conical, nearly two inches in length, half an inch in diameter, of a brilliant scarlet when ripe, and exceedingly piquant; plant about eighteen inches high; leaves numerous, of small size, and sharply pointed; flowers white, nearly three-fourths of an inch in diameter. sow in a hot-bed in april, and transplant to the open ground in may, about fourteen inches apart in each direction. requires a long, warm season. long red pepper. [illustration: long red pepper.] fruit brilliant, coral-red, generally pendulous, sometimes erect, conical, often curved towards the end, nearly four inches in length, and from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter; skin, or flesh, quite thin, and exceedingly piquant. stalk about two feet high; foliage of medium size, blistered and wrinkled; flowers an inch in diameter, white. the variety yields abundantly, but attains its greatest perfection when started in a hot-bed. the ripe pods, dried and pulverized as directed for cayenne pepper, make an excellent substitute for that article. the plants, with ripe fruit, are very ornamental. long yellow. _vil._ pods pendent, long, and tapering, three to four inches in length, and about an inch in their greatest diameter. at maturity, they assume a lively, rich, glossy yellow; and the plants are then showy and ornamental. stem two feet and upwards in height, slightly colored with purple at the intersection of the branches and insertion of the leaf-stems; leaves of medium size, smaller and paler than those of the long red; flowers white, nearly an inch in diameter. like the last named, it is very piquant. it is also late; and, to obtain the variety in perfection, the seed should be started in a hot-bed in april. purple or blue podded. black-podded. fruit erect, on long stems, bluntly cone-shaped, two inches and a half in length, and a half or three-fourths of an inch in diameter at the broadest part. before maturity, the skin is green or reddish-green, clouded or stained with black or purplish-brown; but, when ripe, changes to rich, deep, indigo-blue. plant two feet or upwards in height, more erect and less branched than other varieties, and much stained with purple at the intersection of the branches and at the insertion of the leaf-stems; leaves of medium size, or small, long, and sharply pointed; leaf-stems long, deep-green; flowers white, tipped with purple, about three-fourths of an inch in diameter; flower-stems long, purple. a rare, richly colored, and beautiful pepper, but not cultivated or of much value as an esculent. for its full perfection, a long, warm season is requisite. the plants should be started in a hot-bed in march or april, and transplanted in may to the open ground, fifteen inches apart. quince-pepper. piment cydoniforme. _vil._ this variety is similar to the sweet spanish; but the fruit is rather longer, and its season of maturity is somewhat later. its flavor is comparatively mild and pleasant; but, like the sweet spanish, it is not generally thick-fleshed. at maturity, the fruit is a brilliant coral-red. round or large red cherry-pepper. rond. _vil._ cerise grosse. this is but a sub-variety of the common red cherry-pepper, differing only in its larger size. it is quite late, and should be started in a hot-bed. squash-pepper. tomato-shaped. fruit compressed, more or less ribbed, about two inches and three-quarters in diameter, and two inches in depth; skin smooth and glossy,--when ripe, of a brilliant coral-red; flesh thick, mild and pleasant to the taste, though possessing more piquancy than the large bell or sweet spanish. plant about two feet high, stout and branching; leaves broad and large; flowers white, an inch and a quarter in diameter; fruit drooping, the fruit-stem short and thick. the squash-pepper is extensively grown for the market, and is most in use in the pickle warehouses of the eastern and middle states. in field-culture, the plants are started in hot-beds in april, and, after the beginning of summer weather, transplanted to the open ground, fourteen to eighteen inches apart, according to the quality of the soil. the fruit is generally sold by weight; and an acre of land, in a fair state of cultivation, will yield about three tons,--a bushel of the thick-fleshed sort weighing nearly thirty-two pounds. an excellent pickle may be made by preparing the peppers in the manner directed for the bell variety. as grown by different market-men and gardeners, there are several sub-varieties of the squash-pepper, differing both in form and in the thickness of the flesh; the latter quality, however, being considered of the greater importance, as the thick-fleshed sorts not only yield a greater weight to the acre, but are more esteemed for the table. the squash-pepper succeeds well when sown in the open ground in may, in drills fourteen inches apart. the plants should be ten or twelve inches apart in the rows; for, when grown too closely, they are liable to draw up, making a weakly, slender growth, and yield much less than when allowed sufficient space for their full development. low-growing, stocky, and branching plants are the most productive. sweet mountain pepper. this variety resembles the large bell, if it is not identical. the sweet mountain may be somewhat larger; but, aside from this, there is no perceptible difference in the varieties. sweet spanish. piment monstreux. _vil._ fruit obtusely conical, often four inches in length, and nearly three inches in diameter,--brilliant glossy scarlet at maturity; stem strong and sturdy, two feet or more in height; leaves large, but narrower than those of the large bell; flowers white, and of large size,--usually an inch and a half in diameter; fruit sometimes erect, but generally drooping. though one of the largest varieties, the sweet spanish is also one of the earliest. the flesh is sweet, mild, and pleasant; and the variety is much esteemed by those to whom the more pungent kinds are objectionable. when prepared in the same form, it makes a pickle equally as fine as the large bell. the sweet spanish pepper succeeds well if sown in the open ground in may. make the rows sixteen inches apart, and thin the plants to a foot apart in the rows. yellow squash-pepper. _vil._ yellow tomato-formed. fruit similar in form to the squash-pepper, but of smaller size, erect or pendulous; orange-yellow at maturity. the variety is later than the last named; much less productive; and, for pickling, is comparatively not worthy of cultivation. * * * * * rhubarb. pie-plant. rheum sp. et var. this is a hardy, perennial plant, cultivated almost exclusively for its leaf-stalks. its general character may be described as follows: root-leaves large, round-heart-shaped, deep-green, and more or less prominently blistered; leaf-stems large, succulent, furrowed, pale-green, often stained or finely spotted with red, varying from two to three inches in diameter at the broadest part, and from a foot to three feet in length. the flower-stalk is put forth in june, and is from five to seven feet in height, according to the variety; the flowers are red or reddish-white, in erect, loose, terminal spikes; the seeds are brown, triangular, membranous at the corners, and retain their germinative properties three years. _soil and cultivation._--rhubarb succeeds best in deep, somewhat retentive soil: the richer its condition, and the deeper it is stirred, the better; as it is scarcely possible to cultivate too deeply, or to manure too highly. it may be propagated by seeds, or by a division of the roots; the latter being the usual method. when grown from seeds, the plants not only differ greatly in size and quality, but are much longer in attaining a growth suitable for cutting. "whether grown from seed, or increased by a division of the roots, a deep, rich soil, trenched to the depth of two or even three feet, is required to insure the full development of the leaf-stalks; for upon their size, rapidity of growth, and consequent tenderness of fibre, much of their merit depends. the seed should be sown in april, in drills a foot asunder; thinning the plants, when a few inches high, to nine inches apart. in the autumn or spring following, they will be fit for transplanting in rows three feet asunder, and the plants set three feet apart. if propagated by dividing the roots, it may be done either in autumn or spring; the same distance being given to the sets that is allowed for seedling plants. as, however, some of the varieties grow to a much larger size than others, a corresponding distance should be accorded them, extending to five feet between the rows, and three feet from plant to plant. "the plants should be set out singly, and not in threes, as is so often done. for the first year, the ground between the rows may be cropped with lettuce, turnips, beans, or similar low-growing crops; but, after the second year, the leaves will cover the whole space, and require it also for their full development."--_m'int._ _after-culture._--this consists in keeping the soil well enriched, open, and clear of weeds; and in breaking over the flower-stalks, that they may not weaken the roots, and consequently reduce the size and impair the quality of the leaf-stalks. _gathering the crop._--"this is usually done in spring; commencing as soon as the stalks have attained a serviceable size. no leaves, however, should be plucked the first year, and only a few of the largest and first formed during the second; and this plucking should not be made too early in the season, because, in that case, the plants would be weakened. from the third year, as long as the roots or plantations last, it may be gathered with freedom. a plantation in good soil, and not overmuch deprived of its foliage, will last from ten to fifteen years. "when the leaves are about half expanded, they may be plucked for use; but, when the largest returns are expected (as in the case of market-gardens), they should be allowed to attain their full size. in removing them, they should be pulled off close to the base, and not cut, to prevent an unnecessary escape of sap, which, in all succulent plants, flows more copiously from a clean cut than from one slightly lacerated or torn. the footstalks should then be separated from the leaves, and tied up in bundles of suitable size for market."--_m'int._ rhubarb is sometimes blanched. this may be effected without removing the plants, by means of sea-kale pots, or by empty casks open at the top, put over the crowns in march. it can, however, be more perfectly done by taking up the roots, and placing them in some dark place, with a temperature of ° or °; where they should be slightly covered with soil to prevent them from drying. when so treated, they are much more tender, crisp, and delicate than when grown exposed to the sun and air: but the quality is greatly impaired; the pulp, though somewhat acid, being generally comparatively flavorless. _use._--as before remarked, it is cultivated for its leaf-stalks; which are used early in the season, as a substitute for fruit, in pies, tarts, and similar culinary preparations. when fully grown, the expressed juice forms a tolerably palatable wine, though, with reference to health, of doubtful properties. "as an article of commercial importance in the vegetable markets, it is of very recent date. in , mr. joseph myatts, of deptford, england, long known for his successful culture of this plant, sent his two sons to the borough-market with five bunches of rhubarb-stalks, of which they could sell but three." it is now disposed of by the ton, and many acres in the vicinity of nearly all large towns and cities are devoted exclusively to its cultivation. _varieties._--these are very numerous, as they are readily produced from the seed; but the number really deserving of cultivation is comparatively limited. old kinds are constantly giving place to new, either on account of superior earliness, size, productiveness, or quality. the following are the prominent sorts cultivated:-- cahoon. leaves remarkably large, often broader than long, and more rounded than those of most varieties; stalk short and thick,--if well grown, measuring from twelve to sixteen inches in length, and three inches or more in diameter; skin thick, uniformly green. its remarkable size is its principal recommendation. the texture is coarse, the flavor is harsh and strong, and it is rarely employed for culinary purposes. in some localities, it is cultivated to a limited extent for the manufacture of wine; the juice being expressed from the stalks, and sugar added in the ratio of three pounds and a half to a gallon. this wine, though quite palatable, has little of the fine aroma of that made from the grape; and, if not actually deleterious, is much less safe and healthful. any of the other varieties may be used for the same purpose; the principal superiority of the cahoon consisting in its larger stalks, and consequently its greater product of juice. downing's colossal. a large variety, nearly of the size of myatt's victoria. it is described as being less acid than the last named, and of a fine, rich, aromatic flavor. early prince imperial. stalks of medium size; recommended by d. t. curtis, esq., chairman of the vegetable committee of the massachusetts horticultural society, as in all respects the best flavored of any variety ever tested; and commended for general cultivation, as particularly adapted to the wants of the family, if not to the wishes of the gardener, to whom size and productiveness are more than flavor. it invariably turns red in cooking, which makes it preferable for the table as a sauce. when cooked, it is of the color of currant-jelly, and remarkably fine flavored. in , it received the first prize of the massachusetts horticultural society, as the best for family use. elford. _thomp._ buck's rhubarb. an early sort, well adapted for forcing. the stalks are rather slender, covered with a thin skin of a bright-scarlet color; and their substance throughout is of a fine red, which they retain when cooked, if not peeled,--a process which, owing to the thinness of the skin, is not considered necessary. even when grown in the dark, the stalks still preserve the crimson tinge. it was raised from the seed of _rheum undulatum_. hawke's champagne. a new variety, said to equal the prince albert in earliness, and also to be of a deeper and finer color, and much more productive. it forces remarkably well; is hardy in open culture; and commands the highest market prices, both from its great size, and fine, rich color. mitchell's royal albert. _thomp._ stalks large, red, and of excellent flavor. early and prolific. myatt's linnÆus. linnæus. a medium-sized or comparatively small variety, recently introduced. "besides being the earliest of all, and remarkably productive as well as high flavored, and possessing little acidity, it has a skin so thin, that removing it is hardly necessary; and its pulp, when stewed, has the uniform consistence of baked rhode-island greenings; and it continues equally crisp and tender throughout the summer and early autumn." one of the best sorts for a small garden or for family use. myatt's victoria. victoria. leaves large, broader than long, deep-green, blistered on the surface, and much waved or undulated on the borders. leaf-stalks very large, varying from two inches and a half to three inches in their broadest diameter, and frequently measuring upwards of two feet and a half in length: the weight of a well-developed stalk, divested of the leaf, is about two pounds. they are stained with red at their base, and are often reddish, or finely spotted with red, to the nerves of the leaf. it has rather a thick skin, is more acid than many other varieties, and not particularly high flavored: but no kind is more productive; and this, in connection with its extraordinary size, makes it not only the most salable, but one of the most profitable, kinds for growing for the market. it requires a deep, highly-manured soil; and the roots should be divided and reset once in four or five years. it is about a fortnight later than the linnæus. nepal. rheum australe. _thomp._ rheum emodi. the leaf-stalks attain an immense size, but are unfit for use on account of their strongly purgative properties: but the leaves, which are frequently a yard in diameter, are useful in covering baskets containing vegetables or fruit; and for these the plant is sometimes cultivated. tobolsk rhubarb. early red tobolsk. leaves comparatively small; leaf-stalks below medium size, stained with red at the base. it is perceptibly less acid than most varieties, and remarkable for fineness of texture and delicacy of flavor. * * * * * sunflower. tall sunflower. annual sunflower. helianthus annuus. stem from five to eight feet or more in height; leaves heart-shaped, rough, three-nerved; flowers very large, terminal, nodding; the seeds are large, ovoid, angular, or compressed, nearly black, sometimes striped with white, and retain their germinative properties five years. the plant is a native of south america. dwarf sunflower. _law._ h. indicus. this species, which was introduced from egypt, differs from the last principally in its more dwarfish habit of growth, but also in being less branched. the flowers are much smaller, and generally of a lighter color. _soil and cultivation._--the sunflower will thrive in almost any soil or situation, but succeeds best on land adapted to the growth of indian corn. it is always grown from seed, which should be sown in april, or the beginning of may, in drills three feet apart. when the plants are well up, they should be thinned to a foot asunder, and afterwards cultivated in the usual manner; stirring the ground occasionally, and keeping the plants free from weeds. the flowers appear in july, and the seeds ripen in august and september. the central flower is first developed; attains a larger size than any that succeed it; and ripens its seeds in advance of those on the side-branches. the heads of seeds should be cut as they successively mature, and spread in a dry, airy situation for three or four weeks; when the seeds will become dry and hard, and can be easily rubbed or threshed out. _use._--"the seeds of both species yield an oil little inferior to that of the olive for domestic purposes, and which is also well adapted for burning. in portugal, the seeds are made into bread, and also into a kind of meal. they are also sometimes roasted, and used as a substitute for coffee; but the purpose for which they seem best adapted is the feeding of domestic fowls, pheasants and other game. the greatest objection to its culture is, that it is a most impoverishing crop, particularly the large or common tall species."--_m'int._ * * * * * tobacco. nicotiana, sp. all the species and varieties of tobacco in common cultivation are annuals; and most, if not all, are natives of this continent. "like other annual plants, it may be grown in almost every country and climate, because every country has a summer; and that is the season of life for all annual plants. in hot, dry, and short summers, like the northern summers of europe or america, tobacco-plants will not attain a large size; but the tobacco produced will be of delicate quality and good flavor. in long, moist, and not very warm summers, the plants will attain a large size,--perhaps as much so as in virginia; but the tobacco produced will not have that superior flavor, which can only be given by abundance of clear sunshine, and free, dry air. by a skilful manufacture, and probably by mixing the tobacco of cold countries with that of hot countries, by using different species, and perhaps by selecting particular varieties of the different species, the defects in flavor arising from climate may, it is likely, be greatly remedied." the species and varieties are as follow:-- connecticut seed-leaf. peach-leaf. virginia tobacco. nicotiana tabacum. [illustration: connecticut seed-leaf.] leaves oblong, regularly tapering, stemless and clasping, eighteen inches to two feet long, and from nine to twelve inches in diameter. when fully developed, the stem of the plant is erect and strong, five feet high, and separates near the top into numerous, somewhat open, spreading branches; the flowers are large, tubular, rose-colored, and quite showy and ornamental; the capsules are ovoid, or somewhat conical, and, if well grown, nearly half an inch in their greatest diameter; the seeds, which are produced in great abundance, are quite small, of a brownish color, and retain their germinative properties four years. this species is extensively cultivated throughout the middle and southern states, and also in the milder portions of new england. in the state of connecticut, and on the banks of the connecticut river in massachusetts, it is a staple product; and in some towns the value of the crop exceeds that of indian corn, and even that of all the cereals combined. guatemala tobacco. a variety with white flowers. in other respects, similar to the foregoing. numerous other sorts occur, many of which are local, and differ principally, if not solely, in the size or form of the leaves. one of the most prominent of these is the broad-leaved, which is considered not only earlier and more productive, but the best for manufacturing. _propagation._--it is propagated by seeds sown annually. select a warm, rich locality in the garden; spade it thoroughly over; pulverize the surface well; and the last of april, or beginning of may, sow the seeds thinly, broadcast; cover with a little fresh mould, and press it well upon them either by the hoe or back of the spade. as they are exceedingly minute, much care is requisite in sowing, especially that they should not be too deeply covered. when the plants appear, keep them clear of weeds, and thin them out sufficiently to allow a free growth. a bed of seedlings nine or ten feet square will be sufficient for an acre of land. if preferred, the plants may be raised in drills eight inches apart, slightly covering the seeds, and pressing the earth firmly over them, as above directed. when the seedlings are four or five inches high, they are ready for transplanting. _soil and cultivation._--tobacco requires a warm, rich soil, not too dry or wet; and, though it will succeed well on recently turned sward or clover-turf, it gives a greater yield on land that has been cultivated the year previous, as it is less liable to be infested by worms, which sometimes destroy the plants in the early stages of their growth. the land should be twice ploughed in the spring; first as soon as the frost will permit, and again just previous to setting. pulverize the surface thoroughly by repeated harrowing and rolling, and it will be ready to receive the young plants. the time for transplanting is from the st to the th of june; taking advantage of a damp day, or setting them immediately after a rain. if the ground is not moist at the time of transplanting, it will be necessary to water the plants as they are set. "the ground should be marked in straight rows three feet apart, and slight hills made on these marks two feet and a half apart; then set the plants, taking care to press the earth firmly around the roots. as soon as they are well established, and have commenced growing, run a cultivator or horse-hoe between the rows, and follow with the hand-hoe; resetting where the plants are missing. the crop should be hoed at least three times, at proper intervals; taking care to stir the soil all over. "when the plants begin to flower, the flower-stem should be broken or cut off; removing also the suckers, if any appear; leaving from twelve to sixteen leaves to be matured." _harvesting and curing._--in ordinary seasons, the crop will be ready for harvesting about the beginning of september; and should all be secured by the th of the month, or before the occurrence of frost. the stalks must be cut at the surface of the ground, and exposed long enough to the sun to wilt them sufficiently to prevent breaking in handling. they should then be suspended in a dry, airy shed or building, on poles, in such a manner as to keep each plant entirely separate from the others, to prevent mouldiness, and to facilitate the drying by permitting a free circulation of the air. thirty or forty plants may be allowed to each twelve feet of pole. the poles may be laid across the beams, about sixteen inches apart. "when erected for the purpose, the sheds are built of sufficient height to hang three or four tiers; the beams being about four feet apart, up and down. in this way, a building forty feet by twenty-two will cure an acre and a half of tobacco. the drying-shed should be provided with several doors on either side, for the free admission of air." when the stalk is well dried (which is about the last of november or beginning of december), select a damp day, remove the plants from the poles, strip off the leaves from the stalk, and form them into small bunches, or hanks, by tying the leaves of two or three plants together, winding a leaf about them near the ends of the stems; then pack down while still damp, lapping the tips of the hanks, or bunches, on each other, about a third of their length, forming a stack with the buts, or ends, of the leaf-stems outward; cover the top of the stack, but leave the ends or outside of the mass exposed to the air. in cold weather, or by mid-winter, it will be ready for market; for which it is generally packed in damp weather, in boxes containing from two to four hundred pounds. a fair average yield per acre is from fourteen to eighteen hundred pounds. _to save seed._--"allow a few of the best plants to stand without removing the flowering-shoots. in july and august, they will have a fine appearance; and, if the season be favorable, each plant will produce as much seed as will sow a quarter of an acre by the drill system, or stock half a dozen acres by transplanting." a single capsule, or seed-pod, contains about a thousand seeds. green tobacco. turkish tobacco. nicotiana rustica. leaves oval, from seven to ten inches long, and six or seven inches broad, produced on long petioles. compared with the preceding species, they are much smaller, deeper colored, more glossy, thicker, and more succulent. when fully grown, the plant is of a pyramidal form, and about three feet in height. the flowers are numerous, greenish-yellow, tubular, and nearly entire on the borders; the seed-vessels are ovoid, more depressed at the top than those of the connecticut seed-leaf, and much more prolific; seeds small, brownish. [illustration: green tobacco.] the green tobacco is early, and remarkably hardy, but not generally considered worthy of cultivation in localities where the connecticut seed-leaf can be successfully grown. it is well adapted to the northern parts of new england and the canadas; where it will almost invariably yield an abundance of foliage, and perfect its seeds. "it is very generally cultivated, almost to the exclusion of the other species, in the north of germany, russia, and sweden, where almost every cottager grows his own tobacco for smoking. it also seems to be the principal sort grown in ireland." there are several varieties, among which may be mentioned the oronoco and the negro-head, both of which have the hardiness and productiveness common to the species, but are not considered remarkably well flavored. the plants should be started in spring, and transplanted as directed for the connecticut seed-leaf; but, on account of its smaller size and habit, two feet, or even twenty inches, between the plants, will be all the space required. * * * * * tomato. love-apple. solanum lycopersicum. the tomato is a native of south america. it is a half-hardy annual, and is said to have been introduced into england as early as . for a long period, it was very little used; and the peculiar, specific term, _lycopersicum_, derived from _lykos_, "wolf," and _persicon_, "a peach" (referring to the beautiful but deceptive appearance of the fruit), more than intimates the kind of estimation in which it was held. it first began to be generally used in italy, subsequently in france, and finally in england. in this country, its cultivation and use may be said to have increased fourfold within the last twenty years; and it is now so universally relished, that it is furnished to the table, in one form or another, through every season of the year. to a majority of tastes, its flavor is not at first particularly agreeable; but, by those accustomed to its use, it is esteemed one of the best, as it is also reputed to be one of the most healthful, of all garden vegetables. when fully grown, the tomato-plant is from four to seven feet and upwards in height or length, with a branching, irregular, recumbent stem, and dense foliage. the flowers are yellow, in branching groups, or clusters; the fruit is red, white, or yellow, and exceedingly variable in size and form; the seeds are lens-shaped, yellowish-white, or pale-gray,--twenty-one thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality five years. _propagation._--the tomato is raised from seeds, which should be sown in a hot-bed in march, or in the open ground as soon as the frost will permit. as the plants, even in the most favorable seasons, seldom perfectly mature their full crop, they should be started as early and forwarded as rapidly as possible, whether by hot-bed or open-air culture. if the seeds are sown in a hot-bed, the drills should be made five inches apart, and half an inch deep. when the plants are two inches high, they should be removed to another part of the bed, and pricked out four or five inches apart, or removed into small pots, allowing a single plant to a pot. they are sometimes twice transplanted, allowing more space or a larger pot at each removal; by which process, the plants are rendered more sturdy and branching than they become by being but once transplanted. as early in may as the weather is suitable, the plants may be set in the open ground where they are to remain, and should be three feet apart in each direction; or, if against a wall or trellis, three feet from plant to plant. water freely at the time of transplanting, shelter from the sun for a few days or until they are well established, and cultivate in the usual form during summer. if sown in the open ground, select a sheltered situation, pulverize the soil finely, and sow a few seeds in drills, as directed for the hot-bed. this may be done in november (just before the closing-up of the ground), or the last of march, or first of april. in may, when the plants are three or four inches high, transplant to where they are to remain, as before directed. in gardens where tomatoes have been cultivated, young plants often spring up abundantly from the seeds of the decayed fruit of the preceding season. these, if transplanted, will succeed as well, and frequently produce fruit as early, as plants from the hot-bed or nursery-bed. sufficient plants for the garden of a small family may be started with little trouble by sowing a few seeds in a garden-pan or large flower-pot, and placing it in a sunny window of the sitting-room or kitchen. if the seed is sown in this manner about the middle or th of march, the plants will be of good size for setting by the time the weather will be suitable for their removal. _forcing the crop._--"the ripening of the fruit may be hastened by setting the plants against a south wall or close fence. as the plants increase in size, they must be nailed or otherwise attached to the wall or fence; and, if the weather be dry, liberally watered. when the two first trusses of bloom have expanded over each shoot, the shoot should be stopped by pinching off the portion which is beyond the leaf above the second truss, and no more lateral shoots should be suffered to grow; but the leaves must be carefully preserved, especially those near the trusses of bloom. the number of shoots on each plant will vary according to the strength and vigor of the particular plant; but three or four will be quite enough, leaving about half a dozen trusses of fruit. "as the fruit ripens, it must be well exposed to the sun. there will be nothing gained by allowing a great many fruit to ripen. the number above given will be sufficient, and the tomatoes will be much earlier and larger than if they were more numerous." _culture and training._--a convenient, simple, and economical support for the plants may be made from three narrow hoops,--one twelve, another fifteen, and the third eighteen or twenty inches in diameter,--and attaching them a foot from each other to three stakes about four feet in length; placing the lower hoop so that it may be about ten inches from the surface of the ground after the stakes are driven. the adjoining figure illustrates this method of training. it secures abundance of light, free access of air, and, in skilful hands, may be made quite ornamental. [illustration: hoop-training of the tomato.] [illustration: trellis-training.] or a trellis may be cheaply formed by setting common stakes, four feet in length, four feet apart, on a line with the plants, and nailing laths, or narrow strips of deal, from stake to stake, nine inches apart on the stakes; afterwards attaching the plants by means of bass, or other soft, fibrous material, to the trellis, in the manner of grape-vines or other climbing plants. by either of these methods, the plants not only present a neater appearance, but the ripening of the fruit is facilitated, and the crop much more conveniently gathered when required for use. the french mode of raising tomatoes is as follows: "as soon as a cluster of flowers is visible, they top the stem down to the cluster, so that the flowers terminate the stem. the effect is, that the sap is immediately impelled into the two buds next below the cluster, which soon push strongly, and produce another cluster of flowers each. when these are visible, the branch to which they belong is also topped down to their level; and this is done five times successively. by this means, the plants become stout, dwarf bushes, not above eighteen inches high. in order to prevent their falling over, sticks or strings are stretched horizontally along the rows, so as to keep the plants erect. in addition to this, all laterals that have no flowers, and, after the fifth topping, all laterals whatsoever, are nipped off. in this way, the ripe sap is directed into the fruit, which acquires a beauty, size, and excellence unattainable by other means."--_gard. chron._ _varieties._--these are quite numerous. some are merely nominal, many are variable or quite obscure, and a few appear to be distinct, and, in a degree, permanent. the principal are as follow:-- apple-tomato. apple-shaped. fruit somewhat flattened, inclining to globular, depressed about the stem, but smooth and regular in its general outline. the size is quite variable; but, if well grown, the average diameter is about two inches and a half, and the depth two inches. skin deep, rich crimson; flesh bright-pink, or rose-color,--the rind being thick and hard, and not readily reduced to a pulp when cooked. [illustration: apple-tomato.] the apple-tomato is early, hardy, productive, keeps well, and, for salad and certain forms of cookery, is much esteemed; but it is more liable to be hollow-hearted than any other of the large varieties. in form, as well as in the thick, tough character of its rind, it resembles the bermuda. bermuda. this is a red or rose-colored, apple-formed sort, extensively imported from bermuda into the middle and northern states in may and the early summer months. like the preceding variety, it varies considerably in size,--some specimens measuring little more than an inch in diameter; while others from the same plant, matured at nearly the same season, frequently exceed a diameter of two inches and a half. it possesses a thick, rather tough rind, which rarely becomes pulpy in the process of cooking; and, besides, is quite light and hollow-hearted. in size and form, it somewhat resembles the apple-tomato. when cultivated in new england or the middle states, it has little merit, either for its productiveness or early maturity. fejee. fruit quite large, red, often blushed or tinged with pinkish-crimson, flattened, sometimes ribbed, often smooth, well filled to the centre; flesh pink, or pale-red, firm, and well flavored; plant hardy, healthy, and a strong grower. seeds received from different reliable sources, and recommended as being strictly true, produced plants and fruit in no respects distinguishable from the perfected. fig-tomato. red pear-shaped tomato. [illustration: fig-tomato.] a small, red, pyriform or pear-shaped sort, measuring from an inch and a quarter to an inch and a half in length, and nearly an inch in its broadest diameter. flesh pale-red, or pink, very solid and compact, and generally completely filling the centre of the fruit. like the plum-tomato, it is remarkably uniform in size, and also in shape; but it is little used except for preserving,--other larger varieties being considered more economical for stewing, making catchup, and like purposes. the variety is usually employed for making tomato-figs, which are thus prepared:-- "pour boiling water over the tomatoes, in order to remove the skin; after which, weigh, and place in a stone jar, with as much sugar as tomatoes, and let them stand two days; then pour off the sirup, and boil and skim it till no scum rises; pour it over the tomatoes, and let them stand two days as before; then boil, and skim again. after the third time, they are fit to dry, if the weather is good; if not, let them stand in the sirup until drying weather. then place them on large earthen plates, or dishes, and put them in the sun to dry, which will take about a week; after which, pack them down in small wooden boxes, with fine, white sugar between every layer. tomatoes prepared in this manner will keep for years."--_mrs. eliza marsh, in hov. mag._ giant tomato. _hov. mag._ mammoth. an improved variety of the common large red, attaining a much larger size. fruit comparatively solid, bright-red, sometimes smooth, but generally ribbed, and often exceedingly irregular; some of the larger specimens seemingly composed of two or more united together. the fruit is frequently produced in masses or large clusters, which clasp about the stem, and rest so closely in the axils of the branches as to admit of being detached only by the rending asunder of the fruit itself; flesh pale-pink, and well flavored. like most of the other varieties, the amount of product is in a great degree dependent on soil, culture, and season. under favorable conditions, twenty-five pounds to a single plant is not an unusual yield; single specimens of the fruit sometimes weighing four and even five or six pounds. the giant tomato is not early, and, for the garden, perhaps not superior to many other kinds; but for field-culture, for market, for making catchup in quantities, or for the use of pickle-warehouses, it is recommended as one of the best of all the sorts now cultivated. grape or cluster tomato. solanum sp. this variety, or more properly species, differs essentially in the character of its foliage, and manner of fructification, from the garden tomato. the leaves are much smoother, thinner in texture, and have little of the musky odor peculiar to the common tomato-plant. the fruit is nearly globular, quite small, about half an inch in diameter, of a bright-scarlet color, and produced in leafless, simple, or compound clusters, six or eight inches in length, containing from twenty to sixty berries, or tomatoes; the whole having an appearance not unlike a large cluster, or bunch of currants. the plants usually grow about three feet in height or length; and, in cultivation, should be treated in all respects like those of other varieties. flowers yellow, and comparatively small. early. though quite ornamental, it is of little value in domestic economy, on account of its diminutive size. large red tomato. [illustration: large red tomato.] fruit sometimes smooth, often irregular, flattened, more or less ribbed; size large, but varied much by soil and cultivation,--well-grown specimens are from three to four inches in diameter, two inches and a half in depth, and weigh from eight to twelve ounces; skin smooth, glossy, and, when ripe, of a fine red color; flesh pale-red, or rose-color,--the interior of the fruit being comparatively well filled; flavor good. not early, but one of the most productive of all the varieties; the plants, when properly treated, producing from twelve to fifteen pounds each. from the time of the introduction of the tomato to its general use in this country, the large red was almost the only kind cultivated, or even commonly known. the numerous excellent sorts now almost everywhere disseminated, including the large red, oval, fejee, seedless, giant, and lester's perfected, are but improved sub-varieties, obtained from the common large red by cultivation and selection. large red oval-fruited tomato. a sub-variety of the large red. fruit oval, flattened, much less ribbed, more symmetrical, and more uniform in size, than the last named; well-grown specimens measure about four inches in one direction, three inches in the opposite, and two inches in depth; skin fine, deep-red, smooth and shining; flesh paler, the interior of the fruit well filled with pulp, and, when cooked, yielding a large product in proportion to the bulk. prolific and well flavored, but not early; ripening at the time of the large red. the variety is exceedingly liable to degenerate, constantly tending towards the large red; and can only be maintained in its purity by exclusive cultivation, and a continued use of seeds selected from the fairest, smoothest, best ripened tomatoes, having the peculiar oval form by which the variety is distinguished. large yellow. plant, in its general character, not distinguishable from the large red. the fruit also is quite similar in form and size; the principal mark of distinction being its color, which is a fine, clear, semi-transparent yellow. flesh yellow, well filling the centre, and perhaps a little sweeter or milder than the red; though generally not distinguishable when stewed or otherwise prepared for the table. the variety is hardy, yields abundantly, and comes to perfection with the large red. it is, however, not generally cultivated; the red descriptions being more commonly used, and consequently better adapted for cultivation for the market. mexican. fruit large, comparatively smooth, frequently of an oval form, bright-red, often tinted with rose or bright-pink; flesh pink, solid, filling the fruit to the centre. it is similar to, if not identical with, the perfected. perfected. lester's perfected. pomo d'oro lesteriano. a recently introduced and comparatively distinct variety. plant remarkably healthy and vigorous, often attaining a height or length of six or eight feet, and, in strong soil, of more than ten feet; fruit pinkish-red, or rose-red, of large size, comparatively smooth and regular, flattened, remarkably solid and well filled to the centre, and, when cooked, yielding a large return in proportion to its bulk; flesh firm, well flavored, with comparatively few seeds intermixed. in this last respect, not unlike the seedless. when started at the same time, it ripens two weeks after the early varieties, and continues to yield in great abundance until the plants are destroyed by frost. it is considered one of the best sorts for cultivation for the market, and by many is preferred to all others for the garden. on the authority of a recent writer, the variety has already, to some extent, degenerated. impure seed, or the influence of some peculiar locality, may have furnished grounds for the statement; but if the variety is genuine or unmixed, it will, in almost any soil or exposure, commend itself by its hardiness, solidity, and great productiveness. red cherry-tomato. a small, red tomato, nearly spherical, and about half an inch in diameter. the fruit is produced in great profusion, in large bunches, or clusters; but is comparatively of little value, on account of its small size. it is sometimes used as a preserve, and by some is esteemed for pickling. red plum-tomato. fruit bright-red or scarlet, oval, solid, an inch and a quarter or an inch and a half in depth, and about an inch in diameter; flesh pink, or rose-red, mild and well flavored; seeds comparatively few. the variety is remarkable for its symmetry and for its uniform size. when ripe, the fruit is not easily distinguished from some varieties of scarlet plums. it is hardy, early, and yields abundantly: but the fruit is employed principally for pickling and preserving; its small size rendering it of little value for stewing or for catchup. mixed with the yellow, they make a fine garnish, and are excellent for salad. round red. a small, round, red variety, measuring about an inch in diameter. it is one of the earliest of all the cultivated sorts, but of little value except for pickling or preserving. round yellow. of the size and form of the foregoing, differing only in color. seedless. very similar to, if not identical with, the perfected. fruit almost rose-red, solid, and with comparatively few seeds. tree-tomato. _vil._ _hov. mag._ new upright. tomate de laye. a new variety, raised from seed by grenier, gardener to m. de fleurieux, at a place in france called chateau de laye (whence the name), and introduced by m. vilmorin of paris. it is distinct from all others; rising quite erect to the height of two feet or upwards, with a stem of remarkable size and strength. the branches are not numerous, and comparatively short, usually eight or ten inches in length,--thus requiring no heading-in; leaves not abundant, rather curled, much wrinkled, very firm, closely placed on the sturdy branches, and of a remarkably deep, shining-green color; fruit bright-red, of large size, comparatively smooth, and well filled to the centre,--in many respects, resembling the perfected, though more regular in form. from the peculiar, tree-like character of the plants, the variety is remarkably well adapted for cultivation in pots; but its late maturity greatly impairs its value as a variety for forcing. it is a slow grower, tardy in forming and perfecting its fruit, and, for ordinary garden culture, cannot be recommended as being preferable to the perfected and other earlier and much more prolific varieties. it has been described as strictly self-supporting: but, though the fruit is produced in a remarkably close and almost clasping manner about the sturdy stem and branches, its weight often brings the plants to the ground; and consequently, in exposed situations, it will be necessary to provide stakes, or some similar means of support; though the plants never exhibit the rambling, recumbent character of the common tomato. white tomato. plant similar in habit to the large red; fruit large, generally ribbed, often irregular, but sometimes comparatively smooth. its distinguishing characteristic is its color, which, if the fruit be screened by foliage or if grown in the shade, is almost clear white; if much exposed to the sun, it assumes a yellowish tinge, much paler, however, than the large yellow. flesh yellowish, more watery than that of the large red, and of a somewhat peculiar flavor, much esteemed by some, and unpalatable to others. the variety is hardy, remarkably productive, as early as the large red, and equally large and solid: but its color, before and after being cooked, is unattractive; and it is rarely seen in the markets, and seldom cultivated for family use. white's extra early. early red. extra early. a medium-sized red variety, generally round, but frequently of an oval form, flattened, sometimes ribbed, but comparatively smooth, and, when fully matured, of a deeper color than the later red sorts. average specimens measure about two inches and a half in diameter, and an inch and a half in depth. the plants are moderately vigorous, and readily distinguished by their peculiar curled and apparently withering foliage. flesh pale-red, quite firm, mild, not very seedy, and well filling the fruit, which is considerably heavier than the apple-shaped. when cooked, it yields a much greater product, in proportion to its size, than the last-named and similar hollow-hearted varieties. productive, and of good quality. planted at the same time with the common red varieties, it will ripen about two weeks earlier. an excellent sort for the garden, and recommended for general cultivation. in order to retain this or any other early variety in its purity, seed for planting should be saved from the smoothest, best formed, and earliest ripened fruit. few of the numerous kinds now cultivated possess much permanency of character; and rapidly degenerate, if raised from seed taken from the scattered, irregular, and comparatively immature tomatoes remaining upon the plants at the close of the season. yellow cherry-tomato. a yellow variety of the red cherry-tomato,--differing only in color. quite showy, but of little value for culinary purposes. yellow pear-shaped tomato. yellow fig-tomato. a sub-variety of the red pear-shaped, with a clear, semi-transparent, yellow skin and yellow flesh. like the preceding, it is little used except for preserving and pickling. yellow plum-tomato. a variety of the red plum, of the same size and form, and equally symmetrical; distinguished only by the color of its skin, which is a fine, clear, transparent yellow. it is used principally for preserving; its small size rendering it comparatively valueless for use in any other form. when the two varieties are intermixed, the colors present a fine contrast; and a basket of the fruit is quite a beautiful object. index. agaricus campestris, . " comatus, . " deliciosus, . " exquisitus, . " georgii, . " oreades, . " personatus, . " prunulus, . alecost, . alexanders, . perfoliate, . alisanders, . alkekengi, . purple, . tall, . alliaceous plants, . allium ampeloprasum, . " ascalonicum, . " cepa, . " fistulosum, . " porrum, . " sativum, . " schoenoprasum, . " scorodoprasum, . allspice, . amaranthus, . chinese, . early, . hantsi shanghai, . mirza, . american brooklime, . american garden-bean, . american winter-cress, . anethum graveolens, . angelica, . " archangelica, . anise, . annual phytolacca, . anthemis nobilis, . " nobilis flore pleno, . apium graveolens, . " petroselinum, . arrach, . arachys hypogea, . aromatic nigella, . artemesia abrotanum, . " absynthium, . " dracunculus, . " maritimum, . " pontica, . artichoke, . camus de bretagne, . common, . dark red-spined, . early purple, . french, . globe, . green, . green globe, . green provence, . gros vert de laon, . laon, . large flat brittany, . large round-headed, . purple, . purple globe, . purplish-red, . violet, . asparaginous plants, . asparagus, . asperge d'allemagne, . battersea, . deptford, . dutch, . german, . giant purple-top, . grayson's giant, . gravesend, . green-top, . mortlake, . reading, . red-top, . asparagus officinalis, . astragalus hamosus, . atriplex hortensis, . avilès cabbage, . balm, . balsamita vulgaris, . barbadoes gooseberry, . barbarea præcox, . " vulgaris, . basella alba, . " cordifolia, . " rubra, . basil, . bush, . common, . fin vert, . fin violet, . grand violet, . green bush, . large sweet, . lettuce-leaved, . purple, . purple bush, . bean, american garden, . dwarf varieties, . bagnolet, . black-eyed china, . blue pod, . canada yellow, . canadian, . chilian, . china, . crescent-eyed, . dun-colored, . dwarf case-knife, . dwarf cimeter, . dwarf cranberry, . dwarf horticultural, . dwarf sabre, . dwarf soissons, . dwarf white cranberry, . dwarf yellow, . early china, . early mohawk, . early rachel, . early valentine, . golden cranberry, . kidney, . large white kidney, . long yellow six-weeks, . mohawk, . newington wonder, . pea, . pottawottomie, . red-eyed china, . red flageolet, . red-speckled, . refugee, . rice, . rob-roy, . round american kidney, , . round yellow, . round yellow six-weeks, . royal dwarf, . scarlet flageolet, . scarlet swiss, . six-weeks, . solitaire, . swiss crimson, . tampico, . thousand to one, . turtle-soup, . valentine, . variegated dwarf prague, . victoria, . white's early, . white egg, . white flageolet, . white kidney, . white marrow, . white marrowfat, . yellow-eyed china, . yellow flageolet, . yellow six-weeks, . beans, running or pole, . algerian, . asparagus, . butter, . carolina, . carolina sewee, . case-knife, . cimeter, . corn, . d' alger, . green lima, . horticultural, . indian chief, . lima, . london horticultural, . long-podded dolichos, . marbled prague, . mottled cranberry, . mottled lima, . mottled prolific, . mottled sieva, . painted lady-runner, . prédhomme, . princess, . red cranberry, . red orleans, . rhode-island butter, . saba, . sabre, . scarlet orleans, . scarlet-runner, . sieva, . small lima, . soissons, . wax, . west-indian, . white cranberry, . white-runner, . wild-goose, . yellow cranberry, . bean, english, . bog, . cluster, . dark-red, . dutch long pod, . dwarf fan, . early dwarf, . early dwarf crimson-seeded, . early long pod, . early malta, . early mazagan, . evergreen long pod, . green china, . green genoa, . green julienne, . green long pod, . green nonpareil, . green windsor, . hang-down long pod, . horse-bean, , . johnson's wonderful, . kentish windsor, . large toker, . lisbon, . long-podded, . marshall's early dwarf prolific, . mumford, . purple, . red-blossomed, . red windsor, . royal dwarf cluster, . sandwich, . scarlet-blossomed, . scarlet windsor, . scotch, . sword long pod, . taylor's large windsor, . toker, , . turkey long pod, . vilmorin's dwarf red-seeded, . violet, . violette, . white-blossomed long pod, . white broad windsor, . windsor, . wrench's improved windsor, . bean, french, . bean, kidney, . beet, . bark-skinned, . barrott's new crimson, . bassano, . betterave blanche, . betterave globe rouge, . betterave jaune globe, . cattell's dwarf blood, . common long blood, . cow-horn mangel wurzel, . cow-horn scarcity, . disette blanche à collet verte, . disette d'allemagne, . disette hative, . dwarf blood, . early blood turnip-rooted, . early flat bassano, . early half long blood, . early mangel wurzel, . early scarcity, . early turnip beet, . fine dwarf red, . german red mangel wurzel, . german yellow mangel wurzel, . green mangel wurzel, . green-top white sugar, . half long blood, . improved long blood, . jaune d'allemagne, . jaune grosse, . long blood, . long red mangel wurzel, . long smooth blood, . long white green-top mangel wurzel, . long white mangel wurzel, . long yellow mangel wurzel, . marbled field, . oak bark-skinned, . pine-apple short-top, . red castelnaudary, . red globe mangel wurzel, . red mangel wurzel, . rouge de whyte, . rouge nain, . rouge plate de bassano, . serpent-like, . turnip-rooted bassano, . white globe mangel wurzel, . white silesian, . white sugar, . white turnip-rooted, . whyte's dark crimson, . wyatt's dark crimson, . yellow castelnaudary, . yellow globe mangel wurzel, . yellow turnip-rooted, . beet, leaf, . beet, sea, . belle-isle cress, . bene-plant, . biformed-leaved, . oval-leaved, . trifid-leaved, . beta cicla, . " maritima, . " vulgaris, . black cumin, . black nightshade, . black oyster-plant, . black salsify, . blitum bonus henricus, . boletus edulis, . " scaber, . borage, . blue-flowering, . red-flowering, . variegated, . white-flowering, . borago officinalis, . borecole, or kale, . asparagus, . branchu du poitou, . buda, . cabbaging, . canada dwarf curled, . caulet de flanders, . cesarean, . cesarean cabbage, . chou à faucher, . chou à mille têtes, . chou cavalier, . chou de lannilis, . chou frisé de naples, . chou frisé prolifère, . chou moellier, . chou palmier, . chou vivace de daubenton, . coxcomb, . cow-cabbage, . curled brown . curled proliferous, . daubenton's creeping, . dwarf feather, . dwarf curled, . dwarf curlies, . dwarf green curled, . field cabbage, . field kale, . flanders, . frisé à pied court, . frisé grand du nord, . frisé panaché, . frisé rouge grand, . green marrow-stem, . green scotch, . imperial hearting, . lannilis, . lannilis tree-cabbage, . manchester, . neapolitan, . neapolitan curled, . oak-leaved, . palm, . purple, . red, . red marrow-stem, . red-stalked, . russian, . tall green, . tall green curled, . tall german greens, . tall purple, . tall scotch, . thousand-headed, . tree-cabbage, . variegated, . variegated canadian, . variegated coxcomb, . woburn perennial, . bottle gourd, , . brassica campestris, . " campestris ruta-baga, . " caulo rapa, . " chinensis, . " eruca, . " napa, . " oleracea, , , . " oleracea bullata, . " oleracea sabellica, . " præcox, . " rapa, , . brassicaceous plants, . broccoli, . adam's early white, . ambler's early white, . asparagus, . autumn white, . autumnal cape, . bath white, . blue cape, . brimstone, . cauliflower, . chappell's large cream, . chappell's new cream, . covent-garden market, . cream-colored, . danish, . devonshire white, . dilliston's late white, . dwarf brown close-headed, . dwarf danish, . dwarf roman, . dwarf swedish, . early branching, . early gem, . early purple, . early purple cape, . early purple sprouting, . early white, , . early white cornish, . edinburgh sulphur, . ellertson's gigantic late white, . ellertson's mammoth, . fine early white, . fine late sulphur, . frogmore protecting, . gem, . gillespie's, . gill's yarmouth white, . grange's cauliflower, . grange's early cape, . grange's early cauliflower, . grange's early white, . green cape, . green close-headed winter, . hammond's white cape, . hampton court, . hopwood's early white, . howden's superb purple, . imperial early white, . invisible, . invisible late white, . italian purple, . italian sprouting, . kent's late white, . kidderminster, . knight's protecting, . lake's gem, . late brimstone, . late danish, . late dwarf purple, . late green, , . late willcove, . maher's hardy cape, . maher's new dwarf, . marshall's early white, . miller's dwarf, . miller's late white, . mitchell's ne plus ultra, . mitchinson's early white, . mitchinson's penzance, . naples white, . neapolitan white, . north's early purple, . portsmouth, . purple cape, . purple silesian, . siberian, , . snow's spring white, . snow's superb white winter, . southampton, . sulphur, . walcheren, . ward's superb, . waterloo late white, . white cape, . willcove, . brook-lime, . american, . brussels sprouts, . dwarf, . giant, . tall, . buckshorn plantain, . burnet, . hairy-leaved, . large-seeded, . smooth-leaved, . cabbage, . american drumhead, . american green glazed, . atkins's matchless, . barnes's early, . barnes's early dwarf, . bergen drumhead, . champion of america, . chou de vaugirard, . coeur de boeuf petit, . dwarf battersea, . early battersea, . early cornish, . early drumhead, . early dutch drumhead, . early dutch twist, . early dwarf battersea, . early hope, . early low dutch, . early nonpareil, . early sugar-loaf, . early wakefield, . early york, . east ham, . great american, . green glazed, . large bergen, . large flat dutch, . large french ox-heart, . large german drumhead, . large late drumhead, . large ox-heart, . large york, . marblehead mammoth drumhead, . mason, . paignton, . penton, . pentonville, . pointed-head, . pomeranian, . premium flat dutch, . quintal, . shilling's queen, . small ox-heart, . st. denis, . stone-mason, . suttons's dwarf comb, . vannack, . vaugirard, . waite's new dwarf, . winnigstadt, . cabbage: red varieties, . chou noirâtre d'utrecht, . early blood-red, . early dwarf-red, . large red dutch, . small red, . superfine black, . utrecht red, . calabash, or common gourd, . bottle gourd, , . courge massue d'hercule, . courge poire à poudre, . courge siphon, . hercules club, . powder-horn, . siphon, . calendula officinalis, . camomile, . common, . double-flowering, . campanula rapunculus, . capsicum, . capucine, . dwarf, . caraway, . cardamine pratensis, . cardoon, . artichoke-leaved, . blood-ribbed, . cardon de tours, . common, . d'espagne, . lance-leaved, . large purple, . large smooth, . large spanish, . large tours solid, . plein inerme, . puvis, . puvis de bourg, . red, . red-stemmed, . smooth large solid, . tours, . carolina potato, . carrot, . altrincham, . altringham, . blanche des vosges, . blood red, . common white, . dutch horn, . earliest short forcing horn, . early forcing horn, . early frame, . early half long scarlet, . early horn, . early scarlet horn, . early short dutch, . early short scarlet, . flander's large pale scarlet, . flander's pale-red, . green-top white, . half-long red, . james's scarlet, . long lemon, . long orange, . long red, . long red altringham, . long red belgian, . long red brunswick, . long surrey, . long white, . long yellow, . new intermediate, . purple, . short white, . studley, . transparent white, . violette, . white belgian, . white belgian horn, . yellow belgian, . yellow green-top belgian, . carthamus tinctorius, . carum carui, . caterpillar, . common, . furrowed, . grosse, . hairy, . prickly, . rayée, . small, . velue, . villous, . cauliflower, . early leyden, . early london, . early paris, . erfurt's early, . erfurt's extra early, . fitch's early london, . large asiatic, . legge's walcheren broccoli, . le normand, . london particular, . mitchell's hardy early, . stadthold, . waite's alma, . walcheren, . wellington, . celeriac, . curled-leaved, . early erfurt, . frisé, . rave d'erfurt, . celery, . à couper, . boston-market, . cole's superb red, . cole's superb white, . "dwarf-curled white, . early dwarf solid white, . fine white solid, . giant patagonian, . giant white, . italian, . laing's improved mammoth red, . large upright, . lion's paw, . manchester red, . manchester red giant, . nain frisé, . new large purple, . new large red, . nutt's champion white, . plein blanc, . plein blanc court hatif, . prussian, . red solid, . seymour's superb white solid, . seymour's white champion, . shepherd's giant red, . shepherd's red, . small dutch, . sutton's white solid, . tours purple, . turc, . turkey, . turkish giant solid, . violet de tours, . wall's white, . white lion's paw, . white solid, . chærophyllum bulbosum, . " cerefolium, . champignon, . chardon, . chardoon, . chenille, . chenopodium quinoa, . chervil, . common, . curled, . double-curled, . french, . frisé, . frizzled-leaved, . parsnip, . plain-leaved, . sweet-scented, . turnip-rooted, . chiccory, . brunswick large-rooted, . coffee, . improved, . improved variegated, . large-rooted, . magdebourg large-rooted, . sauvage améliorée, . spotted, . turnip-rooted, . variegated, . chickling vetch, . white-flowered, . chick-pea, . red, . white, . yellow, . chinese amaranthus, . " cabbage, , . " potato, . " spinach, . chives, . chufa, . ciboule, . cicer arietinum, . cichorium endivia, . " intybus, . cive, . clary, . sage, . clavaria, . climbing nightshade, . cochlearia armoracia, . " officinalis, . cole-seed, . colewort, . rosette, . collards, . collet, . coltsfoot, . colza, . concombre chaté, . des prophètes, . convolvulus batatus, . corchorus, . " olitorius, . corette potagère, . coriander, . coriandrum sativum, . corn, . corn: garden varieties, . adam's early white, . black sweet, . burr's improved, . burr's sweet, . darling's early, . darling's early sweet, . early jefferson, . golden sweet, . golden sugar, . old-colony, . parching corn, white kernel, . pop corn, . pop corn, yellow, . red-cob sweet, . rice, red kernel, . " white kernel, . " yellow kernel, . slate sweet, . stowell's evergreen, . stowell's evergreen sweet, . turkey wheat, . tuscarora, . twelve-rowed sweet, . corn: field varieties, . brown, . canada yellow, . dutton, . early canada, . early dutton, . hill, . illinois white, . illinois yellow, . improved king philip, . king philip, . new-england eight-rowed, . old-colony premium, . parker, . smutty white, . southern white, . southern yellow, . webster, . western white, . western yellow, . white horse-tooth, . whitman, . whitman improved, . yellow horse-tooth, . corn salad, . common, . italian, . large round-leaved, . large seeded round, . costmary, . hoary-leaved, . couve tronchuda, . " à côtes blanches, . " dwarf, . " fringed, . " large-ribbed, . " white-ribbed, . crambe maritima, . cress, or peppergrass, . broad-leaved, . common, . curled, . garnishing, . golden, . normandy curled, . plain-leaved, . crithmum maritimum, . crummock, . cuckoo flower, . double purple flowering, . double white flowering, . purple, . white, . cucumber, . carter's superior, . conqueror of the west, . cuthill's black spine, . doctor, . early cluster, . early green cluster, . early frame, . early long green prickly, . early russian, . early short green prickly, . early white-spined, . eggleston's conqueror, . egyptian, . extra long green turkey, . flanigan's prize, . globe, . hairy, . hunter's prolific, . improved sion house, . irishman, . jamaica, . london long green, . long green prickly, . long green turkey, . long prickly, . lord kenyon's favorite, . manchester prize, . nepal, . new-york market, . norman stitchworth-park hero, . old sion house, . prize-fighter, . rifleman, . ringleader, . roman emperor, . round-leaved egyptian, . serpent, . short green, . short green prickly, . short prickly, . snake, . southgate, . sponge, . underwood's short prickly, . victory of bath, . west-indian, . white spanish, . white-spined, . cucumis acutangulus, . " anguria, . " chate, . " flexuosus, . " melo, . " prophetarum, . " sativus, . cucurbita aurantiaca, . " citrullus, . " lagenaria, . " maxima, . " ovifera, . " piliformis, . " pepo, . " verrucosa, . cucurbitaceous plants, . cultivated lathyrus, . cumin, . " cyminum, . cynara cardunculus, . cynarus scolymus, . cyperus esculentus, . dandelion, . daucus carota, . deppe's oxalis, . dill, . dioscorea batatas, . dolichos sesquipedalis, . earth almond, . earth nut, . eatable-podded pease, . eatable-rooted pea, . edible cyperus, . egg-plant, . american large purple, . chinese long white, . guadaloupe striped, . large round purple, . long purple, . new-york improved, . round purple, . scarlet-fruited, . white, . egyptian cucumber, . egyptian pea, . elecampane, . endive, . endives, batavian, . broad-leaved, . common yellow, . curled, . large, . lettuce-leaved, . scarolle blonde, . scarolle courte, . scarolle grande, . small, . white, . endives, curled, . chicorée frisée de ruffec, . " mousse, . dutch green curled, . early fine curled rouen, . ever-blanched, . green curled, . green curled summer, . italian green curled, . large green curled, . long italian green, . picpus fine curled, . ruffec curled, . small green curled, . staghorn, . triple-curled moss, . white curled, . winter moss, . english bean, . english turnip, . ervum lens, . " monanthos, . esculent roots, . evening primrose, . faber vulgaris arvensis, . fedia cornucopiæ, . fennel, . bitter, . common, . dark green-leaved, . florence, . italian, . malta, . sweet, . sweet azorian, . fetticus, . finochio, . foeniculum dulce, . " officinale, . " vulgare, . four spices, . french bean, . french spinach, . french turnip, . garden bean, american, . garden bean, english, . garden patience, . garden picridium, . garden rocket, . garget, . garlic, . common, . early pink, . early rose, . great-headed, . german rampion, . gherkin, . globe cucumber, . glycyrrhiza glabra, . golden samphire, . good king henry, . goosefoot, , . gourd, . green mint, . ground bean, . ground cherry, . " purple, . " tall, . ground nut, . gumbo, . hairy cucumber, . haricot, . hedeoma pulegioides, . helianthus annuus, . " indicus, . " tuberosus, . herb patience, . hibiscus esculentus, . hoarhound, . hoosung, . hop, . horse-bean, , . horse-radish, . humulus lupulus, . hyssop, . blue-flowering, . common, . red-flowering, . white-flowering, . hyssopus officinalis, . indian cress, . inula crithmifolia, . " helenium, . ipomoea batatas, . jamaica cucumber, . japanese yam, . jerusalem artichoke, . common white, . purple-skinned, . red-skinned, . yellow-skinned, . kale (see "borecole "), . kidney-bean, . kohl rabi, . artichoke-leaved, . cut-leaved, . early dwarf white, . early purple vienna, . early white vienna, . green, . purple, . white, . lactuca intybacea, . " perennis, . " quercina, . " sativa, . lamb's lettuce, . large-ribbed borecole, . large stinging nettle, . lathyrus sativus, . " tuberosus, . lavender, . blue-flowering, . broad-leaved, . common, . narrow-leaved blue-flowering, . narrow-leaved white-flowering, . spike, . lavendula spica, . leaf-beet, or swiss chard, . à carde rouge, . carde jaune, . common, . curled, . great white, . green, . large-ribbed curled, . large-ribbed scarlet brazilian, . large-ribbed silver, . large-ribbed yellow brazilian, . red-stalked, . sea-kale, . silver-leaf, . swiss chard, . yellow-stalked, . leek, . broad flag, . common flag, . edinburgh improved, . english flag, . gros court, . gros de rouen, . jaune du poitou, . large flag, . large rouen, . little montagne, . london flag, . long flag, . musselburgh, . proliferous, . scotch flag, . small early netherland, . small summer brabant, . yellow poitou, . leak-leaved salsify, . leguminous plants, . lentil, . canada, . common, . green, . large, . one-flowered, . petite, . red, . small, . verte du puy, . yellow, . of spain, . leontodon taraxacum, . lepidium sativum, . lettuce, . lettuces, cabbage, . american brown dutch, . black-seeded gotte, . blond versailles, . boston curled, . brown, . brown batavian, . brown dutch, black-seeded, . brown silesian, . brown winter, . button, . capuchin, . curled, . de malte, . drumhead, , . early cape, . early dwarf dutch, . early frame, . early simpson, . early white spring, . endive-leaved, . english endive-like curled-leaved, . gotte lente à monter, . green ball, . green curled, . green dutch, . green winter, . grosse brune paresseuse, . hammersmith hardy, . hardy green hammersmith, . hardy hammersmith, . hardy winter cabbage, . hative de simpson, . ice, , . ice cos, . imperial head, . india, . laitue chicorée, . large brown cabbage, . large brown winter, . large drumhead, . large golden summer, . large gray, . large india, . large red, . large winter, . large white, . madeira, . malta, . mammoth, . marseilles, . mogul, . morine, . naples, . neapolitan, . palatine, . passion, . red-bordered, . rouge charteuse, . royal, . royal cape, . sanguine à graine blanche, . sanguine à graine noire, . spanish, . spotted, black-seeded, . spotted, white-seeded, . stone tennis-ball, . sugar, , . summer blond, . summer cabbage, . summer cape, . swedish, . tennis-ball, . turkey cabbage, , . union, . versailles, . victoria, . white, . white batavian, . white dutch, . white gotte, black-seeded, . white gotte, white-seeded, . white silesian, . white stone cabbage, . white tennis-ball, . yellow-seeded brown dutch, . lettuces, cos, . ady's fine large, . à feuille de chêne, . aleppo, . alphange, black-seeded, . alphange, white-seeded, . artichoke-leaved, . bath, . bath green, . bearfield, . bloody, . brown, . endive-leaved, . florence, black-seeded, . florence, white-seeded, . gray paris, . green paris, . green winter, . kensington, . london white, . magnum bonum, . monstrous brown, . oak-leaved, , . panachée à graine noire, . perennial, . red-spotted, . red winter, . spinach lettuce, . spotted, black-seeded, . spotted, white-seeded, . sutton's berkshire brown, . sutton's superb green, . sutton's superb white, . two-headed, . waite's white, . wellington, . white brunoy, black-seeded, . white brunoy, white-seeded, . white paris, . white-seeded brown, . wood's improved bath, . licorice, . ligusticum levisticum, . lima bean, . green, . long-podded dolichos, . lotus tetragonolobus, . lovage, . love-apple, . lupine, . white, . yellow, . lupinus albus, . " luteus, . mâche, . madras radish, . malabar nightshade, . baselle blanche, . baselle rouge, . large-leaved chinese, . red, . très large feuille de chine, . white, . malabar spinach, . mallow, curled-leaved, . malva crispa, . marigold, . childing, . common orange-flowered, . double lemon-flowering, . double orange-flowering, . lemon-flowered, . pot, . proliferous, . marjoram, . common, . knotted, . pot, . sweet, . winter sweet, . marsh speedwell, . martynia, . " proboscidea, . marrubium vulgare, . maw, . medicago orbicularis, . medicinal plants, . melissa officinalis, . melon, . melon, musk, . beechwood, . black-rock cantaloupe, . christiana, . citron, . common musk, . early cantaloupe, . green citron, . green-fleshed citron, . hardy ridge, . large-ribbed netted musk, . munroe's green flesh, . nutmeg, . orange cantaloupe, . pine-apple, . prescott's cantaloupe, . skillman's fine-netted, . victory of bath, . melon, persian varieties, . dampsha, . daree, . geree, . germek, . green hoosainee, . green valencia, . ispahan, . large germek, . melon of keiseng, . melon of seen, . small germek, . striped hoosainee, . sweet ispahan, . melon, water, . apple-seeded, . black spanish, . bradford, . california pie, . carolina, . citron, . clarendon, . dark-speckled, . ice-cream, . imperial, . mountain sprout, . mountain sweet, . odell's large white, . orange, . pie, . ravenscroft, . spanish, . souter, . mentha piperita, . " viridis, . miscellaneous vegetables, . morchella esculenta, . morel, . morelle, . mountain spinach, . murciana, . mushroom, . blewits, . blue hats, . common, . di genoa, . fairy-ring, . st. george's, . sweet, . musk-melon, . mustard, . à feuille de chou, . black, . brown, . cabbage-leaved, . chinese, . curled, . cut-leaved, . lacinée, . pekin, . red, . white, . napolean pea, or vetch, . nasturtium, . dark-flowering, . small, . tall, . variegated, . nasturtium armoracia, . " officinale, . nettle, . new-zealand spinach, . nicotiana, . " tabacum, . " rustica, . nigella sativa, . nut rush, . oca, . blanca, . colorado, . ocra, . ocymum basilicum, . " minimum, . oenothera biennis, . oily grain, . oil radish, . okra, . buist's dwarf, . dwarf, . giant, . pendent-podded, . tall, . white-podded, . oleraceous plants, . onion, . blanc hatif, . blanc hatif de nocera, . blood-red, . brown deptford, . brown portugal, . brown spanish, . brunswick deep blood-red, . cambrai, . cambridge, . corné de boeuf, . cow-horn, . danvers, . danvers yellow, . de belle garde, . de james, . de madère plat, . de madère rond, . deptford, . double tige, . dutch, . dutch blood-red, . early lisbon, . early red wethersfield, . early silver nocera, . early silver-skin, . early small silver nocera, . egyptian, . essex, . flanders, . flat madeira, . french blood-red, . fusiform, . intermediate red wethersfield, . james's keeping, . james's long-keeping, . jaune des vertus, . large globe tripoli, . large red, . lisbon, . madeira, . new deep blood-red, . oporto, . pale-red, . paris straw-colored, . pear-shaped, . potato, . romain, . rouge pale, de niort, . rouge très foncé de brunswick, . silver-skin, . silver-skin of new england, . soufre d'espagne. . spanish, . strasburg, . st. thomas, . top, . tree, . tripoli, . two-bladed, . underground, . wethersfield large red, . white florence, . white globe, . white lisbon, . white nocera, . white portugal, -- . white reading, . white spanish, . yellow, . yellow globe, . yellow strasburg, . oosung, . orach, . dark-green, . dark-purple, . dark-red, . deep-green, . green, . lurid, . pale-green, . pale-red, . purple, . purple-bordered green, . red, . red-stalked green, . red-stalked white, . white, . white french spinach, . yellow, . origanum heracleoticum, . " marjorana, . " onites, . " vulgare, . osmorrhiza odorata, . oxalis, . " acetocella, . " crenata, . " deppei, . " deppe's, . " red tuberous-rooted, . " tuberous-rooted, . " white-rooted, . oyster-plant, . pak-chöi, . palmate-leaved rhubarb, . papangaye, . papanjay, . papaver somniferum, . parsley, . celery, . celery-leaved, . common, . curled, . dwarf curled, . hamburg, . large-rooted, . mitchell's matchless winter, . myatt's extra fine curled, . myatt's garnishing, . myatt's triple-curled, . naples, . neapolitan, . plain, . rendle's treble garnishing, . sutton's dwarf curled, . turnip-rooted, . usher's dwarf curled, . windsor curled, . parsley-pert, . parsnip, . common, . dutch, . early short horn, . guernsey, . hollow-crowned, . hollow-crowned guernsey, . hollow-headed, . long jersey, . long smooth dutch, . panais de siam, . panais long, . panais rond, . siam, . swelling, . turnip-rooted, . yellow, . parsnip chervil, . pastinaca sativa, . patience, . patience dock, . pea, . auvergne, . batt's wonder, . beck's eclipse, . beck's gem, , . beck's morning-star, . beck's prize-taker, . bedman's imperial, . bellamy's early green marrow, . bishop's early dwarf, . bishop's new long-podded, . black-eyed marrow, . blue cimeter, . blue fan, . blue imperial, . blue prussian, . blue sabre, . blue spanish dwarf, . british queen, . brompton hotspur, . burbridge's eclipse, . bush, . carter's earliest, . carter's eclipse, . carter's victoria, . cedo nulli, . champion of england, . champion of paris, . charlton, . charlton hotspur, . climax, . dantzic, . dickson's early favorite, . dickson's favorite, . dillistone's early, . dunnett's first early, . dwarf blue imperial, . dwarf blue prussian, . dwarf fan, . dwarf marrow, . dwarf marrowfat, . dwarf prolific, . dwarf sabre, . dwarf white marrow, . early charlton, . early dan o'rourke, . early double-blossomed frame, . early dwarf frame, . early dwarf marrowfat, . early emperor, . early frame, . early golden hotspur, . early hotspur, . early kent, . early may, . early nicol's hotspur, . early prince albert, . early railway, . early ringwood, . early spanish dwarf, . early surprise, . early warwick, . early washington, . early wonder, . erin's queen, . essex champion, . essex hotspur, . eugénie, . excelsior, . fairbeard's champion of england, . fairbeard's nonpareil, . fairbeard's surprise, . flack's imperial, . flack's new large victoria, . flack's victoria, . flack's victory, . flander's hotspur, . flanagan's early, . general wyndham, . golden hotspur, , . green prussian, . groom's superb, . hair's defiance, . hair's dwarf mammoth, . harrison's glory, . harrison's perfection, . hill's early, . hovey's extra early, . jay's conqueror, . king of the marrows, . knight's dwarf blue marrow, . knight's dwarf green marrow, . knight's dwarf green wrinkled marrow, . knight's dwarf white marrow, . knight's dwarf white wrinkled marrow, . knight's tall blue marrow, . knight's tall green marrow, . knight's tall white marrow, . knight's tall white wrinkled marrow, . landreth's extra early, . large carolina, . lincoln green, . matchless marrow, . master's hotspur, . milford marrow, . missouri marrow, . missouri marrowfat, . napoléon, . ne plus ultra, . new sabre, . noble's early green marrow, . nonpareil, . paradise marrow, . pois nain hatif extra, . poor man's profit, . prince albert, . prize-taker, . prussian blue, . queen of the dwarfs, . race-horse, . reading hotspur, , . ringwood marrow, . rising-sun, . royal dwarf, . sabre, . sangster's number one, . sebastopol, . shillings grotto, . single-blossomed frame, . spanish dwarf, . strawberry, . stuart's paradise, . stubb's dwarf, . superfine early, . surprise, . tall marrowfat, . tall white mammoth, . tall white marrow, . taylor's early, . thurstan's reliance, . tom thumb, . veitch's perfection, . victoria marrow, . waite's dan o'rourke, . warner's early conqueror, . warner's early emperor, . white cimeter, . white prussian, . white sabre, . woodford's marrow, . pease, eatable-podded or string, . australian, . blue-podded, . botany-bay, . broadsword, . chocolate, . common dwarf, . dwarf crooked-podded, . early dwarf de grace, . early dwarf dutch, . giant, . large crooked, . late dwarf, . purple-podded, . red-flowered, . six-inch pod, . tamarind, . white-podded, . yellow-podded, . pea, tuberous-rooted, . pea-nut, . african, . carolina, . tennessee, . wilmington, . pennyroyal, . pepper, . bell, . bird, . black-podded, . blue-podded, . bull-nose, . cayenne, . cerise grosse, . cherry, . cherry yellow-fruited, . chili, . cydoniforme, . large bell, . large red cherry, . long red, . long yellow, . monstreux, . purple-podded, . quince, . rond, . round, . squash, . sweet mountain, . sweet spanish, . tomato-shaped, . yellow squash, . yellow tomato-formed, . peppergrass, . peppermint, . perennial phytolacca, . perennial spinach, . persian melons, . pe-tsai, . physalis edulis, . " pubescens, . phaseolus lunatus, , . " multiflorus, . " vulgaris, . phytolacca decandra, . " esculenta, . picridium, . " vulgare, . pie-plant, . pigeon berry, . pimpinella anisum, . pindar nut, . pisum sativum, . " macrocarpum, . plantago coronopus, . poke, . poppy, . gray, . oil, . opium, . white, . portugal borecole, . portugal cabbage, . portulaca, . " oleracea, . " oleracea var. aurea, . " sativa, . potato, . abington blue, . ash-leaved early, . ash-leaved kidney, . biscuit, . black chenango, . black mercer, . buckeye, . calico, . california red, . carter, . chenango, . churchill, . cow-horn, . cristy, . cups, . danvers red, . danvers seedling, . davis's seedling, . dover, . dykeman, . early blue, . early cockney, . early manly, . flour-ball, . fluke kidney, . forty-fold, , . garnet chili, . gillyflower, . green-top, . hill's early, . irish cups, . jackson white, . jenny lind, . lady's finger, . laplander, . lapstone kidney, . long red, . mercer, of new york, . mexican, . nichol's early, . nova-scotia blue, . old kidney, . peach-blow, . pink-eyed, . poggy, . porgee, . quarry, . rhode-island seedling, . riley, . rohan, . ruffort kidney, . shaw's early, . state of maine, . st. helena, . taylor's forty-fold, . tolon, . vermont white, . veto, . white chenango, . white cups, . white-mountain, . worcester seedling, . poterium sanguisorba, . pot marigold, . prickly-fruited gherkin, . pumpkin, . canada, . cheese, . common yellow field, . connecticut field, . hard-shell, . long yellow field, . nantucket, . nigger-head, . small sugar, . striped field, . sugar, . vermont, . purple goat's beard, . purslain, . common, . doré, . golden, . green, . large-leaved golden, . vert, . quatre epices, . quinoa, . black-seeded, . red-seeded, . white, . white-seeded, . radish, . radishes, spring or summer, . crimson turnip-rooted, . early black, . early frame, . early long purple, . early purple turnip-rooted, . early scarlet short-top, . early scarlet turnip-rooted, . early white turnip-rooted, . gray olive-shaped, . gray summer, . gray turnip-rooted, . long purple, . long salmon, . long scarlet, . long scarlet salmon, . long white, . long white purple-top, . naples, . new-london particular, . noir hatif, . oblong brown, . oblong rose-colored, . olive-shaped scarlet, . purple turnip-rooted, . rave violette hative, . rond blanc hatif, . rond rose hatif, . round brown, . scarlet turnip-rooted, . small early yellow turnip-rooted, . tortillée du mans, . white crooked, . white italian, . white transparent, . white turnip-rooted, . wood's frame, . yellow summer, . yellow turnip-rooted, . radishes, autumn and winter, . autumn white, . black spanish, . blanc d'augsbourg, . large purple winter, . long black winter, . long-leaved white chinese, . purple chinese, . purple spanish, . rose-colored chinese, . scarlet chinese winter, . winter white spanish, . rampion, . rape, . annual, . annual rough-leaved summer, . cole-seed, . colza, . common, . early, . german, . smooth-leaved summer, . summer, . turnip, . wild navew, . winter, . raphanus, . " sativus, , . red beet, . red birdsfoot trefoil, . rheum, . australe, . emodi, . rhubarb, . buck's, . cahoon, . downing's colossal, . early prince imperial, . early red tobolsk, . elford, . hawkes's champagne, . linnæus, . mitchell's royal albert, . myatt's linnæus, . myatt's victoria, . nepal, . tobolsk, . victoria, . rocambole, . rocket, . garden, . roquette, . rosmarinus officinalis, . rosemary, . common, . green-leaved, . gold-striped, . narrow-leaved, . silver-striped, . rue, . broad-leaved, . narrow-leaved, . rumex, . " acetosa, . " montanus, . " nivalis, . " patientia, . " scutatus, . russian turnip, . ruta-baga turnip, . ruta graveolens, . safflower, . saffron, . sage, . balsamic, . broad-leaved green, . common, . green-leaved, . green-top, . narrow-leaved green, . purple-top, . red-leaved, . red-top, . sage of virtue, . variegated green-leaved, . variegated red-leaved, . salad plants, . salsify, . salvia officinalis, . " sclarea, . samphire, . saturjea capitata, . " hortensis, . " montana, . " viminea, . savory, . headed, . shrubby, . summer, . winter, . savoy, . savoy cabbage, . cape, . chou milan doré à tête longue, . chou milan à tête longue, . drumhead, . dwarf green curled, . earliest ulm, . early dwarf, . early flat green curled, . early green, . early long yellow, . early ulm, . early yellow, . feathered-stem, . golden, . green curled, . green globe, . large green, . large late yellow, . long-headed, . marcelin, . new ulm, . pancalier de tourraine, . tours, . white, . yellow curled, . scandix odorata, . scarlet-runner bean, . " painted-lady, . " white-runner, . scolymus, . scolymus hispanicus, . scorpiurus, . " muricata, . " subvillosa, . " sulcata, . " vermiculata, . scorzonera, . " hispanica, . scotch bean, . scurvy-grass, , . sea-beet, . english, . irish, . sea-fennel, . sea-kale, . serpent cucumber, . sesamum sp., . shallot, . common, . echalote grosse, . echalote grosse d'alençon, . echalote ordinaire, . jersey, . large, . large alençon, . long-keeping, . small, . shepherd's purse, . sicilian beet, . sinapis alba, . " nigra, . " pekinensis, . sisymbrium nasturtium, . sium sisarum, . skinless pease, . skirret, . smallage, . small water-cress, . smyrnium olusatrum, . " perfoliatum, . snails, . snail trefoil, . snake cucumber, . solanum lycopersicum, . " melongena, . " nigrum, . " tuberosum, . sorrel, . alpine, . belleville, . blistered-leaf, . blistered-leaf mountain, . blond de sarcelle, . broad-leaved, . common, . common garden, . fervent's new large, . french, . green, . green-mountain, . mountain, . oseille de fervent, . oseille des neiges, . oseille large de belleville, . oseille rond, . oseille verge, . roman, . round-leaved, . sarcelle blond, . southernwood, . spanish potato, . spanish oyster-plant, . spanish scolymus, . spearmint, . curled-leaved, . spinacea oleracea, . spinaceous plants, . spinach, . à feuille de laitue, . blond à feuille d'oseille, . common prickly, . d'angleterre, . d'hollande, . flanders, . gaudry, . large prickly-seeded, . large winter, . lettuce-leaved, . ordinaire, . round dutch, . round-leaved, . sorrel-leaved, . summer, . white sorrel-leaved, . winter, . yellow sorrel-leaved, . sponge cucumber, . squash, . squash (summer varieties), . apple, . bush summer warted crookneck, . cymbling, , . early apple, . early summer crookneck, . early white bush scolloped, . early yellow bush scolloped, . egg, . green bush scolloped, . green striped bergen, . large summer warted crookneck, . orange, . pattison blanc, . pattison panache, . pattison vert, . pattypan, . variegated bush scolloped, . white pattypan, . white summer scolloped, . yellow summer scolloped, . yellow summer warted crookneck, . squash (autumn and winter varieties), . acorn, . autumnal marrow, . boston marrow, . canada crookneck, . cashew, . cocoa, . cocoa-nut, . commodore porter, . courge à la moëlle, . courge coucourzelle, . courge de l'ohio, . courge plein de naples, . cuckaw, . cushaw pumpkin, . custard, . egg-shaped, . giraumon turban, . honolulu, . hubbard, . italian vegetable marrow, . large yellow gourd, . mammoth, . mammoth pumpkin, . neapolitan, . patagonian, . porter's valparaiso, . potiron jaune, . puritan, . reeve's, . stetson's hybrid, . succade gourd, . sweet potato, . turban, . turk's cap, . valparaiso, . vegetable marrow, . wilder, . winter crookneck, . winter striped crookneck, . star of the earth, . strawberry tomato, . purple, . tall, . st. peter's herb, . string-pease, . succory, . sugar-pease, . sunflower, . annual, . dwarf, . tall, . swede or ruta-baga turnip, . ashcroft, . common purple-top yellow, . early stubble, . green-top white, . green-top yellow, . laing's improved purple-top, . long white french, . purple-top white, . river's, . skirving's improved purple-top, . skirving's liverpool, . skirving's purple-top, . southold, . sweet german, . white french, . sweet cicely, . sweet potato, . american red, . kentucky early red, . large white, . nansemond, . new-orleans purple, . patate blanche, . patate violette, . purple-skinned, . red nansemond, . red-skinned, . rose-colored, . yellow-carolina, . yellow nansemond, . yellow-skinned, . sweet-scented chervil, . swiss chard, . tanacetum vulgare, . tansy, . curled-leaved, . double, . large-leaved, . variegated, . tare, . summer, . white, . winter, . tarragon, . tetragonia expansa, . thlaspi bursa pastoris, . thousand-headed cabbage, . thyme, . broad-leaved, . common, . evergreen, . lemon, . narrow-leaved, . variegated, . thymus citriodorus, . " vulgaris, . tobacco, . broad-leaved, . connecticut seed-leaf, . green, . guatemala, . negro-head, . oronoco, . peach-leaf, . turkish, . virginian, . tomato, . apple, . apple-shaped, . bermuda, . cluster, . early red, . extra early, . fejee, . fig, . giant, . grape, . large red, . large red oval, . large yellow, . lester's perfected, . mammoth, . mexican, . new upright, . perfected, . pomo d'oro lesteriano, . red cherry, . red pear-shaped, . red plum, . round red, . round yellow, . seedless, . tomate de laye, . tree, . white, . white's extra early, . yellow cherry, . yellow fig, . yellow pear-shaped, . yellow plum, . tota bona, . tragopogon porrifolius, . trauxuda kale, . tree primrose, . tropæolum, . " majus, . " minus, . " tuberosum, . truffle, . common, . piedmontese, . tuber cibarium, . " magnatum, . " melanosporum, . tuberous-rooted chickling vetch, . pea, . tropæolum, . wood-sorrel, . turkey rhubarb, . turnip-rooted celery, . turnip, . altrincham, . altringham, . autumn stubble, . border imperial, . border imperial purple-top yellow, . chiva's orange jelly, . common field globe, . cow-horn, . dale's hybrid, . decanter, . early dwarf, . early flat dutch, . early stone, . early white dutch, . early yellow dutch, . finland, . freneuse, . golden ball, . golden maltese, . green globe, . green norfolk, . green round, . green tankard, . green-top flat, . green-top norfolk, . green-top white globe, . green-top yellow aberdeen, . green-top yellow bullock, . hungarian green-top globe, . lincolnshire red globe, . liverpool yellow, . long black, . long early white vertus, . long white clairfontaine, . long white maltese, . maltese, . mouse-tail, . navet boule de neige, . navet gros d'alsace, . petrosowoodsks, . pomeranian globe, . preston, . purple-top aberdeen, . purple-top flat, . purple-top strap-leaved, . purple-top yellow aberdeen, . purple-top yellow bullock, . red globe, . red norfolk, . red round, . red tankard, . red-top flat, . red mouse-tail, . red-top norfolk, . robertson's golden stone, . round black, . six-weeks, . small berlin, . small long yellow, . snow-ball, . stone globe, . tankard, . teltau, . teltow, . waite's hybrid eclipse, . white dutch, . white garden stone, . white globe, . white norfolk, . white round, . white stone, . white tankard, . white-top flat, . white-top strap-leaved, . yellow altrincham, . yellow dutch, . yellow finland, . yellow globe, . yellow malta, . yellow scarisbrick, . yellow stone, . yellow tankard, . turnip cabbage, . turnip-rooted chervil, . tussilago farfara, . unicorn plant, . urtica dioica, . valeriana, . " cornucopiæ, . " locusta, . valerianella eriocarpa, . vegetable oyster, . veronica beccabunga, . vetch, or tare, . napoléon pea, . summer, . white, . winter, . vicia faba, . " sativa, . water-cress, . water-melon, . welsh onion, . ciboule blanche hative, . common, . early white, . red, . white, . west-indian bean, . west-indian cress, . west-indian cucumber, . white beet, . wild endive, . wild navew, . wild spinach, . winged pea, . winter cherry, . purple, . winter cress, . common, . wood-sorrel, . worms, . wormwood, . common, . roman, . sea, . yellow rocket, . ysano, . zea mays, . note to the ppver and wwer the tables have been left as a replica of the original because there is no way to ensure a clear reading if the size is reduced. the vegetable garden [illustration: a good collection of home-grown vegetables] [illustration: lettuce maturing in home-made cold frame] the vegetable garden what, when, and how to plant _reprinted from "the farmer's cyclopedia"_ garden city new york doubleday, page & company _copyright, , by_ agricultural service company washington, d. c. _all rights reserved_ table of contents page its importance location plan and arrangement fertilizers preparation of the soil time of planting selection of seed sowing and planting tools mulching irrigation thinning transplanting setting in the open ground protection of plants harvesting, packing and shipping canning vegetables on the farm storing early plants in hotbeds handling plants frames used in truck growing ventilation soils and fertilizers watering crops garden products: anise artichoke asparagus beans beans, lima beets borage broccoli brussels sprouts cabbage calabash cantaloupe cardoon carrot cauliflower celeriac celery cetewayo chayote chervil chicory chile chive citron collards corn salad cress cucumbers dandelion dill egg plant endive fennel garlic ginger herbs horse radish ice plant kale kohl-rabi leek lettuce lleren martynia melon--muskmelon melon--watermelon mustard nasturtium new zealand spinach okra onions parsley parsnip peas peppers physalis potato pumpkin radish rhubarb ruta-baga salsify scolymus skirret sorrel spinach squash stachys sweet basil sweet corn sweet marjoram sweet potato swiss chard thyme tomatoes turnips vegetable marrow quantity of seed to plant composition of roots authorities consulted list of illustrations a good collection of home-grown vegetables. lettuce maturing in home-made cold frame _frontispiece_ facing page liquid manure is one of the best acting fertilizers the wheel hoe is the handiest garden tool the easiest running wheel hoe valuable for maintaining a dust mulch temporary hotbeds in a city back yard showing vegetables growing in hotbed celery banked with earth to blanch it japanese climbing cucumbers, nearly six feet from the ground well-grown cucumbers thorough cultivation of the growing crop is an essential of successful potato raising the vegetable garden the vegetable garden perhaps the most characteristic feature of northern and eastern farms is the home vegetable garden. even where no orchard has been planted, and where the ornamental surroundings of the home have been neglected, a fairly well-kept garden in which are grown a number of the staple kinds of vegetables is generally to be found. in many cases the principal interest in the garden is manifested by the women of the household and much of the necessary care is given by them. a small portion of the garden inclosure is generally devoted to the cultivation of flowers, and a number of medicinal plants is invariably present. throughout the newer parts of the country it is seen that the conditions governing the maintenance and use of the vegetable garden are somewhat different, and, while a number of vegetable crops may be grown somewhere on the farm, there is wanting that distinction so characteristic of the typical new england kitchen garden. it would be impossible to make an accurate estimate of the value of crops grown in the kitchen gardens of the united states, but from careful observation the statement can safely be made that a well-kept garden will yield a return ten to fifteen times greater than would the same area and location if devoted to general farm crops. a half acre devoted to the various kinds of garden crops will easily supply a family with $ worth of vegetables during the year, while the average return for farm crops is considerably less than one-tenth of this amount. a bountiful supply of vegetables close at hand where they may be secured at a few moments' notice is of even more importance than the mere money value. fresh vegetables from the home garden are not subjected to exposure on the markets or in transportation and are not liable to become infected in any way. many of the products of the garden lose their characteristic flavor when not used within a few hours after gathering. by means of the home garden the production of the vegetable supply for the family is directly under control, and in many cases is the only way whereby clean, fresh produce may be secured. the home vegetable garden is worthy of increased attention, and a greater number and variety of crops should be included in the garden.--(f. b. .) the development and extension of truck farming in the atlantic coast states have been coincident with the development of transportation facilities throughout that section. in the beginning the points affording water connection with the great consuming centers of the north were those at which truck farming first became established. the phenomenal growth of the great consuming centers of the country has stimulated a corresponding growth and extension of the food-producing territory, especially that capable of producing perishable truck crops. the demands for vegetables out of season, followed later by the continuous demand for fresh vegetables throughout the year by the great cities, led first to the market gardeners located near the cities supplementing their field operations by extensive forcing-house enterprises. naturally, the products from the greenhouses were expensive and available only to the few who were able to pay fancy prices for green products out of season. the improvement and extension of the transportation facilities which came with the great railway-building era of the united states made it possible to take advantage of the wide diversity of climate offered along the atlantic coast of the united states to furnish these perishable products to the great cities of the north and east. transportation facilities, together with cheap labor and cheap lands at the south, have made it possible to produce in extreme southern locations products out of season at the north in competition with greenhouse products. the greater land area and the smaller amount of capital involved in the production of crops at the south, even though transportation charges were high, have enabled southern growers to produce much larger quantities of the desired crops than could be grown profitably under glass. it was therefore not many years before lettuce, celery, tomatoes, radishes, beets, and bunch beans came to be regular winter and early spring products of gardens located at great distances from the centers of consumption.--(y. b. .) it is only necessary to look around the village and town gardens in the south to become convinced of the great need that exists for information in regard to the proper care of the garden, and particularly that part which is intended to give supplies to the table. there town gardeners are very active in the early spring, and their enthusiasm often leads them to go ahead and plant a great many things at a season too early for their safety, so that a return of cold often compels the almost entire replanting of the garden. but with the production of the early crops in the garden, the enthusiasm of the gardeners oozes out under the influence of the summer's heat, and the garden that at first looked so neat in its spring dress becomes merely a weed patch. few people realize the advantage that long summers and sunny autumns give for the production of a constant succession of crops in the garden, and still fewer realize that in this climate the garden need at no season of the year be abandoned to the weeds. one of the greatest troubles that results from the common practice of allowing the garden to grow up in weeds after the first peas, corn, cabbage, and tomatoes are secured, is that these weeds are the places where the larvæ of the cut-worm hide, and are ready to begin their destructive work as soon as the garden plants are set in the spring. if the garden is kept clean and cropped continuously all the year round, as it may and should be here, there will be no cut-worms to bother the early plants. from january to january there is no need in the south for any space in the garden unoccupied by crops. from the time the earliest peas go into the ground in january up to the time it is necessary to prepare for them the following year there can be a constant succession of fresh vegetables from the garden, by the exercise of a little forethought. and this succession can be made still more perfect if there be added a frame with some hotbed sashes for the production of lettuce, cauliflower, radishes, carrots, etc., during the colder months; while all through the winter there can be celery, kale, spinach and turnips.--(n. c. bul. .) location. the question of the proximity to the house or other buildings is of great importance when locating the garden. caring for a garden is usually done at spare times, and for this reason alone the location should be near the dwelling. in case the site chosen for the garden should become unsuitable for any cause, it is not a difficult matter to change the location. many persons prefer to plant the garden in a different location every five or six years. the lay of the land has considerable influence upon the time that the soil can be worked, and a gentle slope toward the south or southeast is most desirable for the production of early crops. it is an advantage to have protection on the north and northwest, by either a hill, a group of trees, evergreens, a hedge, buildings, a tight board fence, or a stone wall to break the force of the wind. good natural drainage of the garden area is of prime importance. the land should have sufficient fall to drain off surplus water during heavy rains, but the fall should not be so great that the soil will be washed. the surface of the garden should not contain depressions in which water will accumulate or stand. waste water from surrounding land should not flow toward the garden, and the fall below should be such that there will be no danger of flood water backing up. the garden should not be located along the banks of a creek or stream that will be liable to overflow during the growing season. a good fence around the garden plot is almost indispensable, and it should be a safeguard against all farm animals, including poultry, and should be close enough to keep out rabbits. a tight board fence will accomplish, this result and also serve as a wind-break.--(f. b. .) plan and arrangement. the garden should be planned with a view to furnishing a large assortment and continuous supply of vegetables through the entire season. its size will depend primarily upon the amount of land available. on the farm, where any amount of land the owner desires can be reserved, for a garden, vegetables to be stored for winter as well as the summer supply, should be grown. on the village lot, space may be insufficient to grow more than the summer's supply, and it may also be necessary to leave out certain vegetables that require a large amount of space. on a city lot, the space available for growing vegetables is necessarily small, and plantings must usually be confined to those vegetables which produce a large amount of edible product for the space occupied. whether the garden is on the farm, in the village, or on the city lot, the principles governing its planting and care are the same although the distances of planting, methods of tillage, and intensity of cropping may differ widely. on the farm, the saving of labor is more important than the saving of space; even the small vegetables are planted in long rows rather than in beds; and horse power is substituted for hand power wherever possible. in the village and the city, the vegetables must usually be planted as closely as the nature of their growth will permit, and hand tillage employed almost exclusively. much loss of time in planting a garden can be avoided by making a definite plan of the garden several weeks or even months before the planting is to begin. after measuring the area to be used for the garden, the next step is to decide what vegetables are to be grown. if space is ample, this will be determined primarily by the personal tastes of the gardener and his family. however, if only a limited amount of time and attention can be given the garden, it may be wise not to undertake the growing of some of the more exacting crops. whatever the space to be devoted to gardening, the crops to be grown should be decided upon long before the time of planting. in planning the garden, it is well to arrange the vegetables in the order in which they are to be planted. this facilitates the preparation of the land for planting, and makes it possible to maintain the unplanted portion in a good friable condition with the least expenditure of labor. in order that the vegetables may be so arranged, it is necessary to know the proper time for planting each crop. this depends primarily upon the temperature and moisture requirements of the particular crop in question. if any of the small fruits, such as raspberries, currants, and gooseberries, are to be planted within the garden enclosure, they should be included with the permanent crops. the area devoted to the hotbed, cold frame, and seed bed should be decided upon, but these may be shifted more or less from year to year or located in some convenient place outside of the garden. where there is any great variation in the composition of the soil in different parts of the garden it will be advisable to take this into consideration when arranging for the location of the various crops. if a part of the land is low and moist, such crops as celery, onions, and late cucumbers should be placed there. if part of the soil is high, warm, and dry, that is the proper location for early crops and those that need quick, warm soil. in planning the location of the various crops in the garden, due consideration should be given to the matter of succession in order that the land may be occupied at all times. as a rule it would not be best to have a second planting of the same crop follow the first, but some such arrangement as early peas followed by celery, or early cabbage or potatoes followed by late beans or corn, and similar combinations, are more satisfactory. in the south as many as three crops may be grown one after the other on the same land, but at the extreme north, where the season is short, but one crop can be grown, or possibly two by some such combination as early peas followed by turnips.--(f. b. .) fertilizers. the kind of fertilizer employed has a marked influence upon the character and quality of the vegetables produced. for the garden only those fertilizers that have been carefully prepared should be used. fertilizers of organic composition, such as barnyard manure, should have passed through the fermenting stage before being used. the use of night soil generally is not to be recommended, as its application, unless properly treated for the destruction of disease germs, may prove dangerous to health. barnyard manure. for garden crops there is no fertilizer that will compare with good, well-rotted barnyard manure. in localities where a supply of such manure can not be secured it will be necessary to depend upon commercial fertilizers, but the results are rarely so satisfactory. in selecting manure for the garden, care should be taken that it does not contain any element that will be injurious to the soil. an excess of sawdust or shavings used as bedding will have a tendency to produce sourness in the soil. chicken, pigeon, and sheep manures rank high as fertilizers, their value being somewhat greater than ordinary barnyard manures, and almost as great as some of the lower grades of commercial fertilizers. the manure from fowls is especially adapted for dropping in the hills or rows of plants. commercial fertilizers. commercial fertilizers are sold under a guaranteed analysis, and generally at a price consistent with their fertilizing value. no definite rule can be given for the kind or quantity of fertilizer to be applied, as this varies with the crop and the land. at first the only safe procedure is to use a good high-grade fertilizer at the rate of from , to , pounds to the acre and note the results. market gardeners frequently apply as much as , pounds of high-grade fertilizer per acre each year. farmers who do not have sufficient barnyard manure for their crops should begin gradually to use the commercial fertilizers.--(f. b. .) profits from the use of fertilizers. the aim usually in the use of artificial fertilizers is to so supplement soil supplies of plant-food as to obtain a profit, and, as already intimated, the profits for the different crops will be in proportion to their economical use of the desired constituent. still, one should not be deterred from the use of fertilizing materials, even if the conditions should render the application apparently wasteful--that is, the farmer should estimate the increase that it is necessary for him to obtain, in order to be regarded as profitable, and if only this is obtained, he should not be discouraged. many persons seem to have gotten the impression that the use of fertilizers is a gamble at best, and are not satisfied unless the returns from the investment in fertilizers are disproportionately large. we very often hear the statement that by the use of certain fertilizers the crop is doubled or tripled, as if this were a remarkable occurrence, and partook of the nature of a mystery. such results are not mysterious; they can be readily explained. in an experiment on celery it is shown that the weight of celery from an application of pounds per acre of nitrate of soda is two and one-half times greater than on the land upon which no nitrate was used, and that very great profit followed its use. this result is not mysterious--the nitrogen applied, if all had been used by the crop, would have given a still greater increase; it simply shows that where no extra nitrogen had been applied the plant was not able to obtain enough to make the crop what the conditions of the season and soil, in other respects, permitted. these favorable conditions, however, are not uniform, and variations in return from definite application must be expected. it is quite possible to have a return of $ per acre from the use of $ worth of nitrate of soda on crops of high value, as, for example, early tomatoes, beets, cabbage, etc. this is an extraordinary return for the money invested and labor involved; still, if the value of the increased crop from its use was but $ , it should be regarded as a profitable investment, since no more land is required, and but little more capital with this return. the waste of nitrogen does not result in loss. danger of loss of nitrates by leaching. the chief difficulties in the use of nitrate of soda are due to promptness in its solubility and availability. the fact that it is so soluble carries with it the very grave danger that losses by leaching may occur if the conditions of soil and crop at the time of its application are not favorable for a rapid absorption of the nitrate by the plant. this danger is greater if it is applied to the soil before rapid growth, when there is a limited number of plants that have not made much growth, or whose roots have not taken possession of the soil, as in the case of the vegetable crops. in meadows, on the other hand, or in grain crops, where there are a large number of plants per unit of area, and in orchards or berry patches, where there are fewer plants, but a wider distribution of the feeding roots, losses are not so liable to occur. there may be, therefore, great disappointment in the returns from the use of nitrate of soda, if opinions as to its usefulness are based entirely upon its availability. nevertheless, because no unknown conditions enter in, in reference to its availability, it is possible to avoid, in a great degree, the losses liable to occur, and thus to secure a maximum return from the application of this form of nitrogen. the influence of quantity applied and method of application. if the quantity applied is too small to meet the demands of the crop, unless all seasonal conditions are favorable, the chances are that the results will not be completely satisfactory, as weather conditions are not likely to be perfect; it may be too wet or too dry, too cold or too hot, and hence, during certain periods, the plants would not be able to obtain their food--that is, it would be impossible for the plant to absorb always its food uniformly, or in such amounts and at such times as would result in the best development of the plant. in all cases an amount should be applied that would exceed the needed requirement under perfect conditions. [illustration: liquid manure is one of the best acting fertilisers] in the second place, if the quantity found to be necessary for a definite increase of crop, under average conditions, were all applied at once, say in the early spring, a greater opportunity would be offered for losses from leaching than would be the case if the material were given in successive dressings, so that the losses due to the escape of the nitrogen would be minimized; on the other hand, if no losses occurred, the plant might take up more than could be utilized in a normal development, thus defeating the purpose, because resulting in a product of less commercial value. this would apply, of course, only in the case of those crops that are injured by abnormal development in certain directions, as, for example, too large a proportion of straw in cereal grains, too large a root in sugar beets, etc. all these difficulties may be obviated by a fractional application, or, in other words, by supplying the nitrogen at the time and in the quantity best adapted for the plant and for the purpose in view in its growth. the results from the use of nitrogen may be also unsatisfactory if nitrogen only of the elements essential is used. the best results from the use of nitrate can come only when there exist in the soil, or are applied with it, sufficient amounts of the mineral elements to enable the plant to obtain a food suited to its needs--nitrogen is but one element of plant food.--(n. j. a. e. sta., .) preparation of the soil. where there is considerable choice in the location of the garden plot, it is often possible to select land that will require very little special preparation. on the other hand, it may be necessary to take an undesirable soil and bring it into suitable condition, and it is generally surprising to note the change that can be wrought in a single season. _plowing._--autumn is the time for plowing hard or stiff clay soils, especially if in a part of the country where freezing takes place, as the action of the frost during the winter will break the soil into fine particles and render it suitable for planting. sandy loams and soils that contain a large amount of humus may be plowed in the spring, but the work should be done early in order that the soil may settle before planting. in the southern states, where there is not sufficient frost to mellow the soil, this process must be accomplished by means of frequent cultivations, in order that the air may act upon the soil particles. it is desirable to plow the garden early, at least a few days sooner than for general field crops. sandy soils will bear plowing much earlier than heavy clay soils. the usual test is to squeeze together a handful, and if the soil adheres in a ball it is too wet for working. in the garden greater depth of plowing should be practiced than for ordinary farm crops, as the roots of many of the vegetables go deeply into the soil. subsoiling will be found advantageous in most cases, as the drainage and general movement of the soil moisture will be improved thereby. hand spading should be resorted to only in very small gardens or where it is desirable to prepare a small area very thoroughly. _smoothing and pulverizing the soil._--after plowing, the next important step is to smooth and pulverize the soil. if the soil be well prepared before planting, the work of caring for the crops will be very materially lessened. it is not sufficient that the land be smooth and fine on top, but the pulverizing process should extend as deep as the plowing. some gardeners prefer to thoroughly cut the land with a disk harrow before plowing, so that when it is turned by the plow the bottom soil will be fine and mellow. after the plow the disk or cutting harrow is again brought into play and the pulverizing process completed. if the soil is a trifle too dry and contains lumps, it may be necessary to use some form of roller or clod crusher to bring it down. for smoothing the surface and filling up depressions a float or drag made from planks or scantlings will be found serviceable. time of planting. no definite rule can be given regarding the time for planting seeds and plants in the garden, for the date varies with the locality and the time that it is desired to have the crop mature. a little practice will soon determine when and how often sowings should be made in order to escape frost and mature the crop at a time when it will be most useful. certain crops will not thrive during the heated part of the summer, and their time of planting must be planned accordingly. the selection and purchase of garden seeds. in order to have a good garden it is necessary to plant good seeds. it is not alone essential that the seeds be capable of growing; they must be capable of producing a crop of the desired quality, under the conditions existing where the gardening is to be done. some varieties of vegetables are restricted in their adaptations, while others thrive over a wide range of territory and under widely different conditions of soil and climate. if the behavior of different varieties in a given locality is not known, the safe plan to follow in selecting varieties for planting is to choose mainly those that have proved themselves adapted to a wide range of conditions and have thereby become recognized as standard sorts. the newer varieties may be tested in small quantities until their suitableness for a given place and purpose has been determined. particular care should be taken to select varieties that are capable of yielding a product of high quality. such varieties are numerous, and some are better for one region than another. it is always a safe plan to have a little more seed on hand than is actually needed to plant the area desired. sometimes the first planting of a given crop is destroyed by frost or insects, making replanting necessary. in such a case, delay in replanting could be avoided by having the seeds on hand. the additional expense is slight compared with the value of the crop. in the case of many seeds, an ounce costs but little more than a packet; and in such cases, it is the part of wisdom to purchase an ounce, even though a packet might contain sufficient seed to barely plant the desired area. the more expensive seeds may be purchased in smaller quantities, with less margin between the actual amount required and the quantity purchased.--(u. ill. b. .) seed sowing. garden seeds should always be sown in straight rows regardless of where the planting is made. if a window box is employed for starting early plants in a dwelling, the soil should be well firmed and then laid off in straight rows about inches apart. the same method holds good for planting seeds in a hotbed, cold frame, or bed in the garden, except that the rows should be farther apart than in the window box. by planting in straight rows the seedlings will be more uniform in size and shape, and thinning and cultivating will be more easily accomplished. in all cases where the soil of the seed bed is not too wet it should be well firmed or pressed down before laying off and marking for sowing the seeds. after the seeds are sown and covered, the surface should again be firmed by means of a smooth board. no definite rule can be given for the depth to which seeds should be planted, for the depth should vary with the kind of seed and with the character and condition of the soil. in heavy clay and moist soils the covering should be lighter than in sandy or dry soils. in all cases the depth should be uniform, and when planting seeds in boxes or a bed the grooves in which the seeds are planted should be made with the edge of a thin lath.--(f. b. .) _planting._--the most distinctive feature of the garden on the farm should be the reduction of hand labor to a minimum. in planting the garden, therefore, it should be laid out in long rows, sufficiently far apart to permit the use of a horse and cultivator in tending the crops. time and confusion will also be saved if the vegetables are grouped according to their cultural requirements, and the number of plantings made as small as is consistent with the demands of the various crops. each group of crops may then be planted and tended as one crop, and the garden operations thus greatly simplified. when more than one planting of a given crop is desired for the sake of securing a succession, the second planting may be put in at the same time that other crops are being planted, so that even in this case, the number of plantings need not be multiplied. the use of two or more varieties of the same vegetable, differing in their time of maturity, will also aid in keeping down the number of different plantings. the arrangement of the garden as to length of rows and time of planting, is not the only labor saving feature that should characterize the typical farmer's garden. field methods should be practiced in preparing the land for planting, and as much preliminary work done in the fall as is possible, for the sake of both securing an early garden and reducing the amount of labor in spring. after the land is cleared of refuse from preceding crops, it should be heavily manured, and plowed in the fall. the amount of manure to be applied will depend somewhat upon the fertility of the land, but more largely upon the trueness of the farmer's conception of the plant food requirements of garden crops. the best gardens are possible only where plant is supplied much more liberally than is considered ample for field crops. forty tons of manure per acre is a very moderate application for garden crops, and this amount should be applied annually, even on soils already rich, if maximum crops of vegetables are to be grown. the plowing under of manure in the fall hastens the drying out of the soil in the spring, so that planting may begin earlier than if the manuring and plowing were deferred until spring. this is both because the soil actually dries out earlier, and also because no time is lost in manuring or plowing after the soil has reached workable condition. it often happens that early in the spring when the cool season crops should be planted, the soil remains in ideal condition for working only a brief period, and then becomes so thoroughly wet by copious rains that further garden work is precluded for two or three weeks. if the manuring and plowing have been done in the fall, it is often possible to plant the early vegetables in the brief period during which the soil is fit to work, while otherwise this entire period might be expended in making preparations, and the actual planting necessarily deferred until the next time the soil was dry. since the success of many of the early crops depends upon early planting, the wisdom of fall preparation is apparent. if the land has been manured and plowed in the fall, and is worked at the proper time in spring, very little labor is necessary in the preparation of a seed-bed for the early planting. soil containing sufficient humus to grow vegetable crops advantageously, can be fitted for planting without the use of hand tools, if the precaution is taken to work it at the exact time it reaches the right degree of dryness. it will then crumble readily, and a seed-bed can be prepared by the use of a disk, harrow, and planker. the use of these tools saves an enormous amount of labor, and is a vast improvement over the old method of using a hoe and rake. the actual planting of the garden is a simple matter, provided a definite plan has previously been made, so that no time is lost in deciding which vegetable to plant first, where to plant it, or how much to plant. in the home garden, only a small amount of seed of each kind is planted, so that a seed drill cannot be used to advantage, and the planting is therefore almost invariably done by hand. for the small vegetables, sown in drills, the planting involves four distinct operations: ( ) making the drills, ( ) dropping the seed, ( ) covering, and ( ) firming. the most rapid way of making the drills in a garden to be planted in long rows is to use a marker that makes three or four drills each time it is drawn across the area to be planted. with a medium weight marker, and the soil in proper condition for planting, the marks will be of the proper depth for planting seeds of any of the smaller vegetables usually sown in drills. for peas or beans a deeper drill may be made with the plow attachment of a wheel hoe. after the seed is dropped, it is covered with a rake, or in the case of deep planting, with a hoe, or a wheel hoe. the soil is firmed over the seed by the use of the feet, the back of a hoe, or a garden roller. whatever the means employed, the firming must be thorough, especially in light soil or dry weather; for unless the soil is brought in close contact with the seeds, they will not germinate.--(u. ill. b. .) _cultivation._--by the proper cultivation of the garden there is accomplished three things: ( ) the weeds are kept out so that they do not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants which one desires to perfect. ( ) the surface soil is brought into the best condition to resist drouth; that is, into the best condition for availing itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. ( ) the stores of insoluble plant food are made soluble by the chemical action and fermentation, which are increased by loosening the soil, thereby letting in the air. _keeping out the weeds._--the methods best adapted for keeping the weeds out of the garden are many and varied, and depend much upon the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow; upon the kind of crop and upon the habits of the weeds themselves. the most important step in making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the harrowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before the planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. if this is done thoroughly, the weeds do not have a better chance than the crop. if this is not done, the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and if started even ever so little when the crop is planted, the result generally is that the crop is seriously overgrown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated. _this is a common mistake, and is, perhaps, responsible for more failures in the garden than any other factor which enters into the consideration of this subject_; and it is a very simple matter to prevent any trouble from this source if a little foresight is exercised. _early cultivation to kill weeds._--the next most important factor in the prevention of weeds in the garden is early cultivation. in the case of seeds that require a long time to germinate, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine-toothed rake, even before the crop appears above the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to disturb the seeds. when the seed is sown with a drill, the line of the row may be plainly seen even before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cultivating it in advance of the weeds. in case of such crops as carrots, onions, parsnips and beets, which are quite delicate when young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden cultivator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate with a horse, and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse implement now in use as with the best hand implements. with proper tools, the work may be done nearly as quickly by hand as by horse power, and far more perfectly when the plants are small. careful early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since, if the weeds are removed when they are young, the work of weeding is very small. if allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a question whether to remove them or plow under the whole crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, early cultivation is of great value in breaking up the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants, and that seriously interferes with their growth. it is also, like all surface cultivation, of aid in the conservation of moisture in the soil. _importance of not allowing weeds to go to seed._--a common source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gathered. to some farmers it often seems a small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should be the only rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economical in practice in the long run. it requires but little labor and saves much useless expense to destroy weeds that are going to seed. if the preventives for weeds suggested are closely followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum and will often be unnecessary with any crop. _weed seeds in manure for the garden._--the manure applied to the garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds, and is a fruitful source of weed infection. the manure intended for the garden that contains the seeds of weeds should be piled up and allowed to ferment until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted. by this means the seeds in it will be killed. but in order to rot manure to best advantage, it should be forked over occasionally when well warmed up by fermentation, and the whole turned over, with the outside of the pile thrown into the center. if dry, it should be watered enough to enable fermentation to continue, and to prevent "fire-fanging." it is seldom advisable to use fresh manure in the garden, and manure should only be applied in this condition when free from weeds, and then only for some late-maturing crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops need it. all early crops need well rotted manure, and require it in much larger quantities than do the late-maturing crops.--(u. minn. a. e. s. .) _general cultivation._--the methods to be pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops will vary somewhat, according to the soil, season and crop. however, it is very important to remember that the destruction of weeds is but a small part of the work of cultivation. the most important part is to so fit the soil that it may best withstand drouth. this is accomplished by frequent shallow cultivation during the period of growth. the first implements to use in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth, close to the plants. such implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. as soon as the plants have gained some little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked without endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants with dirt. it is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. cultivation in a period of drouth results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from passing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow blanket, say two inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. a compact subsoil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil, in the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. at the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by a blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper subsoil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the crop; loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. during the growth of a crop, the surface of the ground should never be left long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or after artificially watering. tools. there are a number of one-horse cultivators that are especially adapted for work in the garden. these may be provided with several sizes of teeth and shovels, and are easily transformed for various kinds of work. in working the crops while they are small the harrow or smaller teeth may be used, and later when the plants become larger the size of the shovels may be increased. many gardeners, however, prefer to use the harrow teeth at all times. when it is desirable to ridge up the soil around a crop, the wings, or hillers, may be put on either side of the cultivator. a one-horse turning plow is useful for running off rows or throwing up ridges. aside from the horse tools in general use on the farm, there are only one or two cultivators that will be required for the garden, and these are not expensive. the outfit of hand tools for the garden should include a spade, a spading fork, a cut-steel rake, a -foot measuring pole, a line for laying off rows, a standard hoe, a narrow hoe, dibbles, a trowel, an assortment of hand weeders, a watering can, a wheelbarrow, and if the work is to be done largely by hand the outfit should also include some form of wheel hoe, of which there are a number on the market. mulching. the term mulch as generally used means a layer of litter applied to the surface of the ground primarily for the purpose of retarding evaporation from the soil. mulches are thus used as a substitute for cultivation to conserve the moisture in the soil in summer and to keep down weeds. they are also used as winter and spring coverings for low-growing small fruits to retard flowering and fruiting and thus to protect them from injury by late frosts. what is termed a "soil mulch" or "dust mulch" is maintained by frequent cultivation of the surface soil, and, like the ordinary mulch, is an effective means of retarding evaporation. among the common materials used for mulching crops are straw, marsh hay, and leaves. these materials are usually applied to the whole surface of the soil in layers to inches deep. mulching crops with straw or other litter is not very common. on a large scale it is too expensive. it frequently happens on a farm, however, that spring finds an old straw stack in the barnyard that will be practically valueless for feed the following winter. can it be used profitably as a mulch? this question was investigated quite thoroughly by the nebraska station. experiments were made to determine how mulching vegetables compares with the most thorough cultivation as a general farm practice. old straw was the material used. after settling, the layer applied was about inches deep. a large number of different vegetables were grown. in general it was found that mulching in nebraska gave much better results in normal or dry seasons than in wet seasons. the value of the mulch in conserving the soil moisture was found to be quite marked. soil samples taken one season in july and august showed the moisture content to a depth of inches to be . per cent, as compared with . per cent in cultivated soil. when the mulch was applied early in the season before the ground became thoroughly wet, it often had a retarding effect on the growth of the vegetables. with early spring vegetables, like lettuce, which require only a few cultivations, it was found cheaper and better to cultivate than to mulch; but with longer-growing crops that require frequent cultivation throughout the season, such as cabbage, tomatoes, etc., mulching usually proved more effective and cheaper than cultivation. the fact that most vegetables, especially the more tender kinds, can not be mulched, until they have become well established and the weather has become warm, thus requiring some preliminary cultivation, certainly increases the labor required in growing mulched vegetables over what would be necessary if the mulch could be applied earlier. but, if the impracticability of early mulching is a serious drawback to the use of mulches, so is the impracticability of midsummer cultivation under farm conditions a serious objection to dependence upon cultivation alone. for most vegetables mulching should be used to supplement cultivation rather than to displace it. such cultivation as is commonly given farm gardens is better for most vegetables in early spring than mulching; but mulching is just as surely better in midsummer than the neglect which is the common thing in farm gardens at that time of year. the experiment station tests have indeed shown mulching to be better in many cases than the most thorough cultivation throughout the summer. the station tests indicate that it is unwise to mulch drilled onions, lettuce, or sweet corn. the stand of the onions and lettuce is injured by mulching, while so few cultivations are required for sweet corn that mulching is hardly profitable, and in wet seasons the yield was decidedly decreased by mulching. with transplanted onions, beets, salsify, parsley, peas, and melons the labor required and yield obtained were found to be about the same by either method of culture. with cabbage, tomatoes, beans, cucumbers, potatoes, and sweet potatoes, very favorable results were secured by mulching. the yields of each of these crops were considerably increased by mulching and the labor required was considerably less than in case of cultivation alone. mulched cabbage produced larger heads than cultivated cabbage, and there was less injury from rot. the vigor of tomato plants was decreased by mulching, but the yield of fruit increased. the fruit was also cleaner and less subject to rot. mulched cucumbers produced perfect fruits during dry periods when the fruit from the cultivated plants was small and imperfect. the quality of potatoes was not hurt by mulching except in wet places. [illustration: the wheel hoe is the handiest garden tool] [illustration: the easiest running wheel hoe valuable for maintaining a dust mulch] in a special test of a -inch and -inch straw mulch and early and late mulching for potatoes a -inch mulch applied late in summer after several cultivations gave the best results. in the case of sweet potatoes the vines did not take root through the straw mulch as they do on cultivated ground, which was considered a decided advantage for mulching. on the whole this work seems to indicate that on the farm where cultivation of the garden is likely to be neglected in midsummer, a mulch of straw can be used profitably as a substitute. for the best results the mulch should not be applied until the ground has become thoroughly warmed up and after two or three cultivations have been given. the mulch may then be safely applied to such vegetables as cabbage, tomatoes, potatoes, and beans, and the garden left to take care of itself the rest of the season. the same plans were worked at the new jersey stations. one season it was found that mulching increased the yield of sound fruits of eggplants . per cent and of tomatoes and peppers about per cent each. the keeping quality of cucumbers also appeared to be slightly benefited by the use of a mulch. the season following, which was considerably more rainy, no advantage resulted from mulching. in this experiment there was no noticeable difference in the effectiveness of new salt hay, old hay, or excelsior as a mulch. several of the experiment stations have carried out experiments in mulching potatoes. the favorable results obtained in such experiments in dry seasons at the nebraska station have already been referred to. at the michigan station the following yields were obtained: mulched, bushels of potatoes per acre; cultivated, bushels per acre. with another variety the yield of mulched potatoes was bushels, and of cultivated, bushels. the cost of cultivation was less than the cost of mulching, and the profit in both instances was in favor of cultivation. it should be stated, however, that there was a large amount of rain during this season, and that the straw used as a mulch contained a considerable amount of grain, which came up on the mulched plats, both of which conditions were unfavorable to mulching. at the oklahoma station the total potato crop was increased about per cent by mulching, the marketable crop nearly per cent, and the size of the tubers about per cent. mulching potatoes with old shavings at the new jersey stations increased the total number of tubers on a small plat about per cent and the weight of the crop about per cent. at the georgia station mulching potatoes with pine straw was not found to be of sufficient value to recommend the practice. these conflicting results secured with potatoes would seem to confirm the conclusion reached at the nebraska station that mulching is of greatest value in a dry season. there is, however, a drawback to mulching that may not at first occur to the reader, viz., the danger it involves from fire. in dry weather a lighted match or cigar dropped upon the mulch may easily start a conflagration that it may be impossible to stop until the orchard is destroyed. it gives disaffected trespassers in the orchard an excellent opportunity to take vengeance upon the owner. the cost of the mulch will of course depend much upon the price at which the material may be obtained. clean wheat, rye, or oats straw would answer the purpose well, and in many localities would be cheaper than marsh hay. in some seasons oats sown as a second crop would grow fast enough to make mulching material by the time of frost. in the vicinity of marshes the coarser marsh grasses that have no value as hay may be cut after the ground freezes in autumn and would make excellent material for mulching. cornstalks have been suggested, but they are probably too coarse to keep down weeds. it has been suggested that by sowing rye in september, and harvesting the crop the following june, and then sowing the same ground to millet, the rye straw with the millet would mulch an area of plums equal to that on which the two crops were grown, and would leave the thrashed rye to compensate for the labor. this is certainly worth trying by those who have no better source from which to obtain mulching.--(nebr. sta. bul., , .) irrigation. throughout the portions of the country where rains occur during the growing season it should not be necessary to irrigate except occasionally in order to produce the ordinary garden crops. in arid regions, where irrigation must be depended upon for the production of crops, the system best adapted for use in that particular locality should be employed in the garden. wherever irrigation is practiced the water should not be applied until needed, and then the soil should be thoroughly soaked. after irrigation, the land should be cultivated as soon as the surface becomes sufficiently dry, and no more water should be applied until the plants begin to show the need of additional moisture. constant or excessive watering is very detrimental in every case. apply the water at any time of the day that is most convenient and when the plants require it. by the subirrigation method of watering, lines of farm drain tiles or perforated pipes are laid on a level a few inches below the surface of the soil. this system is especially adapted for use in backyard gardens where city water is available and where the area under cultivation is small. subirrigation is expensive to install, as the lines of tiles should be about feet apart, or one line for each standard row. by connecting the tiles at one end by means of a tile across the rows the water may be discharged into the tiles at one point from a hose, and will find its way to all parts of the system, entering the soil through the openings. thinning. where plants are not to be transplanted twice, but remain in the plant bed until required for setting in the garden, it may be necessary to thin them somewhat. this part of the work should be done as soon as the plants are large enough to pull, and before they begin to "draw" or become spindling from crowding. when thinning plants in the plant bed it should be the aim to remove the centers of the thick bunches, leaving the spaces as uniform as possible. when thinning the rows of seedlings in the garden the best plants should be allowed to remain, but due consideration should be given to the matter of proper spacing. failure to thin plants properly will invariably result in the production of an inferior crop. there is a tendency for some gardeners to leave the plants of carrots, onions, and similar vegetables too thick, or to defer the thinning too long, with the intention of making use of the thinnings. usually this is a serious error, except in the case of beets, which can be used quite young for greens. the crowded seedlings do not reach edible size as soon as they would if not crowded; and the removal of part of the crowded plants when they are wanted for the table is likely to seriously disturb and impair the growth of those which remain. a better plan is to make at least a preliminary thinning as early as possible, leaving the plants perhaps twice as thick as they are eventually to stand; and then to pull out every other plant after they reach edible size. this method of thinning is especially adapted to beets, carrots, lettuce and onions. the other root crops, like parsnips and salsify, should be thinned to the full distance at the first thinning.--(u. wis. cir. ; f. b. .) transplanting. at the north, where the growing season is short, it is necessary to transplant several of the garden crops in order to secure strong plants that will mature within the limits of the growing season. in the southern states the season is longer, and transplanting, while desirable, may not be necessary, as many crops that must be started indoors at the north can be planted in the garden where they are to remain. transplanting should be done as soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle, and again when the plants begin to crowd one another. aside from producing more uniform and hardy plants, the transplanting process has several other very marked influences. certain crops which are grown for their straight roots are often injured by having their roots bent or broken in transplanting. on the other hand, such plants as celery, which at first have a straight root and are grown for their tops, are greatly benefited by transplanting. in all cases transplanting has a tendency to increase the number of small roots, and these are the main dependence of the plant at the time it is set in the open ground. a large number of garden crops, including melons, cucumbers, and beans, do not transplant readily from the seed bed to the open ground, and some special means for handling the plants must be employed where extra early planting is desired. a common practice among gardeners is to fill pint or quart berry boxes with good soil and plant a single hill in each box. another method is to cut sods into pieces about inches thick and inches square and place them, root side upward, on the greenhouse bench or in the hotbed, the hills being planted in the loamy soil held in place by the roots of the grass. when the weather becomes sufficiently warm, and it is desired to set the plants in the garden, the berry boxes or pieces of sod are placed on a flat tray and carried to the place where the planting is to be done. holes of sufficient size and depth are dug and the boxes or sods are simply buried at the points where it is desired to have the hills of plants. the boxes should be placed a little below the surface and fine earth worked in around the plants. if it is thought desirable, the bottoms of the boxes may be cut away when set in the garden. setting in the open ground. a few hours before removing plants from the seed bed or plant bed they should be well watered and the water allowed to soak into the soil. this will insure a portion of the soil adhering to the roots and prevent the plants from wilting. if the plants have been properly thinned or transplanted it is often possible to run a knife or trowel between them, thus cutting the soil into cubes that are transferred with them to the garden. where the soil does not adhere to the roots of the plants it is well to puddle them. in the process of puddling, a hole is dug in the earth near the plant bed, or a large pail may be used for the purpose, and a thin slime, consisting of clay, cow manure, and water, is prepared. the plants are taken in small bunches and their roots thoroughly coated with this mixture by dipping them up and down in the puddle a few times. puddling insures a coating of moist earth over the entire root system of the plant, prevents the air from reaching the rootlets while on the way to the garden, and aids in securing direct contact between the roots and the soil. previous to setting out plants, the land should be worked over and put in good condition, and everything should be ready for quick operations when a suitable time arrives. the rows should be measured off, but it is well to defer making the furrows or digging the holes until ready to plant, in order to have the soil fresh. the time best suited for transferring plants from the plant bed to the open ground is when there is considerable moisture in the air and clouds obscure the sun, and if the plants can be set before a shower there will be no difficulty in getting them to grow. during seasons when there is very little rain at planting time, or in irrigated regions, evening is the best time to set the plants. it is possible to set plants in quite dry soil, provided the roots are puddled and the earth well packed about them. when water is used in setting plants it should be applied after the hole has been partially filled, and the moist earth should then be covered with dry soil to prevent baking. where water is available for irrigation it will be sufficient to puddle the roots and then irrigate after the plants are all in place. plants should be set a trifle deeper in the garden than they were in the plant bed. the majority of plants require to be set upright, and where the dibble is used for planting care should be taken that the soil is well pressed around the roots and no air spaces left. precautions to avoid attacks of insects and diseases. in the control of insects and diseases that infest garden crops it is often possible to accomplish a great amount of good by careful sanitary management. in the autumn, after the crops have been harvested, or as fast as any crop is disposed of, any refuse that remains should be gathered and placed in the compost heap, or burned if diseased or infested with insects. several of the garden insects find protection during the winter under boards and any loose material that may remain in the garden. dead vines or leaves of plants are frequently covered with spores of diseases that affect those crops during the growing season, and these should be burned, as they possess very little fertilizing value. protection of plants. some plants require protection from the direct rays of the sun in summer or from cold in winter, and there are many that need special protection while they are quite small. seedlings of many of the garden crops are unable to force their way through the crust formed on the soil after heavy rains, and it is necessary either to break the crust with a steel rake or soften it by watering. in parts of the country where the sunshine is extremely hot during a part of the summer, some plants, especially those that are grown for salad purposes, are benefited by shading. shading is often used in the care of small plants when they are first transplanted. where boards are available they can be used for protecting plants that have been set in rows in the garden by placing them on the south side of the row at an angle that will cast a shadow over the plants, and holding them in place by short stakes driven in the ground. laths, wooden slats, cotton cloth, or shaded sash are frequently used to protect plant beds from the heat of summer. for protecting plants from cold in winter several kinds of materials are used, such as boards, cloth, pine boughs, straw, manure, or leaves. there are a number of crops of a tropical nature that may be grown far north, provided they are properly protected during the winter. several of the annual crops can be matured much earlier in the spring if they are planted in the autumn and protected during the winter. plants of this kind can often be protected by means of boards set at an angle on the north side of the row instead of on the south. a mulch of manure, straw, or leaves forms a good protection, but care should be taken that the mulch does not contain seeds of any kind or serious trouble will attend the further cultivation of the crop. plants are like animals in that they require air, and care should be exercised in putting on the winter covering not to smother them. coarse, loose materials are better for a winter covering than fine, easily compacted substances.--(f. b. .) harvesting, packing and shipping. as a rule the crop should be harvested just before it reaches maturity. the time for this depends somewhat upon the distance from the market and the method of shipment. remember that it costs just as much freight for a package of poor goods as for the best, and while there is a market for good produce, poor stuff not only does not bring good prices, but reacts upon the superior article, reducing its price. it is, therefore, poor policy to ship inferior goods. inspect and assort rigorously, retaining all doubtful product for canning, or to be otherwise disposed of. better lose it entirely than send it to market to undermine the good. learn what kind of package the market you are selling in prefers. provide that package, and pack the goods securely and honestly. be sure the package is full. not only is this more honest, but your produce will arrive upon the market in better condition if this is done. have the goods in each package as near the same size as possible, and as near the same degree of ripeness. do not make the error of placing the best on top. remember that every package is examined by the buyer until he learns whether you are honest or not, and this practice fools no one, and only serves to make the buyer wary of your goods. pack neatly in a neat clean package. nail it up securely, stencil your name and post office, and the name of the consignee upon it, and ship as promptly, and by the most direct route possible. notify the consignee promptly of the shipment in order that he may know it is on the way, and have a chance to provide for its reception and disposal. the shipment of perishable goods by freight in refrigerator cars is preferable. very early in the season ventilated cars may give satisfaction. except with a few packages of very early vegetables or fruits, express shipments will not, as a rule, be found profitable. not only will the charges be four or five fold, but the packages are handled so often, and so roughly, that they invariably reach their destination in poor condition. besides this, there is no assurance as to the temperature being kept low, and a low temperature, while in transit, is essential to the arrival of your produce upon the market in good condition. careful selection, packing and shipping cannot be too strongly urged. upon the intelligence and care with which this is done, depends, largely, the success of the shipper. remember that after leaving your hands, and before reaching the consumer, these perishable goods are subjected to their greatest ordeal, and too much care cannot be given to make this test as light as possible. a proper understanding of this by the shipper would save many a disappointment, and many a hard word for the consignee. of course, all else being equal, it is much safer and more satisfactory to sell on the track. however, this is not always possible, nor is it always advisable when possible. it would be unjust to demand or to expect the buyer to pay you the net price of the big city market for your goods at your home town. in buying from you there, he takes the risk of transportation, of the fluctuations of the market, and pays all selling charges, and it is but just and right that he should be allowed a fair margin for these risks. on the other hand, human nature is the same the world over, and unless you watch mr. buyer closely, you will find he shows a decided tendency to make this margin unnecessarily large. to sell on track, intelligently and advantageously, therefore, you must make a close study of the market conditions. it is not enough to know what stuff sold for last week. you should know what it sold for the day before, and what the conditions of supply and demand are. is the crop a large one? is the movement to your market large or light? is the demand brisk or dull? is your railroad service efficient? all these questions should be considered, and unless the farmer recognizes that the disposal of his crop is a business, and adopts business methods, he is sure to come to grief. in order to do this, it is necessary to have some reliable source of information. for this purpose, select some reliable commission house, and if necessary, pay them to furnish you daily market reports by wire during the shipping season. do not begrudge the little money these telegrams will cost, for they will frequently save you many a dollar, even on one carload.--(la. st. u. & a. & m. col. .) canning vegetables in the home. one of the many problems that confront the american housewife is the supply of vegetables for her table during the winter months. "what can i have for dinner today?" is a question often heard. since the advent of the modern greenhouse and the forcing of vegetables under glass, fresh vegetables can usually be found at any time in the markets of the large cities. but the cost of forcing vegetables or growing them out of season is and will continue to be very great. this makes the price so high as almost to prohibit their use by people of moderate means, except as a luxury. a healthful diet, however, must include vegetables, and therefore the housewife turns to canned goods as the only alternative. these are sometimes poor substitutes for the fresh article, especially the cheaper commercial grades, which necessarily lack the delicate flavor of the fresh vegetable. there is practically no danger, however, from contamination with tin or other metals providing the containers are made of proper materials and handled carefully. in some cases the proper care is not taken in packing vegetables for market. the decayed and refuse portions are not so carefully removed as they should be and the requisite degree of cleanliness is not observed in their packing. happily, however, such carelessness is not general. every housewife may run a miniature canning factory in her own kitchen, and on the farm this is especially economical and desirable, the economy being less pronounced in the case of city dwellers, who must buy their fruits and vegetables. enough vegetables annually go to waste from the average farm garden to supply the table during the entire winter. but usually the farmer's wife cans her tomatoes, preserves her fruits, and leaves her most wholesome and nutritious vegetables to decay in the field, under the impression that it is impossible to keep them. this is a great mistake. it is just as easy to keep corn or string beans as it is to keep tomatoes, if you know how. _sterilization._--the great secret of canning or preserving lies in complete sterilization. the air we breathe, the water we drink, all fruits and vegetables, are teeming with minute forms of life which we call bacteria, or molds, or germs. these germs are practically the sole cause of decomposition or rotting. the exclusion of air from canned articles, which was formerly supposed to be so important, is unnecessary provided the air is sterile or free from germs. the exclusion of air is necessary only because in excluding it we exclude the germ. in other words, air which has been sterilized or freed from germs by heat or mechanical means can be passed continuously over canned articles without affecting them in the least. if a glass bottle is filled with some vegetable which ordinarily spoils very rapidly--for instance, string beans--and, instead of a cork, it is stoppered with a thick plug of raw cotton and heated until all germ life is destroyed, the beans will keep indefinitely. the air can readily pass in and out of the bottle through the plug of cotton, while the germs from the outside air cannot pass through, but are caught and held in its meshes. this shows that the germs and their spores or seeds are the only causes of spoilage that we have to deal with in canning. germs which cause decay may be divided into three classes--yeasts, molds and bacteria. all three of these are themselves plants of a very low order, and all attack other plants of a higher order in somewhat the same way. every housewife is familiar with the yeast plant and its habits. it thrives in substances containing sugar, which it decomposes or breaks up into carbonic acid and alcohol. this fact is made use of in bread making, as well as in the manufacture of distilled spirits. yeasts are easily killed, so they can be left out of consideration in canning vegetables. molds, like yeasts, thrive in mixtures containing sugar, as well as in acid vegetables, such as the tomato, where neither yeasts nor bacteria readily grow. although more resistant to heat than yeasts, they are usually killed at the temperature of boiling water. as a general rule, molds are likely to attack jellies and preserves and are not concerned with the spoiling of canned vegetables. the spoiling of vegetables is due primarily to bacteria. the reproduction of bacteria is brought about by one of two processes. the germ either divides itself into two parts, making two bacteria where one existed before, or else reproduces itself by means of spores. these spores may be compared with seeds of an ordinary plant, and they present the chief difficulty in canning vegetables. while the parent bacteria may be readily killed at the temperature of boiling water, the seeds retain their vitality for a long time even at that temperature, and upon cooling will germinate, and the newly formed bacteria will begin their destructive work. therefore it is necessary, in order to completely sterilize a vegetable, to heat it to the boiling point of water and keep it at that temperature for about one hour, upon two or three successive days, or else keep it at the temperature of boiling water for a long period of time--about five hours. the process of boiling upon successive days is the one that is always employed in scientific work and is much to be preferred. the boiling on the first day kills all the molds and practically all of the bacteria, but does not kill the spores or seeds. as soon as the jar cools these seeds germinate and a fresh crop of bacteria begin work upon the vegetables. the boiling upon the second day kills this crop of bacteria before they have had time to develop spores. the boiling upon the third day is not always necessary, but is advisable in order to be sure that the sterilization is complete. among scientists this is called fractional sterilization, and this principle constitutes the whole secret of canning. if the housewife will only bear this in mind she will be able with a little ingenuity to can any meat, fruit, or vegetable. _exclusion of the air._--even after sterilization is complete the work is not yet done. the spores of bacteria are so light that they float about in the air and settle upon almost everything. the air is alive with them. a bubble of air no larger than a pea may contain hundreds of them. therefore it is necessary after sterilizing a jar of vegetables to exclude carefully all outside air. if one bacterium or one of its spores should get in and find a resting place, in the course of a few days the contents of the jar would spoil. this is why the exclusion of air is an important factor, not because the air itself does any damage but because of the ever-present bacteria. all of this may seem new fashioned and unnecessary to some housekeepers. persons have quite often heard it said: "my grandmother never did this, and she was the most successful woman at canning that i ever knew." possibly so, but it must be remembered that grandmother made her preserves--delicious they were, too--and canned her tomatoes, but did not attempt to keep the most nutritious and most delicately flavored vegetables, such as lima beans, string beans, okra, asparagus, or even corn. _so-called "preserving powders."_--there are a great many brands of so-called "preserving powders" on the market. these are sold not only under advertised trade names but by druggists and peddlers everywhere. in the directions for use the housewife is told to fill the jar with the fruit or vegetable to be canned, to cover with water, and to add a teaspoonful of the powder. it is true that these powders may prevent the decay of the fruit or vegetable, but they also encourage uncleanly, careless work, and in the hands of inexperienced persons may be dangerous. while with small doses the influence may not be apparent in an adult in normal health, with a child or an invalid the effect may be of a serious nature. the proper way to sterilize is by means of heat, and as this can be done very easily and cheaply the use of chemical preservatives in canning is not to be recommended. _kinds of jars._--the first requisite for successful canning is a good jar. glass is the most satisfactory. tin is more or less soluble in the juices of fruits and vegetables. even the most improved styles of tin cans which are lacquered on the inside to prevent the juice from coming in contact with the tin are open to this objection. while the amount of tin dissolved under these conditions is very small, enough does come through the lacquer and into the contents of the can to be detected in an ordinary analysis. while the small amount of tin may not be injurious, it gives an undesirable color to many canned articles. tin cans can not readily be used a second time, while glass with proper care will last indefinitely. there are a great many kinds of glass jars on the market, many of them possessing certain distinct points of advantage. the ordinary screw-top jar is the one in most common use. although cheap in price, these jars are the most expensive in the long run. the tops last only a few years and, being cheaply made, the breakage is usually greater than that of a better grade of jar. the tops also furnish an excellent hiding place for germs, which makes sterilization very difficult. the most satisfactory jar is the one which has a rubber ring and glass top, held in place by a simple wire spring. there are several brands of these jars on the market, so no difficulty should be experienced in obtaining them. vegetables often spoil after being sterilized because of defective rubbers. it is poor economy to buy cheap rubbers or to use them a second time. as a general rule black rubbers are more durable than white ones. buy a good grade of jar. the best quality usually retails at from a dollar to a dollar and twenty-five cents a dozen. the initial expense may be, therefore, somewhat high, but with proper care they should last many years. the annual breakage should be less than per cent on the average. in selecting a jar always give preference to those having wide mouths. in canning whole fruit or vegetables and in cleaning the jars the wide mouth will be found to be decidedly preferable. _containers for sterilizing._--a tin clothes boiler with a false bottom made of wire netting cut to fit may be used as a container for sterilizing. the netting is made of medium-sized galvanized wire (no. ) with one-half inch mesh. a false bottom is absolutely necessary, as the jars will break if set flat upon the bottom of the boiler. narrow strips of wood, straw, or almost anything of this nature may be used for the purpose, but the wire gauze is clean and convenient. there are several varieties of patent steamers or steam cookers in common use. these have either one or two doors and hold a dozen or more quart jars. they are ideal for canning, but they are somewhat expensive and can be easily dispensed with. a common ham boiler or clothes boiler with a tight-fitting cover will answer every purpose.--(f. b. .) _selection and preparation of vegetables._--the first step in successful canning is the selection and preparation of the vegetables. never attempt to can any vegetable that has matured and commenced to harden or one that has begun to decay. as a general rule, young vegetables are superior in flavor and texture to the more mature ones. this is especially true of string beans, okra, and asparagus. vegetables are better if gathered in the early morning while the dew is still on them. if it is impossible to can them immediately, do not allow them to wither, but put them in cold water, or in a cold, damp place and keep them crisp until you are ready for them. do your canning in a well-swept and well-dusted room. this will tend to reduce the number of spores floating about and lessen the chances of inoculation. storing. the assortment of vegetables which can be made available for winter use is much larger than is ordinarily supposed. no less than thirty distinct kinds of vegetables can be preserved for winter use by proper methods of storing, canning, and pickling. of these, at least twenty may be kept in the fresh state, without canning or pickling. besides the staple crop, potatoes, the list includes the root crops (beets, carrots, horse-radish, parsnips, winter radish, ruta-baga, salsify, turnips), kohl-rabi, cabbage, celery, leeks, chicory, parsley, onions, dry beans, pumpkins, squashes and sweet potatoes. the vegetables most commonly canned are rhubarb, tomatoes, corn, peas and string beans; those commonly preserved by pickling are cauliflower, cucumbers (both green and ripe), citron, green peppers and green tomatoes. when vegetables are to be canned or pickled, it is not usually necessary to grow them especially for that purpose, except to make sure that a suitable variety is planted in sufficient quantity. when the vegetables have reached the right stage of maturity and the supply is abundant, part of the crop is simply canned or pickled without special regard to the particular time in the season it may be done. however, with vegetables to be preserved in the fresh state for winter use it is essential that they be planted at such a time that they will reach the right stage of development at the proper season for storing. this means that in the case of some of the crops they will be planted considerably later than if designed for summer use, since the product is of better quality if not allowed to continue growth after reaching the desired stage of development, and this stage should not be reached before the arrival of the storage season. since most vegetables usually keep best if put into storage comparatively late, it should be the aim of the gardener to mature the vegetables for winter use as late in the season as he can, and yet have them harvested before they are injured by cold. of the vegetables stored for winter, some require entirely different conditions in storage than do others, so that attempts to store all vegetables under the same conditions would result only in failure. in order that the root crops may be stored without wilting, rotting or starting into growth, they must be kept cool, fairly moist, and away from contact with circulating air. cabbage may be successfully stored under the same conditions. onions must be kept at a low temperature, but differ from the root crops in that they must be in a dry atmosphere and have free circulation of air. in a moist atmosphere, under high temperature, they would either rot or sprout. vegetables that are expected to continue growth while in storage, such as celery, leeks, brussels sprouts, chicory and parsley, must be planted in dirt and the roots kept moist. air should circulate freely about the tops, and the temperature must be low. on the other hand, sweet potatoes, pumpkins and squashes demand a high temperature and dry atmosphere, with free circulation of air. the conditions of storage favorable to the different crops are secured in various ways. market gardeners use outdoor pits or specially constructed cellars for their root crops, cabbage and celery. onions are commercially stored in slatted crates piled in tiers in frost-proof houses provided with means for ventilation so that the temperature can be maintained at slightly above freezing. sweet potatoes and squashes are also stored in specially constructed houses, in which the temperature can be controlled; but since a high temperature is demanded for these crops, artificial heat is usually employed. circulation of air about these products in storage is facilitated by the use of slatted bins, and allowing ample space between the bins and the side walls of the building. for home use the root crops and cabbage can best be stored in outdoor pits for late winter use, and in the cellar for use early in the season. the chief objection usually urged against storing root crops in the cellar is that they are likely to wilt. this difficulty can be obviated by packing the roots in boxes with alternate layers of earth or sand, and placing the boxes in the coolest part of the cellar. the earth will absorb any odors in case the vegetables should start to decay, and thus avoid endangering the health of the family. cabbage can be stored in the same way if the roots and outer leaves are removed and merely the heads are packed in boxes or barrels of earth. cabbage intended for late winter use, however, will keep better in an outdoor pit than in a cellar. the same is true of parsnips, salsify, horse-radish and some of the other root crops. except where the ground is especially well drained, the pits are usually made entirely above ground. for storing cabbage in this manner, the plants are pulled with the roots and leaves on, and placed upside-down in regular order on a level piece of ground. usually three plants are placed side by side, with two above, and this arrangement repeated so that the final result is a long, low pile of cabbage showing five plants in a cross section. earth is piled against and over this array of cabbage until the plants, including the roots, are entirely covered. in a severe climate, a layer of manure may be added when cold weather arrives. for storing parsnips, salsify and horse-radish, which are uninjured by freezing, the roots may be placed in a pile on the ground and covered with about six inches of earth. the advantage of storing in this manner, instead of allowing the roots to remain where they grew, is the saving in time of digging, when a few roots are wanted during the winter. it is much easier to open the pit when the ground is frozen than to dig roots from the garden with a pick. in fact, the difficulty of digging almost precludes the use of these crops in midwinter unless they are more accessible than in the place where they grew. beets, carrots, turnips, ruta-bagas, kohl-rabi and irish potatoes can also be stored in outdoor pits, but they must be covered sufficiently to prevent freezing. one of the best ways of handling these crops is to place them in a conical pile and cover first with six or eight inches of hay or straw, then with earth to a similar depth. if extremely cold weather is expected, a layer of manure should be placed outside of the earth. in getting vegetables from pits of this kind in midwinter, the manure is removed slightly from one side of the pit near the bottom and a hole about a foot square chopped through the frozen earth with an old ax. sufficient hay is then pulled out by means of an iron hook, to enable a person to thrust his arm into the opening and reach the vegetables.--(u. ill. .) early plants in hotbeds. the most common method of starting early plants in the north is by means of a hotbed. the hotbed consists of an inclosure covered with sash and supplied with some form of heat, usually fermenting stable manure, to keep the plants warm and in a growing condition. as a rule, the hotbed should not be placed within the garden inclosure, but near some frequently used path or building where it can receive attention without interfering with other work. the hotbed should always face to the south, and the south side of either a dwelling, barn, tight board fence, hedge, or anything affording a similar protection, will furnish a good location. the hotbed should be started in february or early in march, in order that such plants as the tomato and early cabbage may be well grown in time to plant in the open ground. there are two or three forms of hotbeds that are worthy of use. a temporary hotbed, such as would ordinarily be employed on the farm, is easily constructed by the use of manure from the horse stable as a means of furnishing the heat. select a well-drained location, where the bed will be sheltered, shake out the manure into a broad, flat heap, and thoroughly compact it by tramping. the manure heap should be or feet wide, to inches deep when compacted, and of any desired length, according to the number of sash to be employed. the manure for hotbed purposes should contain sufficient litter, such as leaves or straw, to prevent its packing soggy, and should spring slightly when trodden upon. after the manure has been properly tramped and leveled, the frames to support the sash are placed in position facing toward the south. these frames are generally made to carry standard hotbed sash, and the front board should be to inches lower than the back, in order that water will drain from the glass. three to five inches of good garden loam or specially prepared soil is spread evenly over the area inclosed by the frame, the sash put on, and the bed allowed to heat. at first the temperature of the bed will run quite high, but no seeds should be planted until the soil temperature falls to ° f., which will be in about three days. in most farmhouses enough heat is wasted throughout the winter to sustain a small hothouse to say nothing of a hotbed. hotbeds having more or less permanence may be so constructed as to be heated either with fermenting manure, a stove, a brick flue, or by means of radiating pipes supplied with steam or hot water from a dwelling or other heating plant. for a permanent bed in which fermenting manure is to supply the heat, a pit to inches in depth should be provided. the sides and ends of the pit may be supported by brick walls or by a lining of -inch plank held in place by stakes. standard hotbed sash are by feet in size, and are usually constructed of white pine or cypress. as a rule, hotbed sash can be purchased cheaper than they can be made locally, and are on sale by seedsmen and dealers in garden supplies. in the colder parts of the country, in addition to glazed sash either board shutters, straw mats, burlap, or old carpet will be required as a covering during cold nights. it is also desirable to have a supply of straw or loose manure on hand to throw over the bed in case of extremely cold weather. during bright days the hotbed will heat very quickly from the sunshine on the glass and it will be necessary to ventilate during the early morning by slightly raising the sash on the opposite side from the wind. care should be taken in ventilating to protect the plants from a draft of cold air. toward evening the sash should be closed in order that the bed may become sufficiently warm before nightfall. hotbeds should be watered on bright days and in the morning only. watering in the evening or on cloudy days will have a tendency to chill the bed and increase the danger from freezing. after watering, the bed should be well ventilated to dry the foliage of the plants and the surface of the soil and prevent the plants being lost by damping-off fungus or mildew. handling of plants. successful transplanting of indoor-grown plants to the garden or field depends largely upon their proper treatment during the two weeks preceding the time of their removal. spindling and tender plants will not withstand the exposure of the open ground so well as sturdy, well-grown plants, such as may be secured by proper handling. plants grown in a house, hotbed, or cold frame will require to be hardened off before planting in the garden. by the process of hardening off, the plants are gradually acclimated to the effects of the sun and wind so that they will stand transplanting to the open ground. hardening off is usually accomplished by ventilating freely and by reducing the amount of water applied to the plant bed. the plant bed should not become so dry that the plants will wilt or be seriously checked in their growth. after a few days it will be possible to leave the plants uncovered during the entire day and on mild nights. by the time the plants are required for setting in the garden they should be thoroughly acclimated to outdoor conditions and can be transplanted with but few losses.--(f. b. ; u. mo. col. ag. & mech. arts ; n. la. ; kan. st. ag. col. ; s. dak. ; u. idaho .) [illustration: temporary hotbeds in a city back yard] frames used in truck growing. intensive gardening under sash or cloth covers has become one of the most popular and, in certain localities where the conditions are suitable, one of the most profitable lines of outdoor work. the trucker and the market gardener of the present day have been compelled by keen competition and a constantly increasing demand for high-grade products out of season to provide special facilities for increasing and improving the product, as well as to take advantage of every favorable natural condition. many localities are especially favored with an abundance of sunshine at all seasons of the year, and at the same time their climate, due to the influence of large streams or near-by bodies of water, is mild and free from extremes of temperature. in such localities it would be possible to grow lettuce, radishes, and similar crops during the entire winter without protection were it not for a few cold days and nights. a very slight covering or the application of a small amount of heat will, as a rule, carry the plants through in good condition. this industry may readily be combined with regular truck farming, as it furnishes remunerative employment during the winter months. a comparatively small area is necessary for the frames, but several times that acreage of land should be available, so that the site of the frames may be changed every few years to safeguard against diseases and insect injuries. _cloth-covered frames._--the type of frame or bed varies with the different localities and is ordinarily no more elaborate or expensive than is necessary to protect the crops. in north carolina and south carolina the type of frame generally used is that having for the sides two lines of -inch boards set on edge and held in place by means of stakes driven into the ground. the covering of cheap unbleached muslin is supported on strips of wood inch thick and - / or inches wide, which are raised in the center by being carried over the top of a stake; the ends are held down by nailing to the sides of the bed. most of these frames are temporary and are taken apart and stored during the summer months. before placing the frames in position in the autumn the soil is plowed, thoroughly fitted, and given a liberal dressing of well-rotted stable manure and commercial fertilizers. the placing of the boards will cause some trampling of the bed, and before putting in the ends and nailing on the rafters or strips to support the cloth it is desirable to loosen the soil again by means of a harrow or cultivator. the stakes for supporting the cross strips or rafters are then driven through the center and the strips nailed in place at intervals of feet. the ends are inclosed by means of -inch boards, and the bed is then ready for the cloth cover. the cloth is first stitched, with the strips running lengthwise of the bed, into one great sheet large enough to cover the entire bed. this sheet is fastened on the north side of the frame by nailing over it plastering laths or similar strips of wood. the cloth should not be fastened to the top edge of the board but on the side, or inches below the top. for fastening the sheet on the south side of the frame short loops of string or cloth are attached to its edge and these are looped over nails driven into the side of the bed. _sash-covered frames._--in the tidewater region of virginia the frames are covered with hotbed sash. the climate of norfolk is a little too severe for the use of cloth except for early autumn and spring crops. a number of growers in the vicinity of norfolk handle sash-covered frames occupying as much as , , or acres each season. for the sides and ends of these frames the same class of cheap lumber as for the cloth-covered frames is used. _heated frames._--farther north, near chicago, st. louis, cleveland, detroit, baltimore, philadelphia, cincinnati, new york, and boston, sash-covered frames are extensively used for growing early vegetables. this work is practically the same as that found at norfolk, except that the frames are constructed over an excavation which is filled with fermenting manure to provide heat. where manure-heated beds are extensively used for growing early vegetables a long, shallow pit is opened, the manure is trodden in, and -inch boards are fastened to stakes to form the sides. the board on the north side is raised a little higher than the one on the south side in order to form a slope for the glass. a few strips are nailed across the bed to prevent the sides from coming in by the pressure of the manure or soil that is banked on the outside, and the sash simply rest on the sides without any guide or supporting strips between them. straw mats and board shutters are employed as a protection for the sash during cold weather. _temperature of frames._--the temperature at which the air of the beds should be carried will depend entirely upon the crop being grown. thermometers should be placed at intervals in the beds, as it is not safe to judge the temperature by personal sensation. if lettuce, parsley, or radishes are growing in the beds, the temperature should not go above ° f. before ventilation is given; on the other hand, if the frames are filled with cucumbers, eggplant, or peppers, the temperature may run or degrees higher. it should be borne in mind that any covering, whether cloth or sash, will exclude a part of the light, and every precaution is necessary to prevent the plants becoming "drawn." the safest plan is to keep the temperature a trifle low and thus retain the plants in a strong, thrifty condition. where tender plants are being grown under cloth there is greater danger of injury from keeping them covered too tightly than from exposure to moderate cold. [illustration: showing vegetables growing in hotbed] ventilation. _open-air._--in the care of cloth-covered frames the covers are left off during bright weather and the plants subjected to open-air conditions. when there is danger of cold the covers are put on at night, and during unfavorable weather they are frequently left on during the day. while the cloth covers conserve the heat, they at the same time exclude the sunlight, and if they are kept on too great a portion of the time the crops will become drawn and spindling. with sash-covered frames the matter of ventilation is of prime importance. the glass admits and holds the heat of the sun's rays, and during bright weather it is necessary to open the frames quite early in the morning. ventilation is accomplished by propping up one end or one side of the sash on a notched stick. the rule to be followed is to ventilate on the side away from the wind, so that the wind will blow over the opening and not into the bed. _protection of frames._--the area occupied by the frames is often surrounded by a high board fence or a hedge of evergreens to break the force of the wind. if a large area is devoted to frames it is sometimes subdivided by numerous cross fences to break up air currents and lessen the force of storms. where no heat is applied to the frames the control over temperature will not be great except in the prevention of too high temperature by means of ventilation during bright weather. in many instances straw and burlap mats are kept ready at hand for throwing over sash-covered frames to prevent loss from freezing, but this would not be practicable on a large scale. sometimes the glass is covered by shoveling one-half or three-fourths of an inch of soil over it, but this involves considerable labor and frequently results in the breakage of a great deal of glass. it is possible to ward off frost by the use of a number of orchard heaters in the frame yard. these heaters burn kerosene or crude oil and give off both heat and a smudge which will prevent injury from a reasonable degree of cold. _crops grown in frames._--the crops most commonly grown in frames are lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, garden beets, parsley, eggplant, peppers, and snap beans. the crops grown in the sash-covered frames do not differ materially from those grown under cloth. in the spring, however, many growers devote their beds almost entirely to cucumbers and eggplant instead of to lettuce and radishes. to the southward the cloth covers are sufficient to protect the more hardy crops throughout the winter. to the northward the hardy crops may be grown under sash in midwinter, and those requiring more heat are grown in the spring. _marketing crops grown in frames._--crops grown in frames are usually superior in quality and appearance to those grown in the open and should be given more care in handling and marketing. the cost of production is somewhat higher than for outdoor crops, and it is essential that they be put up in neat packages in order to bring the highest market price. the more successful growers give the work of gathering, grading, and packing the crop their closest personal attention and use only clean, attractive packages for handling and shipping. the packages employed for handling the frame products are generally the same as those used for marketing outdoor vegetables, of the same kinds. in a few instances a distinctive package has been employed. the use of special shipping packages that would give the frame-grown produce special recognition on the markets would be a decided advantage to the grower.--(f. b. .) soil and fertilizers. the greater portion of the work with frames is conducted on light or sandy loam soils which are naturally well drained and adapted to intensive trucking. the original soil is usually employed, but when necessary rich soil is hauled and placed in the beds. the first essential is good drainage, and if the land is not naturally well drained it should be tiled or provided with numerous open ditches to carry off the water. the surface of the soil should be graded and all depressions filled in and leveled. for best results the land should be subjected to two or three years of preparation by manuring and planting to leguminous crops. the presence of plenty of organic matter in the soil is very important, especially where large quantities of commercial fertilizers are to be used. this organic matter may be added in the form of stable manure, but more satisfactory results will be obtained where leguminous crops are included in the preparatory treatment. for green manure nothing is better than cowpeas as a summer crop and crimson clover as a winter crop. the crimson clover should be turned under about the time it comes into full bloom in the spring, the land planted to cowpeas, and the resulting crop plowed under or mowed for hay during the month of august in ample time to prepare the land for frame work during the autumn. when heavy crops of green manure are turned under it is essential that lime be used to improve the mechanical condition and to sweeten the soil; a dressing of , pounds to the acre should be sufficient. large quantities of stable manure are used in growing crops in frames, sometimes as much as to cartloads to the acre. the manure is generally spread in a broad, flat pile to compost before it is applied to the soil on which frames are to be located. where manure is employed for heating the beds it may afterwards be mixed with the soil for the growing of subsequent crops. poultry and sheep manure is excellent fertilizer for frame work, but the quantity obtainable is very small. in the application of natural manures of all kinds it is essential that the manure should be fine; that it be what is termed "short" manure. watering crops. to insure success in the cultivation of plants in frames it is necessary to provide some means of applying water to the soil. occasionally the supply of water can be obtained from the system of some city, but more often it must be pumped from a well or stream and stored for use in an elevated tank. watering is generally done during the late afternoon, but should be completed early enough to permit the foliage to become reasonably dry before closing the frames for the night. if the plants are young and very tender it will be important to avoid too great a degree of moisture. serious losses from "damping-off" often result from excessive moisture, especially at night, when evaporation is not so rapid as during the day. many gardeners make the mistake of watering too often and not doing the work thoroughly. under ordinary conditions twice a week will be often enough to apply water, and in winter, when evaporation is at its lowest point, once a week will be sufficient. in watering the sash-covered frames it is necessary either to remove the sash or to prop them up high enough to permit working under them. as a rule the sash are taken off early in the morning of a bright day, the soil is stirred, sometimes a little fertilizer is added, later in the day the bed is watered, and toward night the sash are replaced. anise. this is an annual. leaves used as a garnish. the seeds are the source of anise oil. this plant grows well and gives a good yield of seed. seeds should be soaked over night in warm water and sown thickly.--(u. idaho .) artichoke, globe. this plant requires a deep, rich sandy loam, with a liberal supply of well-rotted manure, is best suited for growing artichokes. plant the seeds as soon as the soil is warm in the spring, and when the plants have formed three or four leaves they may be transplanted to rows feet apart and feet apart in the row. the plants do not produce until the second season, and in cold localities some form of covering will be necessary during the winter. this crop is not suited for cultivation north of the line of zero temperature. after the bed is once established the plants may be reset each year by using the side shoots from the base of the old plants. if not reset the bed will continue to produce for several years, but the burs will not be so large as from new plants. the bur, or flower bud, is the part used, and the burs should be gathered before the blossom part appears. if they are removed and no seed is allowed to form, the plants will continue to produce until the end of the season. artichoke, jerusalem. this useful and productive plant will grow in any good garden soil, and should be planted three to four feet apart each way, with three or four small tubers in a hill. if large tubers are used for planting they should be cut the same as irish potatoes. plant as soon as the ground becomes warm in the spring and cultivate as for corn. a pint of tubers cut to eyes will plant about thirty hills. the tubers will be ready for use in october, but may remain in the ground and be dug at any time during the winter.--(f. b. ; u. idaho .) asparagus. this valuable plant was formerly a luxury on the tables of the rich, but is now during the season a vegetable seen daily upon the tables of people of moderate or even small incomes. it is also frequently recommended as an article of diet for the sick and convalescent. to the asparagus grower there are two methods by which plants can be secured, ( ) by purchasing or saving the seed from which to raise them, and ( ) by purchasing the plants from either a seedsman or some grower. taking the second method, as being the quickest way to start a bed as well as the most easily disposed of, it is suggested that roots over two years old be rejected, and only one-year-old roots selected if a sufficient number can be secured, as the latter are much better and will in the course of a few years produce more and larger spears to the plant and yield profitable crops for a longer period. it is best to deal with reliable firms; they will be more likely to supply plants of both the kind and age desired. _seed._--only reliable seedsmen should be trusted, or the seed should be procured from some neighbor who has the desired variety and has taken proper care in producing and saving the seed, if the first plan is to be followed. if one already has an asparagus bed of the desired sort, producing fine spears, and of the proper age ( to years old) for seed production, it is always best to save seed from it for new plantings. the growing of one's own plants is preferable, both because of the extra year intervening between the determination to plant and the actual setting out of the bed, thereby permitting the soil of the proposed bed to be put in a better and more friable condition, and because, good seed having been secured and proper care given to the young plants, a more satisfactory supply of the young roots is obtained. that there are objections to growing one's own seed is undoubtedly true, but there are also compensating advantages, and if proper care is exercised it will pay the grower to raise his own seed (from beds which are satisfactory) even if seed can be bought in the open market for much less than the trouble of attending to the home grown may cost. if, however, a grower is unwilling or unable to exercise the necessary care in the production of seed, he would do much better not to attempt it, but depend upon some reliable dealer, studiously avoiding those whose claims to patronage are based upon cheapness of stock. good seed are worth good money; poor seed should not be accepted under any conditions. _soil._--asparagus will grow on most soils, and will yield large crops upon stiff soils; but for the purpose of the grower for market, a light sandy soil of fair fertility is much to be preferred, both because of the earliness with which it produces marketable spears and the ease with which it is cultivated. a soil on which water stands after rain, or under which the standing subsurface water is near the surface, into which the roots are liable to penetrate, is to be avoided. of course, such a soil, if otherwise suitable, can be made fit by a thorough system of under drainage, since an occasional overflow, or even a submergence of the beds for several days, is not necessarily injurious if the drainage, either natural or artificial, is good. the soil should be free of roots, stones, or any trash that will not readily disintegrate or that will interfere with the growth of the spears. a rather stiff but naturally well-drained soil which produces early and fine asparagus, notwithstanding the fact that it is full of large gravel, some of the stones being twice the size of a man's fist. _shade._--fruit or other trees or high shrubs must not be allowed in the asparagus bed, because of the shade they throw over the beds and because their roots make heavy drafts upon the soil. nor should high trees, hedges, hills, or buildings be so near as to throw a shadow upon the beds, because all the sunshine obtainable is needed to bring the spears quickly to the surface. the land should be protected from the north or east (or from the direction of the prevalent winds) and so slope that the full benefit of the sunshine will be obtained during the whole day. freedom from weeds is very desirable, even more so than great fertility, for the latter can be produced by the heavy manuring which the future cultivation will require; and to the end that weeds may be few, it is well that for a year or two previous to planting the land should have been occupied by some hoed crop, such as potatoes, beets, cabbages, etc. _cultivation._--in the late fall or early winter the selected area, should be a light sandy loam as described above, needs to be deeply plowed, and if the subsoil is not already of an open and porous nature, through which surface water will readily drain and the roots easily penetrate, a subsoil plow should follow, breaking the soil to the depth of at least inches. after harrowing the field, a good compost of well-rotted horse, cow, sheep, or other manure should be spread broadcast and left to the action of the weather until as early in the spring as the ground is in condition to be worked, when the manure should be plowed in, the surface carefully harrowed, and the soil put in a light and friable condition. as early in the spring as the condition of the ground will permit work to be done--when it is dry enough to bear plowing and the soil will break up fine--rows should be marked off to feet apart and opened up with a large plow, going a sufficient number of times to make a furrow from to inches deep. loose soil that the plow does not throw up should be taken up with a shovel or wide-bladed hoe. it is in these furrows that the crowns are to be set, the distance to be left between plants varying, according to the opinion of the grower, from inches to feet. _planting._--rows should be run north and south, so that the full benefit of the sunshine will be secured. if the rows run east and west, they will be shaded by the ridges in early spring, when the sun is low in the south, and later in the season they will be completely shaded on one side by the tall foliage. this delays sprouting in the spring, and prevents the best development of the plants at all times. of course, any conditions, such as the slope of the land, etc., which make it inadvisable to run the rows north and south must be considered, but southeast to northwest or northeast to southwest is better than due east or west, or, in short, the natural conditions permitting, the course should be as far from east and west as possible. this is especially important to those who ridge the rows to produce white asparagus. early in the spring of each year, after the plants are old enough to cut, there must be a ridge made over the rows to blanch the shoots, if white asparagus is to be cut; and once ridging is not sufficient, but after the spears begin to appear the ridges will need renewing every week or ten days during the cutting season, as the rains beat them down and the sun bakes a crust upon the top. the grower of green asparagus has about the same work, less the ridging and plowing down. as it is necessary to keep down all weeds, some hoeing may be necessary as supplementary to a free use of the -horse cultivator. after the cutting season, a cutaway harrow run twice diagonally across the rows loosens up the soil and destroys a vast number of weeds without injury to the crowns, although some spears may be broken off. _brush._--the bushes should be cut as soon as the berries are fully colored, as the growth will be sufficiently matured so that no injury will be done the roots by removing the tops, thus avoiding a further drain upon the roots to mature the seed, and preventing the dropping of seed, followed by the springing up of innumerable young asparagus plants. all brush should be promptly collected and burned, that there may be no lodging places for insects and diseases. in case the fields were not leveled, harrowed, and manured at the close of the cutting season, now is a convenient time to perform this work, although if the soil is rather too moist it is well to leave the surface firm, that the winter rains may run off rather than penetrate to the already too damp subsoil around the roots. _manuring._--in nothing relating to asparagus has there been a greater change than in the practice of manuring. formerly it was thought necessary to place large quantities of manure in the bottom of the deep trenches in which the young plants were set out in order that sufficient fertility might be present for several years for the roots, as after the plants were once planted there would be no further opportunity to apply the manure in such an advantageous place; it was also considered necessary to use much manure every autumn to bank the beds in order that the crowns should not be injured by the winter's frost. these applications, especially that given prior to planting the young crowns, made the outlay so great, and that for so many years before any return would be received from the bed, that only small plantings were possible to those who were without considerable capital. although asparagus is still heavily manured, the amount now used is much less than was formerly supposed to be necessary, only about double the quantity ordinarily used upon root crops, such as potatoes, beets, etc. it is not a good practice to put manure in the bottom of the trenches or furrows when setting out the crowns, because it is demonstrated to be rather a waste of manure than otherwise, and besides the roots of asparagus thrive better when resting upon a more compact soil; nor is it necessary that the soil should contain great amounts of humus or be in an extremely fertile condition when the plants are first put out, since by the present system of top dressing a moderately fertile soil soon becomes exceedingly rich and equal to the demands which the plants make upon it. considerable improvement is produced in the mechanical condition of the soil by the use of stable manure upon beds. by the addition of humus, porous sandy soil is made somewhat more binding and its ability to take up and retain moisture thereby increased; while, on the other hand, cold, heavy soils are made warmer and more porous. all organic manures are suitable for use on the beds; but care must be exercised in the use of any of these lest they be too hot and injure the plants, especially if applied directly to the roots and immediately over the crowns. where the young shoots come up through it, fresh, hot manure is likely to produce rust or to render the shoots unsightly and thus injure their sale. especially is this true in light, sandy soils. the time of applying manure on beds, and the position where it should be placed, are of some importance. in the use of stable manure, both writers upon the subject and growers actually engaged in producing asparagus for the market almost unanimously state that "in the autumn, after the stalks have matured and have been cut, manure should be applied on top of the rows." some give the caution not to put it just over the crowns, lest the shoots next spring be injured by contact with it. this plan of top dressing beds during the autumn or early winter is gradually giving way to the more rational mode of top dressing in the spring and summer. it was believed that autumn dressing strengthened the roots and enabled them to throw up stronger shoots during the following spring. this is a mistake. it is during the growth of the stalks after the cutting season is over that the crowns form the buds from which the spears of next season spring, and it is probable that it is principally during this period that the roots assimilate and store up the material which produce these spears. this being true, the plant food added to the soil and becoming available after the cessation of vegetation in the autumn can have little, if any, effect upon the spears which are cut for market the following spring; it first becomes of use to the plant after the crop has been cut and the stalks are allowed to grow. in the use of hot, or fresh, manure it may be that the winter season is none too long to permit the fertilizing elements to become available and well distributed throughout the soil, but if well-rotted manure is used there is danger of the fertility being leached out of the soils by the rains and melted snows of winter. those growers who apply a liberal dressing of stable manure or fertilizer immediately after the cutting season supply the required nourishment to the plants at the time they most need it and can most profitably utilize it in the production of spears. manure thus applied will also act as a mulch, preventing the growth of weeds, keeping the soil light and cool, and preserving the moisture intact. it should not be made on top of the row. this suggestion the writer wishes to emphasize. manuring in november in many cases does more harm than good, as the mass of manure causes many roots to decay, and those which do survive are weak and only produce small spears. it would be much better to rely upon liberal supplies of food through the growing season than to give manure when the bushes are cut, as at the former period the roots can more readily absorb the food given. by feeding in spring and summer the crowns are built up for the next season's supply of grass. the roots of the asparagus are perhaps always active, but much less so in winter than at any other season, and they will obtain as much nutriment from the soil as they can then use. if heavily covered with manure sunshine is excluded, growth is checked, and the roots have to fight hard for existence at a time when they are none too strong. in the culture of green spears the manure is best utilized by broadcasting, this application to be followed by a thorough harrowing of the field. when white asparagus has been cut, either manuring in the trench between the ridges before disturbing them or harrowing down the ridges and then manuring broadcast is perhaps the most rational way. as between manuring in the row and between the rows, the latter should be selected as the evidently advisable one by which the feeding roots of the plants are most easily reached. placing the manure in the row only reaches those feeding roots which are to be found about midway between the crowns, as just around the crowns are nothing but storage roots, besides it is not desirable to place manure too close to the crowns, but manuring between the rows puts the manure right where the summer rains can carry the fertility directly down into the (as it were) open mouths of the feeding roots. _green crop._--if green asparagus is desired, the stalks need be cut only so far beneath the surface as to furnish a or inch spear, the major part of which, say inches or more, will be green, and of course above ground. if white asparagus is sought for, the rows will have been ridged from to inches above the crowns, and the spears must be cut as soon as they show at, and before they peep above, the surface. this means cutting or inches below the surface. to accomplish this, long chisel-like knives of various shapes are used. cutting should be done at least every day, and when vegetation is rapid twice each day will be necessary for white asparagus, and is often desirable when the green sort is being cut. _harvesting and marketing._--asparagus is one of the earliest vegetables, especially if the roots are near to the surface or the soil above them has been temporarily removed so that the rays of the sun can easily penetrate to them. some varieties are earlier than others, and this difference in time of appearance varies from a day or two to several weeks. for instance, the early argenteuil is about ten days earlier than the ordinary asparagus grown in the same locality, and the late argenteuil at least ten days later; so that there would be nearly three weeks between the early and late argenteuil. among the ordinary varieties, however, there is only a short period between the earliest and the latest.--(f. b. , ; u. cal. ; u. mo. ; u. kans. ; u. miss. .) beans. _kinds._--for convenience in reference and for discussion, beans may be divided into two general groups--"field" and "garden" beans--which are by no means distinctly separate either in appearance or in characteristics. each of these groups can again be divided into bush and pole beans. bush beans of the field type are recognized, for commercial purposes, under three well-marked types, known as kidney, marrow, and pea beans, each of which may be subdivided into two groups, colored and white. the garden beans, like the field beans, may be divided into bush and pole types; these again into kidneys and limas, the term "kidney" in this case including all of the common garden beans whether of one type or another, and this group may again be divided into wax and green pod. the same subdivision may also be recorded under pole beans, as is suggested in the following classification: {kidney...........{colored. { {white. {bush.....{marrow...........{colored. { { {white. field beans.........{ {pea..............{colored. { {white. {pole or corn hill. white or colored. {kidney..........{wax. {bush......{lima {green pod. garden beans........{ {kidney..........{wax. {pole......{lima {green pod. {runner (scarlet runner). _soil._--while clay loams or soils overlying limestone are most desirable, sandy and even gravelly loams may be used, but these latter soils should contain more or less humus and the gravelly soil should not be too coarse. beans may be grown on heavy clay soils but the surface or underground drainage, or both, must be good and special attention must also be given cultural methods to produce a fine, mellow seed bed. muck soils or those with a superabundance of humus are not suitable as they tend to produce vines at the expense of the seed. it is also true that this crop will not thrive on low, wet, poorly drained soils. beans seem to produce good crops on soils somewhat deficient in nitrogen when well supplied with potash and phosphorus. contrary to a somewhat prevalent notion, beans will not produce well on very poor soils, but require a fair degree of fertility. _seed._--care should be exercised in the selection of beans for seed. none but the best hand-picked beans should be used for planting, as the success of the crop is quite largely dependent on the vitality of the seed. _tilth._--since the bean is a warm-season crop and can not safely be planted until after danger from killing frost has passed, the preparation of the soil for field beans should be deferred until the vegetation covering the area has made considerable growth, so that it may be as completely destroyed as possible during the operations of plowing, harrowing, and fitting the land for the reception of the seed. the short-season character of the bean crop enables the land to be occupied during the winter months by some cover crop, such as wheat or rye, and if the same land is used year after year for the production of beans, the turning under of winter cover crops furnishes an important means by which the store of organic matter in the soil can be maintained, a consideration of great moment in sections chiefly dependent upon commercial fertilizers as a source for available plant food. after the land has attained proper dryness in the spring it should be plowed from to inches in depth, and immediately compacted and harrowed, so as to prevent the loss of moisture. the surface of the seed bed should be made smooth and fine, so that the drill or planter can be economically used upon it. if dry weather follows at this season of the year, a good practice is, immediately preceding the planting of the crop, to run a heavy land roller over the area, particularly if the planting is done with an ordinary grain drill. if the planting is done with a planter similar to the ordinary corn planter and the land has been rolled previously, it is advisable to go over it with a spike-tooth harrow or some other type of smoothing harrow after the crop has been planted, in order that the land may not possess a compacted condition from the substratum to the surface. _planting._--growers have found that it is better to postpone planting the crop until as late in the season as is practicable and yet be able to safely harvest the crop before the vines are injured by fall frost. the late planted crop has the advantage of escaping the most serious attacks of the bean rust. while there are undoubtedly varieties which are more or less resistant to this trouble, yet the general practice of late planting has been found to be of decided advantage. in planting the field crop the distance between the rows varies from to inches, according to the implements used in harvesting the crop, inches being a very satisfactory and not an unusual distance for placing the rows. the seeds are so scattered as to fall from to inches apart in the row. the ideal distance would be undoubtedly inches, if it were possible to obtain a perfect stand of plants at this distance. for distributing the seed in the row at these distances a bean planter or a check row corn planter may be set to drop the seeds in drills. a common practice is to use an ordinary grain drill and stop a sufficient number of tubes to enable two or three rows of beans to be planted at the proper distance apart without the necessity of purchasing a special implement. _quantity of seed._--the quantity required to plant an acre of beans varies with the size of the beans; that is, a half-bushel of small pea beans is sufficient to plant an acre of ground, while a bushel of red kidney beans is hardly sufficient to plant an acre when the seed is distributed in the ordinary fashion in drills rather than in hills. in planting beans of the pea and marrow types the quantity of seed varies from one-half to a bushel per acre, depending upon the quality of the beans and upon the preferences of the planter. for kidney beans the quantity varies from a bushel to as much as six pecks per acre. ordinarily, with rows inches apart, a bushel is a sufficient quantity for seeding an acre. _depth of planting._--the depth at which beans should be planted is determined by the character of the soil and the season of the year at which they are planted. in heavy, retentive soils planting should be made comparatively shallow, as the peculiar habit of growth of the bean is such that it can not readily reach the surface if planted deep in such soils. upon light soils and early in the season, planting can be made quite deep. three inches is not too deep upon such soils, but an inch and a half or inches is the maximum depth for planting upon retentive soils. all things considered, a satisfactory depth for planting beans is about - / inches. _cultivation._--like all other hoe crops field beans require frequent, shallow cultivation. the stirring of the soil for the purpose of holding the weeds in check and preserving a soil mulch over the area occupied by the growing crop, is the important factor to be considered in culture. at the last cultivation the plants may be slightly hilled; that is, the soil may be thrown toward the plants with small wings. this has the advantage of leaving the plants on a slight ridge, which facilitates the work of harvesting when such work is done by mechanical means. in the cultivation of beans it is traditional that they should not be cultivated when the dew is on the vines. this undoubtedly has a slight foundation for the reason that moisture is a conveyor of spores of disease and might have a tendency to distribute them more widely than would be the case if moisture were allowed to dry off the leaves without being disturbed. _harvesting._--for many years the handling of hoe crops, such as field beans, upon an extensive scale was impossible because of the great amount of hand labor necessary to gather the crop. within recent years, however, labor-saving devices have been invented so that now the once laborious practice of hand-pulling individual plants can be done away with by the use of a bean harvester. after the plants are thrown together by the harvester it is customary for men with ordinary pitchforks, either or tined, to follow the harvester and place the beans in small heaps to cure for several days before storing them in barns or sheds for thrashing. in some instances, where the work is done upon a very extensive scale and where the loss from shelling is not considered sufficient to justify the employment of hand labor for bunching the beans with forks, an ordinary horserake is employed for the purpose. where the beans are to remain for a longer period and to become more thoroughly cured in the field and where the work of harvesting is done entirely by hand, the crop is frequently placed in shocks which are built about a pole or feet in height, both ends of which have been sharpened and one end firmly placed in the ground. a small quantity of straw, grass, or other material is placed around the base of the stake, and the beans as they are pulled are piled around the pole until a compact miniature stack about or feet high is formed. the curing process in any case is carried far enough to prevent the vines molding after storing them in the barn prior to thrashing. if the vines are thoroughly ripened in the field before harvesting, they can be stored in from two to three days if the weather is satisfactory. if, however, the vines have some green leaves upon them and the pods are not thoroughly dry, the period for curing in the field is of necessity much longer than with thoroughly ripened plants. _storage._--after the crop has been properly cured in the field it is customary to store the beans in barn lofts or in sheds until the weather has become quite cool before the work of thrashing is done. in some instances, however, if the beans are thoroughly field cured they may be thrashed in the field; but ordinarily, in those regions where beans are extensively grown, weather conditions will not permit of their being cured and left in the field a sufficient period to enable the entire work of harvesting and thrashing to be carried on in the open. _care necessary._--all operations connected with the harvesting and field management of beans should be done as carefully as possible, in order to avoid injury to the plants while in the growing condition and to prevent shelling the beans after they have ripened. most varieties of beans shell more or less easily after the pods have become thoroughly matured. most extensive growers of beans consider the loss by shelling resulting from the use of labor-saving machinery of less money value than the added cost of carrying on all operations by hand in the most careful way. in other words, the loss from the use of labor-saving machinery is not sufficient to justify the return to hand labor in the care and management of the crop. _threshing._--beans are now threshed by a special machine or beaner which has been instrumental in materially increasing the acreage of beans grown. these machines are usually introduced into localities where beans are grown commercially and offered for hire on a plan similar to that used by grain threshers. _cleaning and grading._--while the farm operations in connection with the preparation of field beans for market usually cease with the thrashing of the crop, the cleaning and grading of the product is a very important item and requires much hand work. besides the removal of sticks and straws from the grain by the use of the fan, the beans are passed through a machine which is provided with a broad, slow-moving belt placed at such an angle that split beans and peas, dirt, and stones which are not removed by the fan adhere to the belt and are thrown out, while the smooth, perfect seeds fall back into another receptacle and are thus separated from the dirt and broken seeds. after this the beans are usually subjected to a third operation, which consists in removing by hand all broken and discolored seeds, as well as foreign matter, which were not removed in the other operations. _garden beans._--the type as well as the variety of garden bean to be grown is determined by the purpose for which it is to be used. if it is to be used as a snap or string bean for early market, quick-maturing green or wax-podded varieties are selected. if for canning purposes, a different variety is selected, which may have either green or wax pods, while as a rule green beans which are required late in the season for table use belong to the pole type. for early beans, however, the bush type is the one most commonly used. _fertilizers._--while beans are quick-growing and early-maturing plants requiring an abundance of available plant food in the soil, yet, because of their family relations, being legumes, they make the soil better for having been grown upon it. they are nitrogen-gathering plants, and for this reason require only a small percentage of this element in any fertilizer used upon them. while heavy applications of fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are used by truck growers in the production of beans, as a rule such fertilizers should be relatively richer in phosphoric acid and potash than in nitrogen. the production of garden beans for snap or string beans, however, demands a larger percentage of immediately available nitrogen than does the production of field beans for the dry grain, as in the former case the crop occupies the land a shorter time and therefore gives it less opportunity to provide itself with a supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere. the fertilizer, if used in the form of commercial fertilizer, may be distributed broadcast over the area occupied by the crop with a grain drill or a fertilizer distributer, or it may be scattered along the row at the time the seeds are sown by one of the many types of seed drill having a fertilizer attachment. _planting._--garden beans, like field beans, may be planted either in hills or in drills. the customary practice, however, is to plant the seeds in drills so that they shall fall or inches apart in rows far enough apart to admit of cultivation with either one or two horse implements. because of their peculiar habit of germination--the elongation of the part between the root and the seed leaves, called the hypocotyl--the seed leaves or cotyledons are lifted out of the soil. a large expenditure of energy on the part of the plant is necessary to accomplish this, and the more compacted the soil and the deeper the seed is planted the more time and energy are required in accomplishing this result. it is evident, therefore, that the shallower the beans can be planted without retarding satisfactory germination, the better. upon thoroughly fine and compacted soils the seeds are planted from - / to inches deep. shallower planting does not as a rule give as satisfactory germination as planting within the range above mentioned. while garden beans are planted in extensive areas, they are, nevertheless, frequently used as a catch crop between other plants, such as squashes and cucumbers. the bean, being a quick-growing plant, matures its crop and is out of the way before the entire area is demanded by the companion crop. _harvesting._--from the nature of the product the harvesting of garden beans for use as string or snap beans must necessarily be done by hand. their extensive culture is therefore restricted to areas in which an abundant labor supply which can be commanded at short notice is available. after the beans are picked they are carried to a convenient sorting table, either in the open or under shelter, where they are looked over, all diseased and broken beans rejected, and the baskets uniformly filled and shaken down preparatory to covering them for shipment. lima beans. under the name of lima beans two distinct types are now recognized: pole limas and dwarf, or bush, limas. lima beans are of very great commercial value, but are not sufficiently appreciated as a table food because it is not generally known that in a dry state they can be used in practically the same manner as are the common beans. in reality they are richer and more delicate in flavor than the common beans, and can be used in as many different ways. the virtues of these types as green beans need only a passing mention, and their value as an accompaniment of corn in succotash is well known to every consumer of canned goods. _planting._--the common method of handling the lima bean in the climate of the northern tier of states, outside of the irrigated belt, is to plant from three to five beans in hills to inches apart, with the rows - / to feet apart, and after all danger from cold and from insect enemies is past the beans are thinned to about three plants to the hill. as the beans are exceedingly tender, it is necessary to delay planting in the open until about a week or ten days after the time for planting the common garden beans. after the second cultivation, when the tendency to climb has manifested itself, the plantation is supplied with poles from to feet high, or with a trellis running from end to end of the row, which may be made by stretching two or three wires lengthwise of the row and weaving between them strands of ordinary wool twine. if the trellis is employed the beans can be planted in practically continuous rows, so that they stand about a foot apart. toward the northern limit for cultivating this crop, one is fortunate if one-half to two-thirds of the pods which set upon the plants mature the seed. farther south the crop is proportionally heavier. in california and in other irrigated regions where there are well-marked wet and dry seasons, the dry season, accompanied by heavy fogs, occurring during the summer months, it is possible to cultivate lima beans somewhat as follows: upon moderately rich, somewhat sandy valley land, cultivation can be carried out by planting the beans as soon as all danger from rains has ceased and the plantation will remain dry except for irrigation. if there has not been sufficient winter rain to thoroughly moisten the land it should be well watered and allowed to dry to a good cultural condition before planting. seed can then be planted in hills about - / or feet apart each way, or in drills, the beans scattered about a foot apart in rows feet apart. after the beans have germinated it may be necessary to cultivate them once or twice with a sweep of some type, to destroy any weeds which may have sprung up from the moist ground. all moisture should be withheld and a dust mulch over the surface preserved by running a sweep over the plantation once or twice more, and then the vines should be allowed to take possession of the territory. this obviates the necessity of using poles, and the crop can grow to maturity under these conditions without irrigation, without cultivation, and without poles. at harvest time a root cutter is passed under the lines of the rows, severing the roots of the plants, and after the plants have dried and become somewhat cured they are thrown into convenient heaps for loading on wagons and are allowed to remain in these heaps until near the approach of the rainy season. then they are carried to the thrashing floors, where they are beaten out by the tramping of animals or by driving over the heap a device somewhat similar to the ordinary cutaway harrow. the dwarf lima beans, because of their habit of growth, are planted and cultivated practically the same as are field beans. they are slightly hardier than pole limas, and for that reason toward the northern limit of the range of this crop can be planted somewhat earlier in the season than the pole limas.--(f. b. ; u. mich. ; s. c. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. , ; iowa e. s. ; miss. e. s. .) beets. the red garden beet may be grown in any good soil, but rich, sandy loam will give the best results. sow the seeds in the spring as soon as danger of frost has passed. beets should be planted in drills to inches apart, and when the plants are well up they should be thinned to or inches in the row. if desirable to plant in rows feet apart for horse cultivation, the seeds may be sown in a double drill with inches between, leaving inches for cultivation. two ounces of beet seed are required to plant feet of row, or pounds to the acre. as a rule each seed ball contains more than one seed, and this accounts for beets coming up very thickly. the seed should be covered to a depth of about inch. for a succession of young beets during the summer, plantings should be made every four or five weeks during the spring months. beets intended for winter storage should not be sown until late in the summer, the crop being harvested and stored in the same manner as turnips. sugar beets are often substituted for the ordinary garden beet, especially for winter use. a soil that is well adapted to growing the usual vegetables will be found good for this one. it may be slightly heavier than that for the crops that are grown for their foliage, as lettuce. a good cabbage soil will be found of about the right consistency. wet or soggy land will not raise a crop. plow deep and prepare the ground well; the seedlings are quite small and need considerable coaxing before they will make a good start. use plenty of fertilizer of some well prepared kind. rough or undecomposed material should not be used. a sprinkling of powdered nitrate soda as a top dressing when the plants are one-third grown will produce a rapid growth. in applying, be careful not to apply so as to touch the foliage, unless during a rain. it is not profitable to transplant beets; it may be done on a small scale, but it is too expensive to practice on a large scale. _varieties._--according to shape of the root one may divide beets into two classes, viz., long rooted and globular. if color is made the basis of classification you have red, white and yellow kinds. extra early blood turnip, eclipse and extra early egyptian are good varieties to grow for market. the first named is probably the best; the last named has the disadvantage of becoming stringy if it matures during a long, dry spell, or if allowed to stand too long. the deep red varieties are preferred in the markets, and those that are turnip shaped sell better than the long. _marketing._--the usual method is to use barrels or large boxes; this is a clumsy way, and one not calculated to bring the best price. the usual vegetable crate will be found handy and desirable. in districts where there are pickling factories, and near large cities, small beets, with greens, are raised with profit, but these can not be shipped to a distant market. for a distant market gather tops and all; carry to the packing-house; remove the tops with a sharp knife, leaving about an inch of the leaf-stalk on the beet. remove the dirt, and pack in vegetable crates. the leaves put in a compost heap will pay for the trouble of hauling, or they can be fed to domestic animals with profit. the beet itself makes one of the best feeds for milch cows, and is excellent for other domestic animals.--(f. b. ; n. c. a. e. s. ; fla. e. s. ; u. idaho ; n. h. col. , ; n. j. a. col. rpt. .) borage. the leaves are used for flavoring. broccoli. broccoli is simply a variety of cauliflower that is more commonly grown for fall use, as it is rather more hardy than the true cauliflower. lee's sprouting broccoli is a branching sort that is esteemed in some places. there is a great deal of misunderstanding regarding the cauliflower and broccoli. both are the same in their general make up and growth, both producing heads in the same manner and to the casual observer are taken one for the other. the difference is that cauliflower is a more tender variety and therefore will not stand a very low temperature. the seed is sown in early spring and will produce heads during the summer. the broccoli will stand a temperature as low as without much injury to the plant. the seed is sown in the spring, the plants set out in june or early part of july and continue to grow until the spring following, some varieties producing heads at intervals during winter and up to as late as may. attention needs to be directed during the winter to such plants as are about to produce heads. these should have the outer leaves turned over the head to protect it from frost to which it is very susceptible. the seed may be sown and the plants treated in every way as for the cabbage. they thrive well in a deep, rich soil. much better results would be had if more attention were given to the matter of deep cultivation, that is, in deep spading or plowing of the ground. manure that has been well composted should be used plentifully and plowed in deep. by so doing the roots of the plants are encouraged to penetrate deep into the soil where they can find moisture as well as food. the shallow plowing in of manure has the tendency to keep the feeding roots of plants near the surface and will therefore soon dry out and turn blue, and when once the plants are stricken with the blues no further growth will be made and they might as well be discarded.--(oreg. e. s. ; n. c. e. s. .) brussels sprouts. this crop is closely related to cabbage and cauliflower. instead of a single head, brussels sprouts form a large number of small heads in the axils of the leaves. as the heads begin to crowd, the leaves should be broken from the stem of the plant to give them more room. a few leaves should be left at the top of the stem where the new heads are being formed. brussels sprouts are more hardy than cabbage, and in mild climates may remain in the open ground all winter, the heads being removed as desired. for winter use in cold localities, take up plants that are well laden with heads and set them close together in a pit, cold frame, or cellar, with a little soil around the roots. the uses of brussels sprouts are similar to those of cabbage, but they are considered to be of a superior flavor. they require the same treatment as cabbage. the soil must be rich and requires considerable moisture. the small sprouts must grow rapidly or they will be tough. sow the seed in hotbed and transplant, or scatter seed in hills and thin. the plants must have plenty of room. rows should be thirty inches apart and the plants not closer than two feet.--(f. b. ; u. idaho e. s. ; cornell u. e. s. .) cabbage. cabbage is one of the most universally cultivated of the garden plants. although it is one of the coarser vegetables it finds a place in the home garden as well as in the market garden and truck farm. in some sections of the united states it is extensively grown as a farm crop. early cabbage is practically all consumed as a green vegetable. the late crop, on the other hand, is handled as a fresh vegetable, as a storage crop, and for the manufacture of sauerkraut. it is always in demand, and under present conditions is always available, either as the product of a southern truck farm or a northern farm, garden, or storage house. the group of cultivated plants which has been derived from the wild cabbage presents a greater diversity of form than that derived from any other single ancestral type. wild cabbage is a robust-growing broad-leaved plant enjoying the low, moist areas near the seacoast of southern europe. the most closely allied form now in cultivation is the collard. the wide variation in the group is illustrated by the diversity of form shown in collards, kale, tree cabbage, marrow kale, cauliflower, and brussels sprouts. it is almost beyond the bounds of reason to believe that all these forms have been derived from a common parentage, yet such is the fact. _seed._--in no truck crop does the character of the seed count for more than in cabbage. it is very essential that the crop come to marketable maturity early, that the heads be uniform in size and character, and that they mature so that the whole crop can be harvested at two cuttings. the small saving made by the purchase of cheap or inferior seed is usually paid for a hundred times over in the lessened value of the crop. a grower can not afford to risk his crop for so small a saving. the best seed that can be obtained is none too good, and anything short of this is not good business. without highly viable seed of a good strain, true to type, the best results can not be expected. for early spring cabbage in the south, sow the seeds in an outdoor bed and transplant to the garden before january . in the north, plant the seeds in a hotbed during february and set the plants in the open ground as early as the soil can be worked. for a late crop in the north, plant the seeds in a bed in the open ground in may or june and transplant to the garden in july. early cabbages require a rich, warm soil in order that they may mature early. for late cabbages the soil should be heavier and more retentive of moisture and not so rich as for the early crop, as the heads are liable to burst. cabbages should be set in rows to inches apart and to inches apart in the row. where the plants are set out in the autumn and allowed to remain in the ground over winter, they are usually placed on top of ridges. _soil._--the soil for cabbage must necessarily vary in different localities. in one area it may be of an alluvial character, while in another it may be sedentary, and in still another it may be characteristic glacial drift. the fact that cabbage grows well in all these soils indicates its adaptation to a wide range of conditions. the main thing with cabbage is an abundant supply of immediately available plant food. market gardeners rely chiefly upon stable manure for their supply of plant food. _cultivation._--among market gardeners it is a common expression that "cabbage should be hoed every day." perhaps no other crop responds more quickly to good cultivation and an ample food supply. this is undoubtedly the explanation of the above quoted expression. in cultivating cabbage the work should be frequent and thorough, but the cultivation should not be deep. the aim should be to destroy all competing weeds and to maintain a loose, friable layer of soil about inches deep over the surface of the area devoted to cabbage. _storage._--early cabbage must be used soon after it has formed solid heads, as it will not keep during hot weather. late cabbage may be buried in pits or stored in cellars or specially constructed houses. the usual method of storing cabbage is to dig a trench about inches deep and feet wide and set the cabbage upright, with the heads close together and the roots bedded in soil. as cold weather comes on, the heads are covered slightly with straw and then or inches of earth put on. slight freezing does not injure cabbage, but it should not be subjected to repeated freezing and thawing. if stored in a cellar or building, the heads are generally cut from the stems and stored on slatted shelves or in shallow bins. while in storage, cabbage should be well ventilated and kept as cool as possible without freezing. _varieties._--the varieties of cabbage used in the trucking section are practically limited to the wakefield type. there are two strains of this type of cabbage now extensively employed: the true jersey wakefield, with its small, acutely pointed tip and very firm, tender flesh of high quality, and the charleston wakefield, which is broader, somewhat flatter, more obtusely pointed, and slightly more angular in cross section than the jersey type. the varieties which may be used for field cultivation depend upon the purpose for which the cabbage is intended. if for sauerkraut or for immediate consumption, the flat dutch type from american-grown seed is extensively employed in the eastern part of the united states. in the irrigated section of colorado, in the vicinity of greeley, where cabbage is grown for sauerkraut, a variety known as scotch cross is almost universally grown. if the cabbage is intended for storage the danish ball head from imported seed is almost exclusively used.--(f. b. , ; colo. e. s. ; md. ag. col. e. s. ; tex. e. s. , ; ga. e. s. ; kans. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. .) calabash.[ ] the increasing popularity of calabash pipes made from the fruits of a south african calabash, or gourd, has aroused a widespread interest in the growing of this vine. [ ] see page , for illustration. calabash pipes made from imported south african gourds have been the fashion in england for some time and are now coming into vogue in america. these pipes are formed from the crooked necks of a large gourd (_lagenaria vulgaris_) belonging to the well-known group of plants which includes the cucumber, the melons, and the squashes. pipes made from the imported gourds are expensive, american dealers usually charging $ to $ apiece for them. they are the lightest pipes made for their size, are graceful in shape, color like meerschaums, and are delightful smokers. unlike the cheap pipes which are turned out by machinery, no two of these calabash pipes are alike. in this lies much of their charm. in this, likewise, lies their cost, for, unlike the great mass of pipes turned out by machinery, the crook of the calabash varies so that each mouthpiece must be made to fit it and each lining of meerschaum or plaster of paris must be specially adapted. in our land of labor-saving machinery and expensive hand labor this is what makes the pipes costly. the vine forms a very satisfactory cover for unsightly brush heaps or fences, though its rather rank odor might prove objectionable if used for an arbor too near the dwelling. to grow the vine for the sake of its gourds is where the chief interest lies, however, and to do this well it should not be trained on a trellis, but allowed to trail over the ground. if the fruits are allowed to lie on the ground they form their crooked necks quite naturally without assistance, and while not all of them by any means make suitable necks for pipes a good proportion do. it seems to induce a more perfect neck to stand the gourds up when half grown so that they rest on their big ends. unless care is exercised in doing this the necks snap off, for they are extremely brittle even when fully grown. it is only when almost mature that they become hard and then they are indeed almost unbreakable. much could doubtless be done to perfect the methods of culture, insuring perhaps a greater percentage of properly crooked necks and more perfect surfaces. it could not be seen that inheritance plays any material part in this matter of percentage of crooks. if left to themselves the majority will crook their necks, but some few will remain quite straight, and this on the same vine with perfectly formed crooks. the gourds should be left as long as possible on the vines to thoroughly thicken their shells. if picked green the shell will be no thicker than stiff cardboard and in drying it is very liable to crack. frost will injure the gourds if they are left on the vines too long.--(b. p. i. cir. .) cantaloupe. cantaloupe growing, as developed since its origin near rockyford, colorado, in , requires unusual judgment and cultural skill on the part of the farmer. co-operative organization and good business management are also essential, for only by these means can the crop be properly timed and prepared for shipment, and necessary arrangements made with transportation and selling agencies. _seed._--seed should be most carefully selected with reference to flavor and appearance of the fruit; to good shipping characters, including small cavities and heavy netting; and to a tendency to produce melons of standard size. early strains are desired for some situations; but in arizona rust resistance is not a necessary character as this class of diseases is little to be feared under the arid conditions. seed should be purchased only from most reliable sources. rockyford growers are at present the principal means of supply. _soil._--experience has proven that a sandy loam is the soil best suited for cantaloupes, and that its condition of tilth and the available fertility are the prime essentials in bringing cantaloupes to quick maturity. the secret of getting soil in that ashy, mellow condition so desirable for cantaloupes is largely one of experience, for hardly two farms can be handled the same. in general, there must be moisture in the soil over winter to get the disintegrating effect of frost, and plowing should not be done until the ground is dry enough to pulverize mellow. barnyard manure has long been the means of supplying fertility to force cantaloupes to early maturity. old alfalfa ground is most excellent for cantaloupe culture. bermuda sod plowed up and exposed to the sun without irrigation the preceding summer makes excellent cantaloupe ground, the intensive cultivation necessary serving both to benefit the crop and to restrain this formidable weed. _planting._--the first requisite aside from moisture for a good start is warm weather, as cantaloupe seed cannot germinate when the ground is cold and freezing; and if perchance the days are warm enough to germinate the seed that is planted in march or april, the cold nights that are sure to follow will offset the advantage of early planting. if there is a secret in getting early cantaloupes it is in growing the crop from start to finish with a uniform unchecked growth; the cantaloupe does not seem to have the power to rally from a check in growth or an injury from an insect and still makes its normal development. the back-set not only cuts off the production of early cantaloupes but seriously affects the size and quality of the melon. there are numerous instances where unfavorable conditions of growth have produced a large quantity of pony melons, while under more favorably growing conditions the same seed and soil have yielded standard sized cantaloupes. one of the first signs of promise for early cantaloupes is a quick germination and rapid development of large cotyledons. seed that germinates slowly with small, yellow appearing seed leaves has never made early cantaloupes. _irrigation._--moisture for the cantaloupe hill is generally supplied by the irrigation furrow. it should always reach the seed or plant by soaking through the soil. irrigation should never be allowed to over-soak or flood the ground, as the soil will then become hard and not permit a good growth. the relation of irrigation to an early set of cantaloupes is a somewhat mooted question. there are growers who argue the use of frequent irrigations during the setting period to secure a good set, and there are others who prefer to keep the vines rather dry and even letting them show the need of water before they will irrigate during the setting stage. there have been results that seemed to support both theories, yet close observation would not warrant following either plan to an extreme, but rather a medium course of supplying enough moisture for an even, healthy growth, which seems to be the essential condition all the way through. an excess of irrigation during the hot weather in july will doubtless tend to grow vines at the expense of early fruit; but the most disastrous result of too much water--having the ground so soaked that the surface is nearly all wet, and affording the moist, dewy condition which is favorable to its development--is in the development of rust. the rust problem is a serious one in cantaloupe culture in colorado. controlling it by proper application of irrigation is only a palliative measure, yet a marked contrast is often seen in two portions of a field; one over-irrigated, and the other comparatively dry, aside from the moisture necessary to the growth of the vines. rainy weather and dewy nights afford the proper conditions for the growth of the rust spore, and while the farmer cannot change climatic conditions, yet by careful attention in the application of water, having the rows well ditched, and with adequate waste laterals to prevent over-soaking and flooding, the surface of the ground will dry rapidly after a rain or an irrigation. thus the dews at night will be less, and in a measure alleviate the effects of rust.--(u. ariz. cir. ; ag. col. colo. , , and .) cardoon. the cardoon is a thistle-like plant, very similar in appearance to the globe artichoke, but is grown as an annual. the seeds are sown in early spring in a hotbed or cold frame and the plants transplanted later to the open ground. the cardoon should be planted in rows feet apart and inches apart in the row on rich soil, where it can secure plenty of moisture and make rapid growth. toward autumn the leaves are drawn together and the center blanched in the same manner as endive. if intended for winter use, the leaves are not blanched in the garden, but the plants are lifted with considerable earth adhering to the roots and stored closely in a dark pit or cellar to blanch. the blanched leaf stems are used for making salads, soups, and stews.--(f. b. .) carrot. the culture of the carrot is practically the same as the parsnip, except that carrots are not thinned so much and are allowed to grow almost as thickly as planted. carrots should be dug in the autumn and stored the same as parsnips or turnips. any surplus can be fed sparingly to horses, mules or cattle. the roots of the carrot are used at all times of the year, mostly in soups, but they may be boiled and served with butter or creamed. carrots are planted in rows inches apart and the plants thinned out to inches in the row. chantenay is an excellent table carrot of medium size and dark orange color, slightly tapering and abruptly terminating with a short, fine taproot. the flesh is orange colored, brittle, juicy and mild flavored. what it lacks in size it makes up in quality and good shape. scarlet intermediate, somewhat larger than chantenay, is of good size for table use. in shape more tapering and with a longer taproot. it is dark orange colored; flavor and quality good. flesh is quite brittle and orange colored with a white center. to these two are added two varieties principally grown for stock feed, similar varieties being grown for table use in many parts of europe, and more especially those of the white belgian variety. both varieties are of slender shape, - / to inches in diameter, holding their size well, although averaging inches in length, to inches of which grows above ground and which as a consequence is colored light green on the outside. white belgian is the sweeter of the two, and while the flesh is somewhat coarse, the flavor of it, when well stewed and mashed, is sweeter and not unlike that of the parsnip. victoria, the other variety, is of the same texture, fairly sweet and with a more pronounced carrot flavor, the flesh instead of white, being light orange colored. this vegetable can be grown to perfection in porto rico almost any time of the year. it prefers a rich loam and grows very well on a heavy clay which is not too wet, but a light sandy soil is not well adapted to it. for fertilizer, stable manure will do when nothing else is available, but a commercial fertilizer, rich in potash and phosphoric acid, is much to be preferred for this crop.--f. b. , ; mich. e. s. ; n. c. e. s. ; u. idaho e. s. ; p. r. a. e. s. . cauliflower. this plant requires a very rich, moist soil. land that will produce only a fair crop of cabbage is unfit for cauliflower. if the land is very rich and well fertilized it may be reasonably expected that the returns from the crop of cauliflower will more than repay the cost of putting the land in good condition. _seed._--no more important element enters into the success of the cauliflower crop than the quality of the seed and to the seed alone is often due the difference between success and failure, profit and loss. the best seed that can be secured is the cheapest at any reasonable price, and it should always be obtained from a well-known, reputable seedsman. _seed-bed._--this should be carefully prepared. the soil should be enriched with a liberal application of commercial fertilizer, or thoroughly decomposed stable manure. after the fertilizer is applied it should be thoroughly worked in to a depth of three or four inches. from a few days to two weeks should elapse before the seed is sown for there is great danger in planting seed too soon after applying commercial fertilizer as the seed is likely to be destroyed by the action of the mineral substance unless it has been dissolved and thoroughly incorporated with the soil. the time between the application of the fertilizer and the sowing of the seed will depend upon the amount of rainfall and it is often better to wet down the seed-bed each day for four or five days before planting and not to depend upon the uncertain rainfall. the rows should be about three inches apart. in six or seven days the young plants should begin to appear and the ground between the drills should be cultivated. do not allow the soil to dry out as the cauliflower plant from seed to head should never be checked. neither should the bed be kept too wet, else there is danger of "damping off." the bed should be carefully watched and if the disease does break out it may be checked by removing the diseased plants, working the soil, scattering dry sand and sulphur along the rows and withholding water until the surface soil becomes dry. it might be pointed out here that about six months must be allowed from the sowing of the seed until the crop matures. _transplanting._--the plants should not be allowed to remain long in the seed rows. if left too long they will soon crowd and become weak and spindling. when they have reached the height of one inch, they should be pricked off and set in another portion of the bed. they may be set in rows four inches apart with the plants one and a half to two inches apart in the rows. here they should remain until ready for the field. if care has been exercised all the way through, the plants will be short, stocky and vigorous. by the time they are four or five inches high or when the leaves have lapped they are ready for the field. it is not best to let them get too large, because there is often a delay of a few days in order to obtain good climatic conditions for setting out. if left too long in the seed bed, greater care must be exercised in transplanting, else the plants may suffer a severe check and will button or break irregularly instead of forming smooth well shaped heads. _soils and preparation._--work should be started on the ground at least a month before the plants are set out. the cauliflower is a deep rooted plant, consequently the soil should be prepared deeply. it is not advisable to turn under the good surface soil and to obviate this ground may be plowed shallow and then stirred and opened with a bull-tongue to a depth of seven or eight inches. after this the surface should be cultivated to a depth of two or three inches. give thorough preparation by frequent cultivation before the fertilizer is applied, preparatory to setting out the plants. _setting out._--it is best that the plants be set out either just before or immediately after a rain, but if this can not be done they should be set out late in the evening and watered, giving each plant about a quart of water. a cloudy day is much preferable to a clear one and if the day on which the plants are set out is followed by cloudy weather, so much the better. the ground should be leveled or smoothed over, for which purpose a roller or float may be used. after this the ground may be marked off. two markers should be constructed, one with the teeth three feet apart, the other with the teeth two feet apart. these may be made of wood after the pattern of an ordinary garden rake. in place of a marker a line may be used or the ground may be checked off with a light hand plow. only a limited number of plants should be removed from the seed-bed at one time. the leaves should be cut back about one-half or one-third, using for the purpose a large pair of shears. sprinkle the plants with water as soon as removed from the bed, place in a shallow box or basket and keep them shaded from the sun. _cultivation and care._--the field should be frequently cultivated and the ground should be scarified at least every week and after every rainfall. the best tool for cultivating is an ordinary cultivator and the ground should not be worked to a greater depth than two and one-half or three inches. this will preserve a surface mulch of dry earth and prevent loss of moisture by evaporation. as soon as the heads commence to form the leaves should be drawn together at the top and loosely tied near their tips with a piece of cord or twine. rafia makes a good substitute for twine and is preferable because there is less danger of cutting the leaves. the practice of breaking down the leaves over the head has been tried, but found not quite so satisfactory. if the heads are left uncovered they become yellow through the action of the sun and rain but when the leaves are drawn together and tied, they bleach out pure white, and curd-like. _gathering._--cauliflower may be cut before it is mature, but the flavor is not so well developed as it is when the heads are full grown. for winter shipment heads from four to six inches in diameter are of a desirable size and the market will take them fully as well or better than large ones. the field should be picked over at least every two or three days during the season, though heads will remain in good condition for nearly a week if the weather be cold. examine the head by separating the leaves on the side. as soon as the head is well rounded up in the center and developed so as to force the leaves outward, and assumes a grained appearance, it will be found to be fully matured. the heads should be cut, preferably, when dry. if moist they are likely to decay in transit. the best time of day is the afternoon if they are intended for long distance shipment. about an inch of stem should be left on the head and three rows of leaves. after cutting, the heads should be carefully placed in a wagon and carried to the packing house or on dry pleasant days packing may be done in the field. _packing._--the package recommended for general use is the ordinary lettuce basket. before packing, the leaves should be cut back to stubs. each head should be carefully wrapped in a large sheet of white glazed paper. the baskets should be packed snug and tight without bruising the heads, and only those of uniform size should be placed in each basket. never place different sizes in the same package and always discard inferior or injured heads; the compost heap is the place for them.--(f. b. ; fla. e. s. ; tex. e. s. ; cornell u. e. s. .) celeriac. this vegetable, which is also known as turnip-rooted celery, or knot celery, is closely related to our ordinary celery, being indeed a cultural variety of the same original plant grown under conditions which have developed the root rather than the stalk. in europe it is by far the most common form of celery, but has never been extensively cultivated in the united states, though it is found in the larger markets. the roots are white and more or less globular in shape, closely resembling turnips in appearance. this vegetable deserves to be more widely known, being extremely hardy and of easy cultivation. it is mostly used for flavoring soups, except by the germans who use it in the same manner as potatoes for potato salad. planted or inches apart and feet between the rows it will yield abundantly, and succeed best where celery will. the edible portion develops into a bulbous root weighing to ounces when trimmed, and these bulbs when properly packed away in the cellar will keep almost until spring. where the ground but slightly freezes, the plants may be safely left unharvested for spring use.--(f. b. , ; mich. e. s. .) celery. the ideal climatic conditions for the production of celery are bright sunshine, pure air, cool nights, and a well-distributed rainfall of about inches during the growing period in the field or garden. _soils._--in the production of celery for domestic use, a rich, mellow, sandy loam will give the best results. the soil of the seed bed should contain plenty of leaf mold and should be passed through a sieve having not less than six meshes to the inch. the soil of the transplanting bed need not be sifted so fine, and some well-rotted barnyard manure should replace a part of the leaf mold; in other respects it should be the same as that of the seed bed. any fertile, well-drained soil will grow celery, but a loose, sandy loam is preferable. if nothing but clay soil is available, it may be made to produce good celery by the liberal application of well-rotted barnyard manure. on clay soils there is likely to be injury caused by the soil becoming washed into the hearts of the plants while they are yet small. _fertilizers._--for the production of the home supply of celery there is no fertilizer that is so satisfactory as well-rotted barnyard manure. in many localities the supply of manure is limited, and it may be necessary to depend almost entirely upon commercial fertilizers. if fresh stable manure is used, it should be plowed under in the autumn. if the manure is well rotted, it may be plowed under early in the spring or used as a top-dressing a short time before planting in order to bring the manure to the surface. from to tons of manure to the acre should be applied each year that the land is planted to celery. the application of lime will improve most soils. following the use of stable manure an application of , pounds of ground quicklime as a top dressing will be beneficial. soils that are liable to leach during the winter can be held by planting to rye and the crop turned under quite early in the spring. when applied to clay soils the lime has a tendency to lighten them, and sandy soils are rendered more retentive of moisture by the addition of lime. an application of to pounds of common salt to the acre is considered desirable by some growers. celery will take up a limited quantity of salt, and its flavor is improved thereby. one to tons of high-grade fertilizer to the acre may be profitably applied on most soils in addition to the stable manure and lime. as a rule, the quick-acting fertilizers are used, and a mixture suitable for growing celery should contain about per cent of nitrogen, per cent of available phosphoric acid, and per cent of potash. _time and method of plowing._--as a rule the land should be plowed several weeks before planting. at the north it is desirable to plow the celery land in the autumn and allow the soil to lie exposed to the action of frost during the winter. at the south it will be necessary to plow but a short time before planting. the plowing should be very thorough, and in most cases with a somewhat heavier plow than that generally used for other crops. _smoothing and pulverizing._--a few days before the land is required for planting, the surface should be cut with a disk or cutting harrow, followed by such tools as are necessary to pulverize the soil to a depth of or inches. just before planting, the land should either be rolled or gone over with a float, or drag, made by nailing together planks or scantlings, in order to secure an even surface for planting. _marking rows._--the rows in which the celery plants are to be set should not be marked until a short time before planting, in order that the soil may remain fresh. a marking device similar to the ordinary corn marker may be used, but some form of roller with a number of projecting pegs to form holes in which to set the plants is desirable. a device of this character can be constructed by replacing the wheel of an ordinary wheelbarrow with a roller having a series of pegs. _selection of seed._--the first and most important consideration when preparing to grow a crop of celery is the securing of good seed, not merely seed of which a large percentage will germinate, but that having strength and vigor sufficient to give the seedling a good start. as the seeds of celery are very small, it is necessary that only a small percentage of the number usually sown should actually grow in order to secure an abundance of plants; but as low germination and the necessary vigor are seldom both to be found in the same packet of seed that seed which has a high percentage of germination is preferable. _sowing for an early crop._--for sowing seed during the early part of the season, the plan best suited to the requirements of the farmer or amateur grower of celery is to secure a wooden flat or tray about by inches in size and inches deep, with several small holes in the bottom for drainage. after filling with sifted soil level it off even with the top, and either shake down the soil or press it down by means of a board before the seeds are sown. either sow in drills inches apart or scatter broadcast, and cover the seed by sprinkling through a fine sieve a very small quantity of leaf mold or sand. this tray can be placed in the window of a moderately warm room in the dwelling, and the soil should be watered by sprinkling very lightly as often as necessary to keep the surface from showing dryness, but the soil should not become waterlogged. _sowing for a late crop._--the method now in use by most large growers is to prepare a tract of land by pulverizing with horse tools and then raking by hand, after which the seed is sown broadcast by means of a wheelbarrow grass-seed drill. the soil is sometimes pressed down with a plank after the seeds are scattered, but some growers maintain that there is a decided advantage in leaving the soil slightly uneven, as the seeds fall into the shaded places and are protected from the direct rays of the sun. the seed will become sufficiently covered by rains or by watering. should more than per cent of the seed usually sown germinate, it is necessary to thin out to prevent overcrowding, with its attendant injury. to prevent the surface of the soil becoming too dry, it may be necessary to partially shade the young plants during the warm days of early summer, but the shading should never be so dense as to cause them to become "drawn." _transplanting._--in case the grower adopts the plan of transplanting twice, the seedlings will be ready for the first handling in from four to six weeks from the time the seed is sown. the seedlings may be transplanted to trays or to beds in the open ground. this transplanting answers two purposes: ( ) the seedling plant of celery has a straight root, or taproot, which is broken in transplanting, causing a large mass of fibrous roots to be formed. in the case of a plant allowed to remain in the seed bed until planting-out time this taproot has gone far down into the soil and the plant has formed very few side roots; consequently it suffers a great shock in the process of planting in the field, and a large number of plants will need to be replaced. ( ) when transplanting twice is practiced there is no necessity for thinning, and a more uniform lot of plants is obtained. two handlings can not be recommended when celery is grown on a large scale, as the cost of labor is too great. it is better to have a surplus of plants and to renew those that fail. _watering._--when the seed bed is prepared, the soil of which it is composed should contain as much moisture as possible and yet be in good condition to handle. after sowing and covering the seeds the bed should be sprinkled lightly. during the period between seeding and the appearance of the plants the bed should be watered only as often as it shows indications of dryness; however, the surface should never become dry. during the first few days a moist cloth may be spread over the surface of the seed bed in order to conserve the moisture, but this covering should be removed before the seedlings begin to appear. after the plants are up, care should be taken not to water too heavily, as the seedlings are liable to "damp off"; but the ground should never become so dry as to check their growth. celery requires the most water while making its greatest growth, which occurs late in the summer. as the crop approaches maturity the water should be applied sparingly, and it should be withheld altogether for some time before blanching. among the methods of applying the water, the most simple and usually the most desirable practice, especially where the surface of the soil is even, is to run the water along the rows by means of small furrows, or inches distant on either side of the row. this method is well adapted to use on a gentle slope with the rows running up and down the incline. when the water is sprinkled over the entire surface it should be done late in the day, so that the soil may, during the night, absorb the moisture and prevent a crust being formed, as would be the case were the water applied under the direct heat of the sun. _growing without irrigation._--for a home supply of celery it is often possible to select a rather moist but well-drained piece of land whereon it may be grown without artificial watering. in this case the plants should be set while the atmosphere is filled with moisture, preferably between gentle showers, and the moisture afterwards retained in the soil by frequent shallow cultivation or by the application of a mulch around the plants. this method can not be followed in climates where irrigation is necessary for the production of crops, but is applicable in regions that have an ordinary rainfall during the growing season. _planting._--for domestic use, where plenty of land is available, it will be found most economical to plant in single or double rows , or feet apart, with the plants or inches apart in the row. if the space is limited, solid beds about feet wide will be found suitable, with the plants set or inches apart each way. by planting in rows the crop may be worked with a horse cultivator or a wheel hoe and the banking more easily done, and thus the cost of production is lessened. with the solid-bed system the work must all be done by hand. if possible, the planting should be done when the soil is rather moist and the atmospheric conditions suitable to the subsistence of the plants until the roots can again furnish sufficient moisture to supply them. the bed should be thoroughly watered a few hours before the plants are removed, and a knife or trowel should be run between the plants so that they may be lifted with a clump of earth and with most of their roots attached. _mulching._--in muck soils it will not be found necessary to mulch the ground around the plants after setting, but some kind of a covering is desirable on sandy and clay soils. as soon as the plants are in position and before any water is applied, cover the ground for a distance of or inches on either side with any finely divided material that will shade the top of the soil and prevent a crust being formed after watering; half-rotted manure is preferable for this, as it aids the growth by its fertilizing qualities. good celery can be grown on clay upland with but one watering--at the time of planting--provided that plenty of mulch is applied as soon as the plants are set. the roots of celery, after it is once transplanted, run close to the surface, and the mulch will protect them from the heat of the sun. among materials that may be used for a mulch may be mentioned pine needles, leaves of any kind, straw, cornstalks run through the cutter, clippings from the lawn, etc., none of which, however, are as good as barnyard manure. have the material to be used as a mulch near at hand, and as the plants are set cover the soil around them to a depth of inches, bringing the mulching material up close to the plant, but being careful to allow none to get into the heart. apply the mulch before watering, if possible. where celery is planted in single rows and mulched it will only be necessary to maintain shallow cultivation between the rows, not allowing the cultivator teeth to come nearer the plants than the edge of the mulch. where no mulch is used the cultivation may be carried a little closer to the plants, but should be very shallow, and at no time should deep cultivation be practiced, as the roots are to be found very near the surface of the soil. if a mulch is used no hand cultivation will be required, either along the side or between the plants in the row, except to pull any weeds that may spring up. where no mulch is used it will be necessary lightly to stir the surface with a wheel hoe or iron rake, to prevent a crust being formed after each rain or watering. keep the surface of the soil smooth and in no case allow lumps of earth to remain near the plants. _blanching._--in its original wild state the stems of celery are tough, full of woody strands, of a rank flavor, and green in color, being similar to the outside stems or trimmings of our present varieties. the object of blanching is to secure leafstalks free from woody strands, crisp and tender, and without the rank flavor found in those that are green. of the cultivated plant there are two classes of varieties, the large-growing, or giant, and the dwarf sorts. these are again divided into those which must be blanched by excluding all the light and those which are in a measure self-blanching. of the former the giant pascal variety is a type, and of the latter the golden self-blanching variety is a good illustration. blanching is accomplished by the same general method that is employed for destroying the coloring matter in any plant tissue, that is, by excluding the light and allowing the growth to proceed in the dark. the particular method to be adopted must be determined largely by the time when the crop is to be used. if for early use or marketing, the blanching must be completed where the plants are grown; but if the celery be for winter use the blanching may take place after the crop has been removed from the field and placed in storage. in fact, it is best to blanch as little as possible before storing when the product is to be kept until late, as the keeping qualities are better while it is unblanched. when planting for early use it is necessary to choose one of the self-blanching varieties, such as may be conveniently blanched by the use of boards or other similar means. for early blanching on a small scale, such as would be employed on the farm or in the garden of the amateur horticulturist, there are several methods. one of the most common is by means of boards placed on edge along each side of the row. after the boards are in position it is a good plan to run a celery hiller between the rows and to throw a little soil against the lower edges of the boards to close any openings that may result from the uneven surface of the soil. two or three weeks' time will be required to complete the blanching of the early varieties, and the boards must be kept in position until the crop is removed from the ground, after which they may be used again two or three times during the season. if the celery is allowed to remain in the boards too long after it has reached a marketable stage, it loses in weight and flavor and is liable to be injured or even destroyed by the attacks of blight. this is especially true during the earlier part of the season, when the weather is warm. at the end of the season the boards should be piled flat, with strips inserted at every fourth or fifth course, and the whole pile roofed over to shed off rain; treated in this manner they will last from ten to twelve years. perhaps the most satisfactory way of blanching early celery on a small scale is by means of ordinary farm drain tiles of about inches inside diameter, placed over the plants after they have become almost fully grown. to facilitate the work of placing the tiles over the plants, some of the outside leaves should be pulled away and the main part of the plant loosely tied together by means of a soft string, or, better, with what is known as paper twine, being a string made by twisting a strip of soft paper. this string will lose its strength as soon as it becomes wet, and will offer no resistance to the further growth of the plant. if the common, unglazed tiles are used the evaporation from their surface has a tendency to keep the plant cool during the heat of the day, and a very crisp and tender product is the result. this method of blanching is desirable also on account of its cleanliness, as celery treated in this way will need very little washing before marketing. the most common method for blanching celery on a small scale is that of banking with soil, and it is by this means that the finest flavor can be obtained. where the plants are set in single rows the soil can often be partially thrown up by means of a plow, or, better, by a celery hiller. before the plow or banking machine is used a small quantity of dirt must be placed around the plants by hand to hold them in position while the earth is being thrown around them. this may also be accomplished by tying up the plants with paper twine, as previously recommended for use in connection with tiles. _storing._--the plan usually adopted where but a small quantity of celery is to be stored for winter use is to bank up with earth and cover the plants where grown. place enough earth around the base of the plants to hold them in good form, and then allow them to remain without any further banking as long as there is not danger of a hard frost. celery may be safely stored in cellars provided the temperature is kept low and plenty of ventilation maintained. the warmth and dampness of the ordinary cellar have a tendency to cause the celery to decay, but these conditions can frequently be overcome. celery will readily absorb any odor that may be present in the atmosphere of the storage place, and care should be taken to provide sanitary conditions. when storing in a cellar, the plants should have most of their roots attached, and a bed of moist sand in which to set them should be provided. [illustration: celery banked with earth to blanch it] _preparing celery for market._--in preparing it from the rows where grown, it is not necessary to remove the entire root from the earth, but it may be cut off just below the surface of the soil by means of a stiff knife. remove the outside leaves and trim the root evenly, pack in boxes, and load on the wagon for removal to the washing house. the blanching boards should not be removed till necessary, and the trimmed celery must not be allowed to lie exposed to the sun or wind for any length of time. it is well also to have a piece of canvas to protect the celery while it is on the wagon on the way to the washing house. in marketing from the trenches the process is practically the same as from the rows, except that the celery is already loosened from the soil and the roots can be removed more easily. upon reaching the washing room the celery is placed upon a rack consisting of wooden slats over a large trough and subjected to a spray of cold water to cool it and to remove the adhering soil. after washing, it is allowed to drain; then it is tied in bunches of or more plants each, according to the size. the bunches are packed in a box for first-grade celery and or for second or third grades. these boxes should be practically air-tight, and a lining of paper should be placed in them before packing the celery, or each bunch should be wrapped separately. the celery should be nearly dry before it is placed in the boxes, and throughout the entire handling must be kept as cool as possible. _sanitary conditions._--it is essential that the celery should be washed in pure water to prevent the transmission of disease germs. any germ, such as that producing typhoid fever, which is found in contaminated water, is readily carried to the digestive system of the consumer, and may or may not produce an attack of the disease, according to the strength of the person to resist it. the washhouse and its surroundings should be kept clean and free from any decomposing materials. shippers and dealers alike lose sight of the fact that the edible portion of celery is constantly being exposed to the contaminating effects of dirty wagons, unclean cars, and dusty markets. many persons have discontinued the use of celery on account of the unclean condition in which it is served. this statement holds good for all vegetables that are served in the raw state, but it is especially applicable to celery. _estimates of returns._--anyone contemplating making a start in celery growing will do well to first investigate the market prospects, and unless satisfactory shipping arrangements can be made beforehand the crop should be planted only on a small scale for one or two years, until a local trade can be established. it is fair to estimate a return of , dozen from acre; and this should bring cents per dozen, at the lowest average estimate; this will yield a gross income of $ to the acre, leaving a net balance of $ to cover the interest on the investment and the profit. as a matter of fact, the growers who are making a success of celery raising--and many are doing so--receive a net profit of $ an acre over and above the interest on the investment. on the other hand, hundreds of acres are grown annually which do not much more than pay expenses, but this is due to the fact that the soil has become exhausted and the product is consequently undersized and inferior.--(f. b. , ; cornell e. s. ; colo. e. s. .) cetewayo, or zulu, potatoes. the cetewayo, or zulu, potato, a wild variety of _solanum tuberosum_ found in africa, is sometimes grown as a garden vegetable for its flavor and novelty. it has practically the same percentage composition as the ordinary potato. when cooked, the flesh is purple in color, but when brought in contact with vinegar, as in salads, it turns red.--(f. b. .) the chayote. the chayote suggests the cucumber rather than any other of the cultivated plants of the same family, but is a larger and more vigorous plant, climbing widely by means of numerous branched tendrils. when grown under ordinary garden conditions the cultural requirements of the chayote may be said to be two in number: ( ) a somewhat sheltered situation and ( ) something to climb upon. while the vine will not refuse to grow without these advantages, the results will not be satisfactory. like many climbing plants, the chayote is very susceptible to injury from the wind, while, unlike many cucurbitaceae, it does not seem to take kindly to creeping upon the ground, at least in the tropics. in the different parts of the world the chayote has been found to grow upon a great variety of soils, though it is generally considered to thrive best in a loose sandy or loamy substratum, providing sufficient humus or other fertilizing material be at hand. although it has been found possible to secure plants from the seed when planted alone, or even from the embryo when carefully extracted from its seed coats, it is the universal practice to plant the entire fruit. the fruit should be gathered before fully matured, because of the tendency to germinate. it is like the cucumber, edible at any stage of growth, and may be picked when large enough. the chayote is a good shipper and may be shipped in bulk in vegetable crates, wrapped and well packed; cold storage will not be necessary.--(dept. ag., div. of botany ; p. rico a. e. s. ). chervil. under the name of chervil two distinct plants, known as salad chervil and the turnip-rooted chervil, are cultivated. the seeds of the salad chervil are sown in spring and the crop will thrive on any good garden soil. the seeds of the turnip-rooted chervil should be sown in the early autumn, but they will not germinate until the following spring. the edible part of this plant is the root, which somewhat resembles the carrot and is used in the same manner. the leaves are used the same as parsley for garnishing and in flavoring soups.--(f. b. .) chicory. chicory is grown for two or three purposes. the root of this plant is the common adulterant of coffee, and large quantities are used for this purpose. the commercial growing of chicory is confined to a few sections, as the crop will not thrive on every kind of soil. a deep, rich loam, without excessive amounts of clay or sand, is desirable, and soil that is not too rich in nitrogenous matter is best suited to the production of roots. the roots are frequently placed in soil under a greenhouse bench or in a warm cellar and covered with a foot or more of straw, or with a light covering of straw and then several inches of warm manure. under this covering the leaves will be formed in a solid head, which is known on the market as witloof. chicory has run wild in some parts of the country and is considered a bad weed. the handsome blue flowers, which are borne the second season, are very attractive. as a pot herb chicory is used like spinach, but the leaves should be boiled in two waters to remove the bitter taste. as a salad the roots are dug in the autumn and planted in cellars or under a greenhouse bench, where they produce an abundance of blanched leaves, which are eaten raw. the blanched leaves are also boiled and used as greens.--(f. b. ; u. idaho e. s. .) chile. the chile is used in many different ways and it is quite an important article of food among the spanish speaking population in the southwest and in mexico. it is eaten both in the green and ripe state. it may be grown on ridges or in level plats. the former method is the more common in new mexico. in the spring after the ground has been plowed and leveled (the plowing of the land can be done in the fall or winter) and just a little before planting the ridges are made. these ridges may vary in height from to inches. it is better to irrigate the ridges before planting, though this is not always done. the object of irrigating before planting is to get the water mark on the side of the ridges and to settle the newly plowed soil somewhat. as soon as the soil is dry enough so it can be worked, which is generally from four to seven days, the seed is planted usually on one side of the ridge and just above the water mark. the seed is planted by hand in hills about every two feet in the row. the chile does not stand freezing weather, though it will stand a little more cold than tomatoes. for the convenience of intending chile growers the following table which gives the number of hills per acre at different distances has been prepared: number of distance. hills per acre. - / feet between rows × feet in the row - / feet between rows × - / feet in the row feet between rows × feet in the row feet between rows × - / feet in the row _planting._--the seed is planted on the side of the ridge, when the ridge method is practiced. the southern exposure of the ridge is always preferable since this is usually warmer and the germination, other factors being uniform, is quicker. if level culture is practiced there is no choice of exposure. whatever method of planting is followed care should be taken not to bury the seed too deeply. as a general thing the seed should not be deeper than three-fourths of an inch to an inch and a half. shallower planting, if the moisture is kept normal, will give quicker and better germination. more seed is required per acre when the planting is done by hand on the ridges than when it is drilled with a garden drill in plats. _thinning._--chile started from seed planted in the field must be thinned to one or three plants to the hill. when the chile has been thinned out properly the plant or plants in the hill branch out considerably and produce a heavier and better crop. if too many plants are left to the hill there is a marked tendency for the plants to grow too tall and more or less top heavy. the chile is thinned out when about to inches high. if a good germination takes place it is more difficult to thin the chile, because there are more small plants to the hill to be pulled out. care should be had in selecting the strongest plants in the hill and in injuring as little as possible the roots of those which remain. while the common way of growing chile is to plant the seed out in the field in the spring, it can also be grown by starting the plants in cold frames early in the season and transplanting to the field as soon as danger of frost is over. _irrigation._--after the irrigations to get the crop started have been given, the frequency of the subsequent irrigations depends upon the weather and soil conditions, and for that reason no specific statement can be made just when and how often the chile should be irrigated. one thing, however, is important to keep in mind, and that is that the chile plant keeps bearing as long as it is growing. if the growth should be checked by the lack of irrigation the plant stops bearing and the blossoms and the very small pods are likely to drop off. the grower himself should study his local conditions and decide for himself when and how much to irrigate. while the chile plant resists considerable drought, at the same time, it should not be allowed to suffer from the lack of irrigation. when the chile is grown on ridges the space between the ridges should be allowed to fill with water almost up to the plant. if the water is simply turned in and allowed to rush down the furrow to the other end the ridges will remain practically dry, necessitating frequent irrigations to keep the plants from suffering. in irrigating the chile on ridges always aim to hold the water long enough in the furrow for the ridges to get fairly well soaked through. in the level plat the irrigation is more simple and the soil around each hill gets wet sufficiently while the water is running down to the end of the plat. when the plats are quite long and are made up of a series of squares as soon as each square is filled with water the border, dividing that square from the next one, is cut and the water rushes into the next square which is treated the same as the one before.--(n. mex. col. ag. and mech. arts .) chive. this is a small onion-like plant having flat, hollow leaves which are used for flavoring soups. the chive rarely forms seeds, and it is propagated by the bulbs, which grow in clusters. the leaves may be cut freely and are soon replaced by others.--(f. b. ; s. dak. e. s. .) citron. the citron is a type of watermelon with solid flesh which is used for preserves and sweet pickles. the rind of the watermelon is frequently substituted for citron. the cultivation of the citron is the same as for the watermelon.--(f. b. ; u. idaho e. s. .) collards. the culture and uses of collards are the same as for cabbage and kale. collards withstand the heat better than either cabbage or kale, and a type known as georgia collards is highly esteemed in the southern states. collards do not form a true head, but instead a loose rosette of leaves, which, when blanched, are very tender and of delicate flavor.--(f. b. ; u. idaho e. s. ; p. rico a. e. s. .) corn salad. corn salad is also known as lamb's-lettuce and fetticus. sow the seed during the early spring in drills to inches apart and cultivate the same as for lettuce or mustard. for an extra early crop the seed may be planted during the autumn and the plants covered lightly during the winter. in the southern states the covering will not be necessary and the plants will be ready for use during february and march. the leaves are frequently used in their natural green state, but they may be blanched by covering the rows with anything that will exclude the light. corn salad is used as a salad in place of lettuce, or mixed with lettuce or water cress. the flavor of corn salad is very mild, and it is improved by mixing with some other salad plant for use. it is also boiled with mustard for greens.--(f. b. .) cress. under the name of cress there are two forms, the water cress and the upland cress. the upland cress, sometimes called peppergrass, is easily grown from seed sown in drills a foot apart. as the plants last but a short time, it will be necessary to make a sowing every few days if a continuous supply is desired. water cress can be grown all the year in small open ditches containing running spring water. it is best and most easily produced in water from rather warm springs in limestone regions. a sufficient supply for family use can be grown in a small spring-fed brook, and the plants may be started either from small pieces of plants or from seed. cress is used in salads, to which it imparts a pleasant pungency.--(f. b. ; u. idaho e. s. ; p. rico a. e. s. .) cucumbers. _soil._--the soil best adapted to the cultivation of cucumbers in the open is a light sandy loam, one which responds quickly to temperature and fertilizer. such soils are prepared early in the season and thrown into gentle undulations, so as to produce slight ridges upon which to plant the seed to insure good surface drainage. _fertilizers._--the soil for cucumbers should be made very rich by the annual application of heavy dressings of stable manure to be incorporated with the soil. during the time it is not occupied by cucumbers or lettuce, cowpeas are frequently grown upon the area and turned under prior to planting a fall crop of lettuce. in addition to this, liberal applications of a fertilizer carrying a considerable percentage of nitrogen are employed. _planting._--there are almost as many methods of planting cucumbers as there are growers. some plant in hills the standard distance of feet apart each way; others plant in hills feet apart in one direction and or feet apart in the row, while others plant in drills or broad belts feet apart and chop out the plants to stand about a foot apart in the row after all danger from insect depredation has ceased. the methods which seem most economical under the conditions at hand will of course be adopted by the grower. in outdoor culture the cucumber is frequently used as a companion crop to other crops, like beans. beans being of rapid growth come on quickly and form a partial protection or wind-break for the young cucumber plants. when arranged in this way, cucumbers are planted in drills or in hills feet apart and a row of beans is placed between two rows of cucumbers, a method which insures a very complete and satisfactory use of the ground. the quick maturity of the beans allows them to be harvested and entirely removed from the area before it is required for the cucumbers. _harvesting._--cucumbers intended for pickling purposes are harvested when they have attained a length of from - / to inches. because such cucumbers are bought by weight it will readily be seen that the small-sized pickles are less profitable to the grower than the larger ones, and in order to secure them before they have attained an unsalable size it is necessary that the picking be repeated at frequent intervals, as cucumbers grow rapidly and a delay of twenty-four to forty-eight hours in harvesting would render many of them unsalable. it is therefore necessary to have regular intervals to harvest certain areas of the patch and to continue this routine throughout the bearing season. another point which is of prime importance in the management of the cucumber patch is that none of the fruits be allowed to come to maturity. the ripening process, which means the development and maturing of the seeds, produces a heavy strain upon the growing plant, the life and yield of the plant being in proportion to the number of fruits which are allowed to ripen. if no fruits are allowed to come to maturity the plants will remain green and in an active vegetative condition longer and will produce a much larger aggregate number of fruits. _dill pickles._--dill pickles, which are much prized and command the highest price among pickles, can be made from fresh cucumbers as they come from the vines, or from vat stock which has been carried for some time at the salting station. _cucumbers grown in cold frames for market._--soil for use in cold frames should be a well-enriched sandy loam of the type of the usual sandy loam. if it can be dark in color, this is an advantage. if normally light, the color can be changed by the addition of muck or by incorporating well-decomposed stable manure with the surface soil. a dark color is of some advantage in helping to raise the temperature in the frames under the glass. _watering._--since the glazed sash prevent the soil beneath them being moistened by natural means--that is, by rain or dew--it is necessary that means be provided for watering or irrigating the plants. this can be done by arranging pipes upon the surface of the ground or at a convenient height overhead, so as not to interfere with cultivation, from which water can be drawn to sprinkle the surface of the beds at desired intervals and as the plants may require. the work of watering should, however, be very carefully done. the same general precautions necessary for the care of plants in cold frames should be observed--that is, to do the watering in the morning on bright days only, when air can be admitted and when the sun will soon dry the moisture from the leaves of the plants. in this way much can be done to protect the plants from injury from such diseases as the damping-off fungus and mildew. [illustration: japanese climbing cucumber nearly six feet from the ground] [illustration: well-grown cucumbers] _ventilation._--besides the precautions to be observed in watering plants in cold frames, extreme care is necessary to give the plants sufficient air to keep them in a healthy condition. if the atmosphere is allowed to become close and very hot, the plants will be weakened and thus rendered more susceptible to the attacks of plant diseases. _forcing cucumbers under glass._--forcing is a technical term used by gardeners to designate the growing of plants out of their normal season under an artificial environment. the cucumber is one of the few garden plants which lend themselves to this manner of cultivation in addition to their more extensive cultivation in the open ground. under the stimulus of forcing work, two distinct types of cucumbers have been developed. these are recognized in the trade as the english type and the american type. the english type is purely a product of forcing-house conditions, as the climate of england is not congenial to the growth and development of the cucumber in the open. the american type of cucumber is primarily a product of field conditions, and the few varieties which have been developed to meet the requirements of the forcing house are simply modifications of the existing field or outdoor forms. the english type of cucumber is a long, cylindrical, uniformly green fruit, with few seeds and a very fleshy seed cavity; in fact, the normal seed cavity of the forced cucumber is almost entirely wanting. the triangular shape characteristic of the normal outdoor cucumber has been lost, and the cylindrical outline almost perfected. there is considerable difference in the size and length of the various english varieties of cucumbers. the american type of cucumber is primarily grown in the field, the product to be used either for pickling or for slicing. forcing cucumbers in america is confined to those varieties which produce large fruits suitable for slicing. only three or four of the better and larger field varieties are adapted to this purpose. notable among these is the white spine, the arlington white spine being the variety which has been especially developed for forcing. the long green, or a modification of it, is also sometimes used, but aside from these two varieties there are few that ever find their way into the forcing house. such varieties as the boston pickling, chicago pickling, and the cluster varieties in general are not adapted to forcing purposes. the forcing of cucumbers presupposes that an adequate forcing house or greenhouse is at hand for such work. the chief desideratum in a forcing house for cucumbers is a maximum amount of light, sufficient headroom, and adequate radiation to maintain a temperature varying from ° to ° f. the amount of radiation will, of course, depend upon the style of heating employed, whether steam or hot water, and upon the location of the greenhouse, whether at the north or the south; the outside temperature determining to a considerable extent the amount of radiation required in the house to maintain a given degree of heat. _propagation._--there are a number of methods of propagation followed by successful cucumber growers, all of which have some advantages. three of the more common practices are as follows: ( ) to plant the seeds of cucumbers in the soil of the bench where the plants are to grow and mature; ( ) to plant the seeds of the cucumbers in -inch or -inch pots filled about half full of soil and after the seeds have germinated and the hypocotyl or stem of the seedling has elongated to fill the pots well up to the seed leaves with soil; and ( ) to plant the seeds in cups similar to those used for harvesting strawberries, except that the cups for this purpose are usually made of georgia pine. in the first case, where the seeds are planted directly in the soil on the benches, cucumbers are usually employed as a crop to follow lettuce, seeds being planted in the lettuce benches before the crop is entirely removed, heads of lettuce being taken out at proper distances to allow for the correct spacing of the cucumber plants, and the seeds of cucumbers planted in the areas so left. in the other two cases the rearing of the plants for forcing purposes can be carried on in a small house especially designed for this purpose or in a general propagating house, thus obviating the necessity of heating and maintaining normal conditions in the growing house during the period previous to which the plants begin to run. _planting on the benches._--as soon as the plants show well-developed runners and are to inches long they should be placed in their permanent position upon the greenhouse benches. plants grown in pots must be carefully removed from these receptacles to the bench, but those grown in the wooden cups above referred to can be planted, cup and all, in the soil of the bench. the utmost care should be exercised to keep the plants of the cucumber growing rapidly at all times. if cucumbers receive a severe check or are placed under conditions which are not entirely congenial to them, they are liable to become dwarfed and stunted, and as soon as vigorous growth ceases they become the prey of the melon aphis, mildew, and other pests and diseases which are so annoying to growers of cucumbers under artificial conditions. _distance to plant._--after the plants have attained a height of or inches and are in a vigorous growing condition they should be placed about or inches apart in single rows upon the side benches of the greenhouse, which are normally - / feet wide, or if planted on -foot benches they should be planted about or inches from the edge of the bench and to inches apart and parallel with the edge of the bench. in the broad benches, where more than a double row can be carried, plants can be set about inches apart and in rows about feet apart. a satisfactory plan for an -foot bench will be a row parallel with and inches from each edge of the bench and a double row inches apart through the middle of the bench. it is well, however, to allow as much space as possible. the cucumber is a rank-growing plant and many side branches will develop if sufficient space is allowed. _training the plants._--as soon as the plants show a tendency to run they should be trained so as to keep them from becoming unduly tangled and in order to fill all the space upon the trellis. galvanized wires no. can be run lengthwise of the house and stapled to the supports, which should be placed about feet apart. upon side benches which are elevated it will be necessary to train the cucumbers to the framework of the greenhouse. for this purpose screw eyes about inches in length can be placed in the sash bars at intervals of or feet and the parallel wires to which the vines are to be tied stretched inches apart lengthwise of the house through these screw eyes and firmly fastened at the ends. the vines should then be loosely tied to the supporting wires with raffia or soft cotton yarn. when the fruits become heavy, as in the case of the english varieties, it will become necessary to truss them to prevent their weight breaking the vines. heavy fruits will cause the supporting wires or bands of raffia to break or girdle the vines unless they are supported independently. the american varieties seldom attain sufficient size to require this precaution. fruits of these varieties as soon as they are to inches in length and inches in diameter are harvested for market. the vines are usually sufficiently strong to withstand the weight of fruit of this size. _pollination._--the cucumber, like the other members of the gourd family to which it belongs, bears two kinds of blossoms on widely separated parts of the plant. the staminate or nonfruit-bearing flower is the first to appear and is in general borne near the base of the plant. the pistillate blossom with the embryo cucumbers at its base appears later and is borne near the extremity of the newly forming and rapidly growing shoots. since these flowers are normally produced in this way, it is necessary that a transfer of pollen be made from the staminate to the pistillate flowers throughout the agency of insects or by other artificial means. under greenhouse conditions and at the time of year that the cucumber is forced it is necessary to provide for pollination. in small establishments this work can be done by hand. the staminate blossoms are removed, the petals turned back so as to allow the anthers to project, and the pencil thus produced is then thrust into the cup of the pistillate flower in such a way as to distribute pollen upon the stigma of the pistillate flower. in large establishments where hand pollination is out of the question a colony of honey bees is placed in each house to accomplish the work.--(f. b. , ; mass. ag. col. e. s. ; iowa ag. col. e. s. .) dandelion. sow the seed of dandelion in spring in drills inches apart, covering it one-half inch deep. thin the plants to about inches apart and give good clean cultivation throughout the summer. in the colder parts of the country it may be desirable to mulch slightly during the winter to prevent the plants heaving out of the soil. early the following spring the plants will be ready for use as greens, but they are greatly improved if blanched by setting two boards in the forms of an inverted letter v over the row. the blanching not only makes the leaves more tender but destroys a part of the bitter taste. dandelion greens should be boiled in two waters to remove the bitterness.--(f. b. - ; s. dak. ; u. id. e. s. .) dill. grown as fennel which it greatly resembles, both being well known herbs used for flavoring pickles, and both being of unsurpassed hardiness.--(mich. e. s. .) egg plant. this delicious vegetable is not so much cultivated in our gardens as it should be. this has arisen largely from the difficulty of getting the plants from seed in the open ground. if you have no greenhouse, hotbed, nor frame, it will be best to buy the plants at setting-time from some one who grows them early in pots. plants pulled from a bed are seldom worth planting, as the egg plant is slow to recover from a serious check. _kind of soil._--a sandy loam will be found excellent soil; this should be well drained and have a moist subsoil. land that has been drained, if all other conditions are proper, will make an excellent field. this plant is a deep feeder, so that the land should be plowed as deeply as possible. a new field should not be taken, while one might succeed, the chances are not so good as on an old and well-tried piece of land. be sure that all rubbish and matter that could interfere with cultivation has been removed. fertilize the field broadcast; there is little or no danger of the plants failing to get the food if it is in the soil. the best way is to apply the fertilizer just before plowing the field, and then apply a smaller amount where the plants are to stand; work the fertilizer in well a week or two before setting out. lay the land off into rows four feet apart, and set the plants three or four feet apart in the row. at convenient distances a row may be skipped to make a road to gather the crop. after the crop has been planted there is little or no use for a hoe; the plow can and ought to do the work. no weeds should be allowed to show more than the seed leaves, and the ground should be kept mellow enough to let a person sink nearly to the ankles in dry times. when the fertilizer has been applied properly the roots will seek the deeper soil, and the ordinary horse cultivator will not reach them at all. eggplant raising pays best under high cultivation. by replenishing the fertilizer, plants may be kept in bearing until frost kills them in the fall, but it will be found more profitable to renew the field, if a summer or fall crop is desired.--(u. id. e. s. ; n. c. e. s. ; fla. e. s. ; f. b. ; iowa e. s. .) endive. the endive is a form of chicory. sow the seeds thinly in drills, and when the plants are well established thin to inches. water and cultivate thoroughly in order that a good growth of leaves may be made. when the leaves are to inches in length draw them together and tie them so the heart will blanch. the leaves should not be tied up while wet or decay will follow. the heads should be used as soon as blanched. for winter use sow the seeds rather late and remove the plants, with a ball of earth adhering to the roots, to a cellar or cold frame, and blanch during the winter as required for use. endive is used as a salad at times of the year when lettuce and similar crops are out of season.--(f. b. ; u. id. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. .) fennel. cultivated for the sweet aromatic foliage and fruit is an herb used for flavoring pickles.--(mich. e. s. .) garlic. garlic is closely allied to the onion, but will remain in the ground from one year to another if undisturbed. garlic is planted by setting the small bulbs, or cloves, either in the autumn or early spring. the culture is practically the same as for the onion. the bulbs are used for flavoring purposes.--(f. b. .) ginger. ginger, the underground root stock of _zingiber officinale_, is perhaps most commonly used dry as a spice, though the fresh root or green ginger is common in autumn, being used in pickle making, preserving, and in other ways. the young and tender ends of the branching root or rhizome, called ginger buds, are the most delicate portion as regards both texture and flavor. large quantities of ginger root are preserved in rich sugar syrup, the round stone jars of "canton ginger" being an old-fashioned confection which is still much prized. the crystallized or candied ginger is even more common and is frequently served as a sweetmeat, and is also used in making deserts of various sorts.--(f. b. .) herbs. to this group belong a number of plants hardly recognized as vegetables in the common use of the term, yet of sufficient importance to entitle them to a corner in the family garden. the herb garden or "patch" is too often considered a worthless gift or fashion handed down from grandmother's day. in every well ordered garden there should be a few of the common herbs. the same conditions concerning care, cultivation, etc., will answer for all. the site selected should be out of the way so that it may not be disturbed. as the bed is to be permanent it should be made fertile and cultivated deeply. in sowing classify according to whether they are annuals or perennials. the plants may be grown from seed but whenever possible, propagation by root division is much more easy and certain. in autumn before frost the leaves and stems of those desired for winter use should be gathered, tied in small bunches and hung up to dry in an airy room. where the seed is desired, it should be allowed to ripen and harvested.--(u. id. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. ; n. c. e. s. .) ice plant. this plant (_mesembryanthemum cristallinum_) gets its name from the crystalline ice-like covering of the leaves. in hot countries the leaves are used as a salad or boiled the same as spinach.--(s. dak. e. s. .) horse-radish. this plant will thrive best in a deep, rich soil, where there is plenty of moisture. the rows should be feet apart and the plants to inches apart in the row. tops cut from large roots or pieces of small roots are used for planting. a comparatively few hills of horse-radish will be sufficient for family use, and the roots required for starting can be secured of seedsmen for or cents a dozen. this crop will require no particular cultivation except to keep down the weeds, and is inclined to become a weed itself if not controlled. the large fleshy roots are prepared for use by peeling and grating. the grated root is treated with a little salt and vinegar and served as a relish with meats, oysters, etc. the roots should be dug during the winter or early spring before the leaves start. after being treated with salt and vinegar the grated root may be bottled for summer use. as this has always been considered strictly a cold-weather plant, is would seem useless to try to grow it in porto rico, but, as it gave very favorable results at this station, it can no doubt be produced for local consumption. it is practically unknown in porto rico, but most people acquire a taste for it, and foreigners, who are used to it in their native country, will find it very gratifying that they can grow it here. in the north it thrives in any soil from a light sand to a heavy clay, but prefers a medium heavy loam. here it grows luxuriantly in heavy clay but may not do so well in sand. it is planted from cuttings of the lateral roots, which should be from to inches long and planted at a distance of to inches in rows to inches apart. root cuttings can be obtained either in spring or fall from any seed firm, and these should be planted when received. the roots can be dug when large enough for use or can be left in the ground until wanted.--(f. b. : u. id. e. s. ; p. rico e. s. .) kale, or borecole. there are a large number of forms of kale, and these are thought by some to be the original type of the cabbage. kale does not form a head and has convoluted leaves and thick leaf stems. it is cultivated the same as cabbage, but may be set somewhat closer. this crop is very hardy and will live through the winter in the open ground in localities where freezing it not too severe. the flavor of kale is improved by frost. kale is used for greens during the winter, and as a substitute for cabbage.--(f. b. ; n. car. e. s. ; u. id. e. s. .) kohl-rabi. kohl-rabi belongs to the same class as cabbage and cauliflower, but presents a marked variation from either. it is, perhaps, half-way between the cabbage and turnip, in that its edible part consists of the swollen stem of the plant. for an early crop, plant and cultivate the same as for early cabbage. for a late crop or for all seasons in the south the seed may be sown in drills where the crop is to be grown and thinned to about inches apart in the row. the rows should be from to inches apart, according to the kind of cultivation employed. the fleshy stems should be used while they are young and quite tender. prepare kohl-rabi for the table in the same manner as turnips, which it very much resembles when cooked.--(f. b. ; u. id. e. s. ; mich. e. s. ; n. c. e. s. ; la. e. s. .) leek. this plant belongs to the same class as does the onion, but requires somewhat different treatment. leeks can be grown on any good garden soil and are usually sown in a shallow trench. the plants should be thinned to stand about inches apart in the row and the cultivation should be similar to that for onions. after the plants have attained almost full size the earth is drawn around them to the height of or inches to blanch the fleshy stem. the leek does not form a true bulb like the onion, but the stem is uniformly thick throughout. leeks are marketed in bunches like young onions, and they may be stored the same as celery for winter. leeks are used for flavoring purposes and are boiled and served with a cream dressing the same as young onions.--(n. car. e. s. ; la. e. s. ; f. b. .) lettuce. this crop attains its best development in a rich sandy loam in which there is plenty of organic matter. lettuce thrives best during the early spring or late autumn and will not withstand the heat of summer. in order that the leaves may be crisp and tender, it is necessary to force the growth. the usual method of growing lettuce for home use is to sow the seeds broadcast in a bed and remove the leaves from the plants as rapidly as they become large enough for use. a much better method is either to thin or transplant the seedlings and allow the plants to form rather compact heads and then cut the entire plant for use. in the southern states the seeds may be sown during the autumn and the plants allowed to remain in the ground over winter. at the north the seeds may be sown in a hotbed or cold frame and the seedlings transplanted to the open ground, or the seeding may be in rows in the garden and the plants thinned to or inches in the row. lettuce may be grown in rows about inches apart. in order to produce crisp and tender lettuce during the summer months, it may be necessary to provide some form of partial shading.--(f. b. ; n. y. e. s. ; n. car. e. s. ; tenn. e. s. ; purdue ind. e. s. and ; kas. e. s. .) lleren (_calathea allouya_). this vegetable, although cultivated in porto rico for a long time, is not extensively known. the plant at a cursory glance resembles a canna. the edible tubers, which are formed in great profusion, can be eaten boiled like potatoes; but, unlike potatoes, they do not become soft, but appear hard and crisp after prolonged boiling. lleren somewhat resembles boiled sweet corn in taste, and most people pronounce it delicious without needing to acquire a taste for it. the best soil for lleren is a rich, moist, well-drained loam, which is usually benefited by an application of wood ashes or sulphate of potash; an excess of nitrogen causes the production of large tops and few tubers. the stools or roots immediately adhering to stalks are the parts used for propagating; the tubers will not germinate. lleren should be planted at intervals of feet in rows feet apart, and cultivated like any other vegetable. it requires ten to fifteen months to mature tubers, which are / to inch in diameter, and may be harvested at any time when large enough, but can be left in the ground for a long time without spoiling. it is a good shipper and if introduced into the northern market it would soon create a demand.--(p. rico e. s. .) martynia (_unicorn plant_). the curious, long beaked fruit is used for pickles. the plants are quite hardy and ornamental, the fruit being no less conspicuous for its odd shape than the large wax-like flowers of whitish color with purple and yellow spots.--(mich. e. s. .) melon--musk. _soil and location._--the soil for muskmelons must be well drained and contain an abundance of humus and readily available plant food. if these conditions are met, it matters little what the particular type of soil may be. a knoll or ridge sloping gently to the south and protected by timber on the north and west furnishes an ideal site for melons. such a location will usually produce earlier melons than a north or west slope and is better than a level area because the soil dries out more quickly after a rain, thus permitting more timely tillage in a wet season, and resulting in the production of melons of better flavor. it is only in dry seasons that low, flat land, unless thoroughly tile-drained, produces good melons. the condition of the soil in reference to its supply of humus has a marked influence upon the welfare of the melon crop. because of its abundance of humus, newly cleared timber land is well adapted to melon culture, but is difficult to work on account of the stumps and roots. land slightly deficient in humus can be put in condition for growing melons by plowing under a clover sod, or a crop of cowpeas or rye, or a coat of manure applied broadcast. if melons are to be grown as one of the crops in a regular rotation, they should constitute the crop immediately following the leguminous crop designed to add humus and nitrogen to the soil. in regions where winter wheat and clover are grown, a rotation of wheat, clover and melons is highly satisfactory. another good rotation would be: oats, clover, melons, corn. in regions where clover does not thrive and wheat and oats are not grown, a rotation of corn, cowpeas, and melons may be employed, or the rotation extended by seeding to grass after the melons are harvested. even with careful attention to rotation and the incorporation of humus by plowing under catch crops or manure, ordinary farm land--including good corn land--is not sufficiently rich to produce a satisfactory crop of melons without the use of fertilizing material in the hills. it is only on garden soil that has been made exceedingly rich by repeated applications of manure, that it is wise to attempt to grow melons without special treatment of the hills. _manure for the hills._--the manure for use in the melon hills is ricked up in the fall in long low piles, about eight feet wide and two or three feet deep. the sides of the pile are made as nearly perpendicular as possible and the top is flattened so that rains will soak in instead of running off. sometimes a layer of dirt about three inches deep is placed on top of the manure to help retain the moisture. early in the spring, work is commenced on the manure to put it in condition for use. the pile must be cut down and the manure turned and mixed until it is thoroughly decomposed and of fine texture. formerly this work was done by hand with a fork, and entailed a large amount of labor. now some of the large growers do all this turning of the manure with a disk and plow. the pile is worked three or four times at intervals of one or two weeks. _time of planting._--the melon is a warm season crop, and unless the soil is warm and the weather favorable the seeds will not germinate nor the plants grow. it is therefore usually unwise to plant in advance of the normal season in the hope of securing an early crop. occasionally, such plantings do well, but usually the stand is poor, necessitating much replanting, and the early plants which do survive are likely to be so badly stunted by reason of the cool weather that they do not mature their crop much in advance of the later plantings which have had the benefit of warm weather from the start. _preparations for planting._--melon ground should be plowed early in the spring, or replowed if it was broken in the fall. after plowing, it should be thoroughly pulverized by the use of a disk or harrow, or both, and then kept in good, friable condition by occasional working until planting time arrives. shortly before planting is to begin, the field should be furrowed out both ways with a single-shovel plow or a one-horse turning plow. the furrows should be about six inches deep, and as far apart as the hills are to be placed. on some soils melon vines make only a moderate growth and the hills may be planted as close as four feet apart each way; but on rich soil, where they make a stronger growth, they should be at least five by five, and in some cases six by six. after the land is furrowed out the rotted manure is applied at the intersections of the furrows. from a quart to a half-peck of manure is used for each hill, depending upon the quality of the manure and also the quantity available. the manure is dropped into the bottom of the furrow, and either mixed thoroughly with the soil there, and covered with a layer of pure soil in which to plant the seed, or is merely covered with the soil without any mixing. the latter method seems to give fully as good results as the former, especially when a small quantity of manure is used, and is a great saving of labor. in either case, especial care should be taken to compact the soil over the manure so that when the seed is planted it will not suffer from lack of moisture by reason of any vacant air space in or about the mass of manure. sometimes the manure is covered with soil by merely plowing a furrow on each side of the furrow containing the manure, but unless the soil is in exceedingly fine condition, this method is not as satisfactory as using a hoe and giving each hill individual attention. in making the hill, some planters compact the soil with the hoe, while others use the feet. when ready for planting, the hill should be practically level with the general surface of the field. if too low, the hill will become water-soaked in case of rain and the seeds or plants injured; if too high, there is likely to be insufficient moisture to insure proper germination and growth. _planting the seed._--if the hills have been made more than a few minutes before the seed is dropped, the top layer of dry soil should be scraped aside with a hoe so that the seed may be placed in immediate contact with moist soil. the area thus prepared for planting the seed should be at least six inches across, and should be smooth and level. from ten to fifteen seeds should be scattered uniformly over this area, and covered with about half an inch of fine, moist soil. this should be firmed with the back of the hoe and then covered with a sprinkle of loose dirt to serve as a mulch. if a heavy rain packs the top of soil and a crust is formed before the plant appears, it is wise to go over the field and carefully break the crust over each hill by means of a garden rake. the method of preparing the hills and planting the seed described above applies to field rather than garden conditions and to soils of medium rather than excessive fertility. in a market garden where the soil is exceedingly rich as a result of repeated manuring for onions or cabbage, and is in fine tilth, it is a common practice to sow the melon seed in drills six to eight feet apart, by means of a garden seed drill. this is done without any special preparation of the soil where the plants are to stand, or application of fertilizing material other than manure applied broadcast before plowing. _thinning._--while ten to fifteen seeds are planted per hill for the sake of insuring a full stand, only two, or at most three, plants are left to make the crop. thinning is usually deferred until the plants have become fully established, and the struggle against the striped beetle is nearly over. however, the plants must be thinned before they begin to crowd badly, or those which are to remain will be stunted in growth. usually the thinning is completed by the time the plants have four rough leaves. if the seed has been well scattered in planting, so that each plant stands apart by itself, the superfluous plants may be pulled with the fingers, but extreme care must be taken to avoid disturbing the roots of the remaining plants. sometimes the plants are cut off with a knife or shears, instead of being pulled, and thus all danger of disturbing the roots is avoided. if the seeds have been sown with a drill as in market gardening practice, the plants are usually thinned to one in a place at distances of two to two and one-half feet in the row. _transplanting._--since it is impossible to increase the earliness of the crop to any great extent by early planting in the field, growers have adopted the transplanting method. this makes it possible to plant the seed three or four weeks earlier than would otherwise be feasible, and to grow the plants under controlled conditions of temperature and moisture during their most critical period. it also simplifies the matter of protection from striped beetles. the main objections to this method are the expense for sash, and the difficulties attending the transplanting. a melon plant will not survive transplanting if the root system is disturbed. for this reason the seed is sown on inverted sod, in pots or in dirt bands. the dirt bands are used almost exclusively by commercial growers. these are thin strips of wood veneer, three inches wide and eighteen inches long, scored at intervals of four inches so that they can be bent without breaking. when folded ready for use, each band resembles a small strawberry box without the bottom. these bands are placed close together in a hotbed and filled level full with fine, rich soil. with a block of wood shaped for the purpose, the soil within the bands is pressed until it is / to / inch below the top of the band. if only part of the dirt is put in at first, and is pressed down firmly, then the rest of the dirt put on and pressed, the soil in the band will be more compact throughout and will hold together better in the transplanting than if the dirt were pressed only once. unless the soil used was very moist, the bed is then thoroughly watered. next, three seeds are placed in each band. these are covered with fine, loose soil deep enough to fill the band. this soil is not firmed. the hotbed for melon plants should have full exposure to light and be maintained at a high temperature--about degrees f. during the day and to degrees at night. as much ventilation should be given as the weather will permit, and care exercised to avoid overwatering. as soon as the plants are well started, they are thinned to two in a band by cutting off the extra plant with a sharp knife. when the plants are about four weeks old from the planting of seed they will be in the right condition for transplanting to the field. they are then compact, stocky plants with about four rough leaves. if allowed to remain longer in the bed they begin to stretch for light and are of little value for planting, for the long naked stems, unable to support themselves and unaccustomed to direct sunlight, would easily be sun-burned, and the plants seriously checked if not killed outright. _cultivation._--whether the melons are transplanted from a hotbed or grown from seed planted in the field, the tillage of the crop should begin as soon as the plants can be seen. in the case of transplanted plants, this will be the same day that they are set in the field. the early tillage should be deep, and as close to the plant as it is feasible to run the cultivator. the object of this deep tillage is to establish a deep root system so that the plants will not suffer so severely from dry weather later in the season. in the case of a field planted crop it is not feasible to cultivate so close to the plants early in the season because of the danger of tearing out the little plants. for this deep tillage a one-horse five-shovel cultivator, often weighted with a rock, is the tool most commonly used. it is customary to follow this with a "boat" or a -tooth cultivator to more fully pulverize the soil. tillage is usually given after each rain or at least once each week so that the soil is maintained in a loose friable condition. in addition to the cultivation with a horse, much hand hoeing is required close about the plants. any crust forming after a rain, is broken, and fresh, moist soil drawn up about the plant. crab grass and weeds appearing in the hill are removed by hand. most growers cease tillage and lay-by the crop as soon as the vines have run enough to interfere with the cultivator. the experience of a few growers who have turned the vines and kept them in windows so that tillage could be continued until the picking season opened, indicates that a departure from the old method is likely to insure better development of the melons and a longer picking season, though the first fruits may not ripen so early. there is another distinct advantage in this turning of the vines, in that the gathering of the crop is greatly facilitated and there is no injury to the vines from tramping. _seed._--no matter what variety of melon is grown, it is extremely important that pure seed be planted if good melons are to be produced. the melon deteriorates very rapidly under careless methods of seed selection. none but the very choicest specimens of the desired type, from productive vines, should be selected for seed. it is unsafe to cut seed from a field in which more than one variety of melon is grown; for seed from such a field would likely be very badly mixed, and the product undesirable for market. if a grower has sale for all his good melons, it may be cheaper for him to purchase his seed than to save it. but here again there is danger of procuring inferior seed, for much of the melon seed on the market is cut without careful selection, in order to meet the demand for cheap seed. even cull melons are used to supply this demand. such seed is expensive at any price. the difference in the cost of good seed and poor seed is insignificant when compared with the advantages to be derived from the use of seed which can be depended upon to produce melons of a given type. _picking._--there is considerable difference of opinion as to the exact stage of maturity at which melons should be picked for shipment. if allowed to become too ripe before picking, they become soft by the time they reach the market, and often must be sacrificed in order to effect an immediate sale. if picked too green, the melons reach market in firm condition, but are lacking in flavor, and are not desired by the best trade. it is a nice point to pick melons at such a degree of ripeness that they will reach the market in firm condition, and yet possess the requisite flavor. the farther from market the melons are produced, the less mature they must be when picked. furthermore, the rapidity of softening after picking varies with the temperature to which the melons are subjected. the cooler they can be kept after picking, the longer they can be allowed to remain on the vines and the better flavor they will have. it is, therefore, essential that the melons be placed in the shade as soon as possible after picking, and be kept shaded until they are loaded into the car. for the same reason, riper melons can be shipped under the refrigeration than in ventilated cars. it is also true that melons shipped during excessively hot weather, unless under refrigeration, will soften more rapidly than those shipped during cooler weather. the condition of the vines and the rapidity of ripening of the melons in the field will also have a bearing upon the stage of maturity at which they should be picked. early in the shipping season, when the vines are in full vigor and the melons ripening slowly, the fruits may safely be left upon the vines until more mature than would be safe later in the season when the plants have become somewhat weakened, or, by reason of excessive heat, the melons are ripening very rapidly. melons should not be picked at the same degree of maturity under different conditions of ripening, methods of transportation, and distances from market. while it is true that no rule can be given for picking melons that will apply under all conditions, and that the grower must exercise judgment in reference to each day's picking, the ideal will be attained when the conditions are such that the melons will reach the market in the best condition if picked as soon as the fruit will part readily from the stem when the latter is pressed with the thumb or finger. there is a tendency among some growers to pick considerably before this point has been reached, in order to run no risk of the melons becoming soft in transit. in fact, some growers make a practice of picking the melons before a crack appears about the stem or any change of color takes place, even on the under side of the fruit. _market demands._--while various types of muskmelon may be disposed of upon a local market, there are certain types which are recognized as standards in the large city markets; and it is seldom wise to attempt to force upon a general market a variety not recognized as a standard in that particular market. in the chicago market the sorts most in demand are the netted gem, or rocky ford type, and the osage.--(ill. e. s. , ; f. b. ; s. dak. e. s. ; n. hamp. e. s. , ; n. y. e. s. ; n. mex. e. s. .) melon--watermelon. the cultivation of the watermelon is practically the same as for the muskmelon, except that the plants grow larger and require more room for development than those of the muskmelon. watermelons require that the soil should contain a larger percentage of sand than muskmelons, and that the land should be quite rich. watermelons should be planted feet each way between the hills, or in drills feet apart and thinned to feet apart in the drills. the watermelon seedlings must be protected from the cucumber beetle until the foliage becomes toughened. watermelons readily group themselves into six classes based upon the color or characteristics of the skin or external appearance. it does not necessarily follow that in the proposed classification the fruit of each variety will all be of the same form to which it is referred; for, as every melon grower knows, the fruits in each hill vary more or less; but if everything is normal and favorable for their development the characteristic form or that typifying the variety will predominate. the larger the experience of the grower, the easier it is for him to understand these various types. in order to get the true type of each variety, it is important that the seeds be secured directly from the seedsman who first introduced them thus avoiding complications or errors.--(f. b. ; n. h. e. s. ; ind. e. s. ; n. mex. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. .) i. light green { sweet heart type class { (oval shape) { ---- ---- { (medium shape) { monarch type, { (long shape) ii. medium green { icing type, class { (oval shape) { ---- ---- { (medium shape) { jackson type, { (long shape) iii. dark green { black spanish type class { (oval shape) { ---- ---- { (medium shape) { boss type, { (long shape) iv. light striped { kolb's gem type, class { (oval shape) { cuban queen type, { (medium shape) { rattlesnake type, { (long shape) v. dull striped { pride of georgia type, class { (oval shape) { christmas type, { (medium shape) { favorite type, { (long shape) vi. mottled green { nabob type, class { (oval shape) { phinney type, { (medium long shape) mustard. almost any good soil will produce a crop of mustard. the basal leaves of mustard are used for greens, and as the plants require but a short time to reach the proper stage for use frequent sowings should be made. sow the seeds thickly in drills as early as possible in the spring, or for late use sow the seeds in september or october. the forms of white mustard, of which the leaves are often curled and frilled, are generally used. mustard greens are cooked like spinach.--(f. b. ; mich. e. s. ; la. e. s. .) nasturtium. the hardiness and unsurpassed beauty of this plant should make it a favorite near every home. the seed pods just before beginning to ripen make a delicious flavoring for pickles.--(mich. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. .) new zealand spinach. the plant known as new zealand spinach is not a true spinach, but grows much larger and should be planted in rows feet apart, with the plants to inches apart in the row. some difficulty may be experienced in getting the seeds to germinate, and they should be soaked one or two hours in hot water before planting. new zealand spinach is satisfactory for growing in warm climates, as it withstands heat better than the ordinary spinach. the fleshy leaves and tender stems are cooked the same as spinach. okra (_gumbo_). this plant may be grown throughout the greater portion of the united states, but only one crop can be produced during a season in the northern part of the country. in the region around new orleans successive plantings are made and a constant supply is maintained. the plant is of a tropical nature and will not endure frost, but the pods begin to be produced very soon after the plants start into rapid growth and continue to form for several weeks, especially if all pods are removed while young and no seeds allowed to ripen upon the plants. _soil and its preparation._--the soil upon which okra can be most successfully grown is a rich mellow loam, plowed rather deeply and well worked over with pulverizing tools. after the seedlings become established and the roots get a firm hold of the soil, the growth is very rapid and a large amount of available plant food, especially of a nitrogenous nature, is required. quick-acting commercial fertilizers may be applied in moderate quantities, but these should be well mixed with the soil. the same conditions that will produce good cotton or corn will be found suitable for the production of okra. _planting the seed._--throughout the northern states planting should be done as early as possible in spring, or as soon as the soil is warm enough for the planting of general garden seeds. in the southern states, where a continuous supply is desired, successive seedings of four or five weeks apart should be made. plant in rows - / feet apart for the dwarf types, and - / feet for the larger-growing varieties. scatter the seeds in drills, or plant loosely in hills, as with corn, and cover to a depth of or inches, according to the compactness and moisture content of the soil. the seeds may be planted with any good seed drill, but when placed in hills they should be separated or inches to allow space for the development of the stems. if the soil is reasonably warm, germination will take place within a few days, but should there be a heavy rainfall in the mean time the soil should be lightly cultivated between the rows and the crust broken over the seed by means of an iron rake. _cultivation._--as soon as the plants are well established they may be thinned to three or four in a hill, or, if grown in drills, to or inches for the dwarf and to inches for the larger growing varieties. where vacant places occur from failure in germination they may be filled in by transplanting. cultivate as in the case of corn or cotton, keeping the ground well stirred and the surface soil loose, especially while the plants are small. after the leaves begin to shade the ground, very little cultivation is necessary except to keep the land free from weeds. a poor soil and insufficient moisture will yield pods of inferior size and quality, and irrigation may often be desirable in order to produce a marketable crop. okra is sometimes grown as a mixed crop with cotton, the okra being removed before the cotton begins to mature; but this practice is not to be recommended, as both crops draw heavily upon the nitrogenous matter of the soil. the okra plants will usually continue to grow until late in the season, but after a time the pods are not so large or tender as those produced earlier in the season. as the pod is the only part of the plant ordinarily used for food, it is desirable to secure a rapid and continuous growth in order to produce the greatest quantity of marketable pods. _gathering and marketing._--as soon as the plants begin to set fruit the pods should be gathered each day, preferably in the evening. the flower opens during the night or early morning and fades after a few hours. the pollen must be transferred during the early morning, and the pod thus formed will usually be ready for gathering during the latter part of the following day, although the time required to produce a marketable pod varies according to the age of the plant and the conditions under which it is grown. the pods should always be gathered, irrespective of size, while they are still soft and before the seeds are half grown.--(f. b. .) _cultivation for seed._--if okra is to be grown for seed alone, only one variety should be planted, or if more than one variety is grown each should be separated from the other by at least one-fourth mile to prevent mixing. when several varieties of okra are grown near each other no seed should be saved except that produced by the method of bagging and hand pollination. to secure seed in this way is a rather simple matter when only a small quantity is required, as the pods formed on a single day when the plants are at their best will produce enough seed. the bags should be tied over the flower buds in the evening and the pollen transferred early the following day. replace the bags immediately, as an insect or the wind may at any moment bring to the flower the pollen of another variety. after going over all the flowers of a variety it is well to return to the first three or four and repollinate them in order that they may receive pollen from different individual flowers of the same variety and to insure perfect fertilization. before beginning upon another variety the brush used for transferring the pollen should be thoroughly cleaned. if a brush is not available, use a portion of a young leaf, folded together between the thumb and finger, to convey the pollen. this improvised brush should be discarded and a new one adopted for each variety. the bags need remain only during the day on which the pollen is transferred and may be replaced by a tag to mark the pod. the seed should remain on the plant until fully ripe. the common bumblebee is a frequent visitor to the flowers of the okra, and a single bee was on one morning observed to pollinate over flowers, comprising more than separate samples. in this instance practically every flower in the field was visited and pollinated, although no pollen had previously been transferred. this observation demonstrated the necessity of great care to prevent cross-pollination. our variety tests with okra have shown that seed growers have not always succeeded in keeping the varieties separate, and as a result there has been a gradual blending together of all the sorts. in many of the samples all the sorts usually grown are represented. _uses._--the principal use of okra is in soups and various culinary preparations in which meats form an important factor, as in the so-called gumbo soups, to which the young pods impart an excellent flavor, besides giving a pleasant mucilaginous consistency. the young seeds are occasionally cooked in the same way as green peas, and the very young and tender pods are boiled and served as a salad with french dressing. both the stem and the mature pod contain a fibre which is employed in the manufacture of paper. no copper, brass, or iron cooking vessels should be employed in preparing okra, as the metal will be absorbed and the pods discolored or even rendered poisonous. the cooking should be done in agate, porcelain, or earthen ware.--(f. b. .) _varieties._--there are three general types of okra, viz., tall green, dwarf green, and lady finger. each of these is again divided according to the length and color of the pods, making in all six classes or varieties, namely, tall green, long pod; tall green, short pod; dwarf green, long pod; dwarf green, short pod; lady finger, white pod; and lady finger, green pod. all variations from these are merely the results of mixtures, no true crosses or hybrids being formed. these mixtures are easily separated and referred to the parent type, and a little attention to roguing and selection is necessary in order to keep the varieties pure. it is essential that the parietal strain should be pure in order that a uniform and marketable lot of pods may be produced.--(f. b. , ; u. id. e. s. .) onions. the onion is exceptional in that it will thrive under a very wide range of climatic and soil conditions. there is perhaps no extended area in the united states, except the mountainous regions, where the onion can not be successfully grown. for best results a temperate climate without great extremes of heat and cold should be selected. onion culture is rarely profitable in regions where the climate does not change or has no definite seasons of heat and cold or wet and dry. naturally the onion does best under rather cool conditions, with plenty of moisture during its early stages, but requires a reasonable degree of heat, together with dryness of both soil and atmosphere, for its proper ripening. _soils._--the essential requirements of a soil upon which to grow onions profitably are a high state of fertility, good mechanical condition in order that the crop may be easily worked, sufficient drainage, and freedom from weeds. if a soil has the proper mechanical properties--that is, if it contains sufficient sand and humus to be easily worked, is retentive of moisture and fertilizers, and is capable of drainage--all other requirements can be met. as a general rule new land is not adapted to onion growing until it has been worked one or two years with other crops. onions should follow some crop that has been kept under the hoe and free from weeds the previous season. corn, beans, and potatoes are suitable crops with which to precede onions. muck and sandy soils may in some cases be brought to a suitable condition for onions the first season, but the fitting will have to be very thoroughly performed. the land should be plowed in the autumn, then replowed in the spring, after which numerous harrowings and doubtless some hand work will be required to get the soil in suitable shape. if necessary to manure the land heavily before planting to onions, it will be desirable to plant to some farm crop one season, then apply the manure during the autumn in order to give it time to become incorporated with the soil. owing to the value of good onion land it would not be advisable to devote it to general farm crops for any extended period, although corn is frequently planted and oats or rye are sometimes used in the north. cowpeas may be of great service in bringing new land into shape for planting to onions. _preparation of the soil._--assuming that the land intended for planting to onions is capable of being brought to a good mechanical condition, fertile, well drained, and reasonably free from weed seeds, the first step in the production of the crop will be to plow moderately deep, then harrow, disk, roll, and drag until the soil is smooth and mellow to a depth of or inches. on soils that are naturally well drained and where surface water can not accumulate, the plowing may be done in large blocks, but where the opposite conditions are found or irrigation is practiced it may be necessary to plow the land in narrow beds. in the case of insufficient drainage it will be desirable to throw the soil together into beds, leaving a double furrow between each bed to carry off surplus water. where the flooding system of irrigation is practiced the beds must be leveled and a system of ditches and ridges provided for distributing and controlling the water. _crop rotation._--onions should not be planted on the same piece of land year after year, and some system of crop rotation should be maintained. care should be taken, however, to use crops in the rotation that will not be exhaustive of the high fertility necessary in the onion land. during the years when the land is not devoted to onions it can be planted to some truck crop that will give a return that will justify the application of large quantities of fertilizers, or, better to a leguminous crop to be turned under as green manure. continuous cropping with onions will cause the land to become infested with both disease and insect enemies that will sooner or later injure the crop to such an extent as to render it unprofitable. _fertilizers._--as the onion is an intensive crop and yields great quantities of marketable bulbs for the area planted, the grower is justified in manuring heavily. it would be difficult indeed to make the soil too rich for onions, provided the manures are thoroughly incorporated with the soil. a heavy application of fresh raw manure just before planting would have an injurious effect, but where the manure is well rotted and uniformly applied there is nothing to be feared. _animal manures._--there is perhaps no fertilizer so well adapted to the production of onions as plenty of clean, well-composted stable manure, and the quantity and frequency of application will depend upon the nature of the land under cultivation. all stable manure used on onion land should be well composted before use and then spread upon the land several months before planting to onions. in the northern states the manure may be applied during the autumn and well disked into the soil. the land can then be allowed to lie in the rough state and exposed to the action of frost during the winter, or it can be smoothed and seeded to rye, in which case it will be necessary to replow during the early springtime. large quantities of fresh manure applied to onion land just before planting will have a tendency to produce an overgrowth of tops at the expense of the bulbs. this is especially true on irrigated lands and soils that are naturally moist. _commercial fertilizers._--where there is an abundance of humus matter in the soil the onion crop will be greatly benefited by moderate applications of high-grade commercial fertilizers. many growers follow the practice of applying only a part of the fertilizer at planting time, reserving the balance to be put on as a top-dressing at some time during the period of cultivation. this plan is especially desirable where onions are grown during the winter, as the application of highly nitrogenous fertilizers in the autumn is liable to promote a soft growth that will be injured by cold. if the fertilizer is not put on until cold weather is over, the crop may be forced without danger of injury. for this purpose only those fertilizers of a very available form will answer. _planting and thinning._--experienced growers are frequently able by using extreme care in regulating the drills to distribute onion seed in rows where the crop is to mature so that little thinning will be necessary. thinning is generally left until the time of the first hand weeding, when all thick bunches along the rows are thinned to a uniform stand of eight or ten plants to the foot. it is always well, however, to allow for considerable loss of plants, and unless the plants are so thick as to actually crowd, thinning will not be necessary. _transplanting._--the transplanting process, often spoken of as the "new onion culture," is merely a modification of the regular seeding method. the objects gained by transplanting are an earlier crop, a uniform stand, and bulbs of more regular size. where a small area is to be grown, the transplanting process is the ideal method, but for large acreages and where labor is difficult to obtain, this would not be practical. after transplanting, the seedlings will require rain or watering in order that they may start, and for this reason the transplanting process is practically limited to areas where some form of irrigation is available. in growing onions by the transplanting method the seed is sown in greenhouses, hotbeds, cold frames, or specially prepared beds at the rate of - / or pounds for each acre to be planted. when the seedlings are grown under cover, they are given the necessary attention regarding watering and ventilation and kept growing quite rapidly until near the time for setting them in the open ground. as planting time approaches, the seedlings are "hardened" or prepared for transplanting by increased ventilation and exposure and by withholding water. when ready to transplant, the seedlings should be somewhat smaller than a lead pencil and rather stocky. the plants are lifted from the seed bed and the roots and tops both trimmed somewhat. _methods of tillage._--the cultural requirements of the onion are frequent shallow stirring of the soil and freedom from weeds. the feeding roots of the onion run close to the surface of the soil and should not be disturbed by deep cultivation. sometimes a heavy rain immediately after seeding will so pack the surface that the seedlings can not break through. under such circumstances it will be necessary to slightly break the surface by means of a steel rake or a rake-like attachment on a cultivator. as soon as the plants are up and the rows can be followed the cultivator should be started to loosen the soil, which is always more or less compacted during seeding. it is well-nigh impossible to produce a crop of onions without some hand weeding. during favorable seasons the strictly hand work may be reduced to but one or two weedings, but a greater number will be necessary during rainy seasons. the work of hand weeding may be facilitated by the use of some of the small hand tools designed for the purpose. among these tools might be mentioned the onion hoe, the hand weeder, and the thinning or weeding hook. _irrigation._--outside of the areas where irrigation methods are depended upon for the production of general crops it is not customary to use artificial watering in the growing of onions. _harvesting._--in the north the bulbs are allowed to become as ripe as possible before removing them from the soil. growers prefer that the tops ripen down and shrivel and that the outer skin of the bulbs be dry before they are pulled. to the southward, where the onions are not cured so thoroughly, they are often pulled about the time that the tops begin to break and fall. the ripening process may often be hastened by rolling a very light roller or a barrel over the tops to break them down. this process is frequently spoken of as "barreling." where the bulbs are practically upon the surface they may be pulled by hand and thrown in windrows consisting of eight or ten onion rows. if the onion bulbs are considerably covered with soil it will be necessary to employ a one-horse plow or a cultivator with a sweep attached for lifting them. in any case it will be necessary to gather them from the soil by hand. after lying in the windrows for several days and being stirred occasionally with wooden rakes they are gone over and the tops removed either by twisting or cutting with ordinary sheep shears. in cases where very bright color is important as with fancy white globe onions, and this would be injured by exposure to the sun and rain, the bulbs are cured in long, narrow, low ricks formed by two rows of onions laid with the bulbs regularly to the center, tops to the outside, the rows a few inches apart at the bottom of the rick but coming together at the top, and the top of the rick covered by straw or boards to shed the rain. as the tops are removed the bulbs are generally placed in crates for drying. in some sections onion-topping machines are employed, the bulbs being hauled from the field to a central location and run through the topper. these machines remove the tops, grade the bulbs, and deliver them into the crates or bags. if crates are not employed for curing, the bulbs are allowed to lie in the windrows for some time, and are then either put into sacks or hauled to slat cribs, where they complete the curing process. too long exposure to hot sunshine will injure the bulbs. where the bulbs are extremely dry at the time of their removal from the soil, they may be allowed to lie in the windrows for a few days only, and then sorted and cleaned in the field ready for packing and marketing. _storage._--in order that onions should keep well when stored they must be well ripened and thoroughly cured. those that are immature, soft, or "thick necks" should never be placed in storage but sold as soon as gathered for whatever price they will bring. good storage onions will rattle almost like blocks of wood when poured from one crate to another. in order that the bulbs may remain bright and of attractive appearance they should not be allowed to lie exposed to the weather, but should be hauled and stored in open sheds just as soon as they may safely be placed in one-bushel crates. after the bulbs have remained in drying sheds or cribs for several weeks they will be ready for screening and removal to the storehouse. in handling onions it is the rule to pass them over a screen each time they are moved, as in this way the loose skins are removed and any soft or decaying bulbs may be sorted out. the essentials for the successful storage of onions are plenty of ventilation, storing in small quantities, a comparatively low temperature, dryness, and safety from actual freezing. any building wherein the above conditions may be secured will answer. _marketing._--large quantities of onions are sold and shipped direct from the fields where they are grown. a part of the crop is held in temporary storage until late autumn or early winter. during recent years the winter storage of onions has become of great importance and the finest stock is held for late winter deliveries. the bermuda crop from the southwestern part of the country comes upon the market during april and may, so that most of the storage onions are disposed of before that time. in marketing onions the first essential is to properly grade and clean the bulbs, in order that they may present an attractive appearance when offered for sale. ordinarily the bulbs are separated into three grades--primes, seconds, and picklers. the primes include all those of - / inches, in diameter and larger, and the seconds consist of those from / inch to - / inches in diameter, while all those that will pass through a / -inch screen are sold for pickling purposes. the grading is generally done in the field during the cleaning process, but as onions shrink considerably while in storage it is necessary to regrade before placing upon the market. _weight of onions._--the legal weight of onions per bushel varies somewhat in different states, but pounds of dry onions are generally considered a standard bushel. _important commercial varieties._--the varieties of onions that have distinctively yellow, white, and red skins and are of the globular type are of greatest commercial importance. among the varieties that belong to the yellow globe class are the prizetaker, yellow danvers, yellow globe, danvers, southport yellow globe, and ohio yellow globe. the principal white varieties are southport white globe, new queen, italian tripoli, silver skin, and white silver king. among the more important red sorts are red globe, red wethersfield, and australian brown. the principal bermuda varieties are red bermuda, white bermuda and crystal wax. the bermuda onions are all of the more or less flat type. the red coloration of the bermuda onion is not distinctive like that of the red wethersfield or red globe varieties, but is lighter in color. the famous denia onion is somewhat of the prizetaker type, is light yellow in color, grows to a large size, and is mild in flavor. in the selection of varieties for any particular locality the soil conditions and market requirements should both be considered. those adapted to the muck soils are the yellow and red sorts. for alluvial and prairie soils the red and brown varieties are to be preferred, while all kinds do well on the sandy loams and light soils. a cleaner, better grade of white onions can generally be produced on light or sandy soils than on muck or clay loams. those of the bermuda, spanish, and egyptian types flourish on the deep, rich alluvial soils of the river bottoms and delta regions. certain of our markets show a decided preference for onions belonging to a particular type. the red and brown varieties find ready sale on the markets of the middle west, while onions of the yellow and white varieties are preferred in the eastern cities. onions will withstand long-distance shipment, those of the red globe type being generally more subject to injury than the yellow and brown sorts. some of the white varieties also have a thin skin and are easily injured. it should be the aim of every grower to employ varieties that will withstand handling and at the same time find ready sale on the market. other types of onions are top onions, multipliers, garlic, and leeks, which are planted to some extent for marketing purposes. _bermuda onions._--the production of bermuda onions in the united states is a comparatively new industry and has thus far been undertaken mainly in texas and california. soils of a silty or alluvial nature are suited to the production of bermuda onions, and those containing considerable sand are most desirable. the bermuda requires a very rich soil for the best results, and this can only be obtained by first selecting a good soil and then manuring heavily. the bermuda onion as grown in this country is a winter crop; therefore, mild climatic conditions are required. while the plants would withstand considerable freezing, their growth is seriously checked by cold weather, and the crop will not mature in time for the early market if grown to the northward. the cultural methods employed in the growing of bermuda onions are essentially the same as those for ordinary onions. as the greater portion of the crop is grown in a region which has no regular rainfall, irrigation methods are employed almost universally. the greater part of the crop is grown by the transplanting process and a great amount of hand labor is required. bermuda onions are harvested as early as possible, generally before the tops have become fully ripened. phenomenal yields of , and , pounds of bermuda onions are frequently made on an acre of land, but this is far above the general average, which is in the neighborhood of , or , pounds to the acre. many fields, especially when planted for the first time, do not yield as much as , pounds to the acre. on land that has been heavily manured and planted to onions for several years the yield averages about , pounds. the best bermuda-onion farms are valued at $ to $ an acre. in order to prove profitable, the growing of bermuda onions should be conducted on a comparatively large scale. the necessary land and irrigation facilities will require the initial outlay of from $ , to $ , , and the running expenses are quite heavy. labor can be secured at a low price, but is correspondingly inefficient and often not to be had in sufficient quantities. furthermore, the markets are now pretty well supplied with bermuda onions, and persons who desire to engage in their production are advised to investigate every phase of the industry before embarking too heavily in it. the expansion of the bermuda-onion industry is limited by the facts that a large supply of bulbs can be grown on a comparatively small area, that the distance to market is great, that the product is perishable, and that the markets will consume only a limited quantity at the prices at which the crop can be sold with profit. _green onions for bunching._--another phase of onion culture that is of considerable importance in certain localities is the production of young bunching onions for the early spring trade. in several sections along the south atlantic coast the growing of this class of onions is quite an enterprise. many persons who are engaged in other lines of work follow the practice of growing a small area of bunching onions as a side issue. the varieties known as multipliers and top onions are generally employed for this purpose; however, bunching onions are sometimes grown from ordinary sets, from inferior and damaged large onions, and from seed. the multipliers and top onions are the only kinds adapted for this work on a large scale. for growing bunching onions the bulbs or sets are planted during the autumn either in beds or in rows or inches apart with the bulbs quite close in the rows. the bulbs will start growing within a short time and make more or less growth during the winter. as soon as the weather becomes warm during the first months of spring the onions make a rapid growth and are ready for marketing about the time peach trees begin to bloom. in marketing this class of onions the young shoots are pulled, the roots trimmed, and the outside peeled off, leaving the stem white and clean. the onions are then tied in small bunches by means of a soft white string, the tops trimmed slightly, and the bunches packed in crates or baskets for shipment or sale on the local market. this phase of the onion industry is limited to small plantings and is well suited to the needs of the general market garden. during the springtime and early summer large quantities of ordinary young onions are pulled when the bulb is about the size of a fifty-cent piece, the roots and tops are trimmed, and they are then bunched and sold for stewing purposes. so far as known, this class of onions is not shipped to any great extent, but is sold mainly on local markets. _home production of onion seed._--the bulbs, or "mother bulbs," as they are commonly called, for the production of onion seed should be grown in the same manner as those intended for marketing, except that more care should be taken throughout. some seed growers prefer to use pounds of seed to an acre for the production of seed bulbs instead of pounds, as ordinarily used in growing for market, in order that the bulbs may crowd and not become too large. the planting, culture, and harvesting of the bulbs are practically the same as for first-class marketable stock. onion-seed growing is a two-year process and two crops are constantly to be cared for. after growing the bulbs the first summer they must be stored over winter and replanted the following spring for the production of seed. meantime the crop for the next year's planting must be coming on in order to have a crop of seed every year. the first requisite for the growing of the best seed is a clear-cut ideal of the exact shape, form, color, and general characteristics sought in the variety being grown. the second requisite is the growing of seed from bulbs of that exact type for the greatest possible number of generations. two selections should be made, the first to include but a small number of the very finest and most ideal bulbs from which to produce the stock seed to be used the following year for the growing of the seed bulbs, and the second to include the bulbs from which to grow the supply of seed for the market. by keeping the very best stock separate and using the product for propagation the entire strain will be gradually improved. bulbs a trifle below the ideal market size, or about - / to inches in diameter, are the most profitable for seed production. bulbs that are to be used for seed productions should be allowed to become thoroughly ripe in the field. after pulling they should be stored in crates under a roof where they will have plenty of ventilation and be protected from sun and rain. before freezing weather begins the onions should be graded and removed to a house where both ventilation and temperature can be controlled. the temperature of the storage house should at no time be so low as to cause the bulbs to become frosted. a temperature of ° f. for a short period will do no harm, but should not be allowed to continue. if the bulbs become frosted, heated, or sweated in storage they will sprout before planting time and be greatly injured for seed purposes. in general, the storage conditions should be the same as for marketable onions. the proper time to gather the seed is when the inside of the grain has reached the dough stage. onion seed assumes its black color very early; in fact, before it has passed the watery stage and formed milk in the grain. this change of color is no indication of ripeness and very often deceives the inexperienced grower. the heads should be harvested just before the first-formed seed begins to shatter in handling. _curing the seed heads._--any building having a tight floor and in which a free circulation of air can be maintained will serve as a curing place for onion seed. in localities where rains do not occur during the curing period the seed heads are frequently dried on sheets of canvas stretched over frames or spread upon the ground. for curing the seed in houses, wire-bottomed racks or trays placed one above the other are generally employed. as the seed is stirred from time to time during the curing process considerable of it will be shattered and fall upon the tray below or finally upon the floor. the main essentials in the curing of onion seed are to spread the heads very thinly, not over two heads in depth, and to give free ventilation. even at a depth of inches in the trays it will be necessary to stir them very often, especially during damp weather. _thrashing and cleaning the seed._--the date for gathering the seed depends upon the locality and climate, but as a rule this will be about midsummer. the thrashing and cleaning of the seed are often deferred until quite late in the autumn, except where the curing is done in the open air. where large quantities of seed are produced the thrashing is done with machines similar to regular grain thrashers, but when grown on a small scale the seed is removed by beating with a flail. after the seed has been thrashed, there is still considerable danger of its heating or molding if left in too great bulk. the usual practice is to run it through a fanning mill to remove the dust and small particles of the heads or chaff that are broken up in thrashing. in former years the method of cleaning was to place the seed in a tank of water the heavy seed settling to the bottom of the tank while the chaff and lighter portions could be floated off. this process is no longer used to any great extent, owing to the improvement in cleaning machinery, and the danger of injuring the seed by the water. after the seed is fanned and most of the foreign matter removed, it should be spread thinly on the floor or canvas and stirred from time to time. about the only test that can be applied in order to detect moisture in the seed is that of feeling it with the hand, and anyone experienced in the handling of seed will soon become expert at determining when it is safe to bag it ready for storage or shipment. _production of seed for onion-set growing._--frequently the seed for onion-set growing is produced from bulbs selected from the sets themselves; in other words, the bulbs or mother bulbs are the overgrown sets. owing to the great quantity of seed employed in set growing it is desirable to secure it cheaply, and the bulbs selected from the sets, being small, will produce a larger quantity of seed per bushel from mother bulbs than when grown in the usual manner. the stock seed bulbs should, however, be well matured, small necked, uniform in size, and selected according to an ideal shape. onion seed from undersized bulbs is not so desirable, even for set growing, as that from standard bulbs. the length of time that onion seed will retain its vitality depends largely upon maturity and climatic conditions. well-matured seed will always keep better than poorly ripened and inferior seed. under ordinary conditions onion seed loses its vitality very rapidly after the second year, especially if stored in a damp climate. it will often pay to ship the seed to a dry climate for storage. _production of onion sets._--the term "set," as applied to the onion, indicates a small, undersized bulb which, when replanted in the ground, will produce a large onion. this method of producing onions is perhaps the oldest and now the most universally employed for the growing of small areas of onions in the garden where an early crop is desired. the common method of producing sets is to plant a large quantity of seed on a small area of rather rich land and thus procure a great number of bulbs that are undersized, owing to crowding and lack of plant food. the greater number of these bulbs do not attain sufficient size or maturity to produce seed the following season and are really plants in which the process of growth has been arrested. the climatic conditions governing the production of onion sets are practically the same as those for standard onions, although it is not necessary to plant quite so early in the spring. as the essential feature of growing onion sets is the crowding together of the plants in the rows, a large quantity of seed is required to plant an acre. the quantity of seed required varies with the different localities. the ideal onion set is almost globular in shape and a trifle less than half an inch in diameter. the color should be bright and the surface free from smut or spots. the term "pickler" is applied to the onion just above sets in size, or, in other words, one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. the term "boiler," or "stewer," is applied to the size next larger than picklers, which are too small for sale as standard onions, or from three-fourths of an inch to - / inches in diameter. _varieties used for sets._--seed of almost any variety of onion may be used for the production of sets, but a greater demand exists for the distinctly yellow, white, and red colors. in the trade the sets are recognized by their color rather than by actual varietal names. the demand for the yellow and the white sets is greater than for the red, and those of the globular type are generally preferred. onion sets are sometimes grown from left-over seed, in which case a large number of varieties may be included. in the principal set-growing districts, where the seed has been locally grown for many years, the varieties are more or less distinct from those of seedsmen's catalogues.--(f. b. , , ; ariz. e. s. cir. ; colo. e. s. , cir. ; n. mex. e. s. , ; oreg. e. s. ; n. y. e. s. ; u. id. e. s. ; n. dak. e. s. ; s. dak. ; mich. e. s. ; kans. e. s. .) parsley. after soaking the seeds of parsley for a few hours in warm water, they may be sown in the same manner as celery seed and the plants transplanted to the open ground. at the north, parsley will live over winter in a cold frame or pit, and in the south it will thrive in the open ground during the winter, but it can not withstand the heat of summer. the plants should be set in rows inches apart and every inches in the row. the leaves of parsley are used for garnishings around meats and for flavoring soups.--(f. b. , ; n. car. e. s. ; u. id. e. s. .) parsnip. sow the seeds of parsnip as early as convenient in the spring in drills inches to feet apart. thin the plants to stand inches apart in the rows. the parsnip requires a rich soil and frequent cultivation. the roots can be dug late in the fall and stored in cellars or pits, or allowed to remain where grown and dug as required for use. it is considered best to allow the roots to become frozen in the ground, as the freezing improves their flavor. as soon as the roots begin to grow the following spring they will no longer be fit for use. all roots not used during the winter should be dug and removed from the garden, as they will produce seed the second season and become of a weedy nature. when the parsnip has been allowed to run wild the root is considered to be poisonous.--(f. b. , ; mich. e. s. ; u. id. e. s. ; n. car. e. s. .) peas. garden peas require a rather rich and friable soil with good drainage in order that the first plantings may be made early in the spring. fertilizers that are high in nitrogenous matter should not be applied to the land immediately before planting, as they will have a tendency to produce too great growth of vines at the expense of pods. land that has been well manured the previous year will be found satisfactory without additional fertilizer. a sandy loam is to be preferred for growing peas, but a good crop may be produced on clay soils; however, the pods will be a few days later in forming. peas are easily grown and form one of the most palatable of garden products. for the best results peas should be planted in the bottom of a furrow inches in depth and the seeds covered with not more than or inches of soil. if the soil is heavy the covering should be less than inches. after the plants attain a height of or inches the soil should be worked in around them until the trench is filled. the rows for peas should be feet apart for the dwarf sorts and feet apart for the tall kinds. a pint of seed will plant about feet of single row. many growers follow the practice of planting in a double row with a -inch space between. the double-row method is especially adapted for the varieties that require some form of support, as a trellis can be placed between the two rows. brush stuck in the ground will answer for a support for the peas to climb upon. three-foot poultry netting makes a desirable trellis. if peas are planted for autumn use, the earliest varieties should be employed. the first plantings should be of such varieties as alaska or gradus, which make a small but quick growth, and may or may not be provided with supports. the dwarf sorts like american wonder come on later, require very little care, and produce peas of fine quality. the tall-growing sorts of the telephone type are desirable for still later use on account of their large production and excellent quality. sugar peas have tender pods and if gathered very young the pods may be eaten in the same manner as snap beans. in order to maintain a continuous supply of fresh peas, plantings should be made every ten days or two weeks during the spring months, beginning as soon as the ground can be worked. in the extreme south peas may be grown during the entire winter.--(f. b. ; n. c. e. s. ; mich. e. s. , ; s. dak. e. s. , ; del. e. s. ; colo. e. s. .) peppers. plant the seed of peppers in a hotbed, and transplant to the open ground as soon as it is warm, or sow the seeds in the garden after all danger of frost is past. when grown in the garden the plants should be in rows feet apart and to inches apart in the row. the plants require about the same treatment as the tomato. peppers are divided into two classes--the sweet varieties, which are eaten as vegetables, and the pickling varieties, which are used for pickles or dried and powdered, in which form they are much used in mexico. of the sweet peppers the varieties sweet mountain, ruby king, and large bell are good standard varieties; and of the pickling peppers, the cayennes and chilies are largely used. the pickling varieties are all more or less pungent and should never be prepared with bare hands, because the burning sensation is very difficult to eliminate.--(f. b. ; b. p. i. ; p. rico ; iowa, e. s. ; n. c. e. s. .) physalis. the physalis is also known as the ground-cherry or husk-tomato. sow the seed in a hotbed or cold frame and transplant to the garden after danger of frost is past, or the seeds may be sown in the row where the plants are to remain and thinned to or inches. no particular care is required except to keep them free from weeds. there are a large number of varieties of the physalis, and the fruits vary in size and color. the variety commonly used in gardens produces a bright-yellow fruit, which is about the size of an ordinary cherry. toward fall the fruits will drop to the ground and will be protected for some time by their husks. if gathered and placed in a cool place the fruits will keep for a long time. the physalis will self-sow and may become a weed, but it is easily controlled. a few of the volunteer plants may be lifted in the spring and placed in rows instead of making a special sowing of seed. ten plants will produce all the husk-tomatoes desired by the average family. the fruits are excellent for making preserves and marmalade.--(f. b. ; s. dak. e. s. .) potato. the term "potato," when not modified by an adjective, suggests to the mind of an american the so-called potato (_solanum tuberosum_). when the name is modified by the word "sweet," reference is made to a different plant, belonging to the morning-glory family and known botanically as _ipomoea batatas_. attention is here directed entirely to the irish potato. _soil and rotation._--the potato is grown in every state and territory, and naturally on a great variety of soils. indeed, it has been grown on nearly every class of soils, but this fact does not minimize the importance of selecting for the potato the kind of soil best adapted to it. the ideal soil for this crop should be one so light as to offer no great resistance to the enlargement of the tubers, so supplied with organic matter as to be rather moist without being wet, and so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of fertilizing ingredients. a rich, sandy loam abundantly supplied with organic matter and naturally well drained is preferable. stiffer soils may be rendered suitable for the potato by drainage and by the incorporation of farm manures; or better, by plowing under green crops. very heavy clay should be avoided if the farm contains any lighter soil. recently cleared ground suits the potato. sandy soils, if not too subject to drought, may be fitted for this plant by the addition of organic matter. it is claimed that potatoes grown on sandy land are of better quality than those grown on stiffer soil. the potato requires a rich soil, but even more important than natural fertility is a proper mechanical condition of the soil. artificial fertilizers may be substituted in part for natural fertility, but they are effective only when the soil is in such a condition as to furnish a constant supply of water. the potato should have the best soil on the farm, since it is more exacting in this respect than the other staple crops and since the product of an acre is generally of greater value. the success of the potato is largely dependent on the crops preceding it in the rotation. if clover, cowpeas, or other leguminous plant is grown just preceding potatoes, its stubble furnishes organic matter and adds to the store of available nitrogen in the soil. corn after sod frequently precedes potatoes, and this is generally regarded as the best rotation. rye is sometimes sown in late summer or fall and plowed under so as to lighten a heavy soil. buckwheat and other plants have also been used for the same purpose. on light soils and in rather mild climates, crimson clover for green manuring may advantageously take the place of rye where early planting of potatoes is not specially desirable. one year, or at most two years, is as long as a field should be devoted to continuous potato culture, although this crop is sometimes grown for more than two years in succession on the same land. this latter course taxes heavily the fertility of the soil and necessitates liberal manuring; moreover it involves considerable risk of injury from fungous diseases, especially from potato scab. a clean crop of potatoes can not, as a rule, be grown on land which in the preceding year produced scabby tubers. the germs of the disease once in the soil must be starved out by growing on the infected field other crops, such as grass or grain, for several years. in certain localities in the central part of the united states and elsewhere the following three years' rotation has given highly satisfactory results on farms where potatoes are extensively grown; fall wheat, in which clover is seeded in the spring; second year, clover, plowed under in fall or winter; and third year, potatoes. in some localities the uncertainty in obtaining a catch of clover renders this rotation inexpedient. detailed directions for the preparation of one class of soils would not apply to others, hence it can only be said that preparation should be deep and thorough, and that unnecessary compacting of the soil should be avoided. plowing can scarcely be too deep, provided that much of the subsoil is not brought to the surface; when practicable, the depth should be gradually increased from year to year. though the tubers are usually formed within inches of the surface of the ground, the roots feed deeper. practical experience, as well as the extent of the distribution of potato roots in the soil, emphasize the importance of deep and thorough preparation of the soil for this crop. whether fall plowing is advisable depends on a variety of local considerations. in general in a mild climate fall plowing of light land exposes it to leaching; on the other hand, fall plowing is sometimes necessary, as, for example, when a field is badly infested with injurious insects. _fertilizing._--the potato requires liberal manuring. barnyard manure usually affords a large increase in the crop, for not only does it supply nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but it improves the mechanical conditions of the soil. however, its direct application to the potato affords conditions favorable to potato diseases, and thus injures the quality of the crop. for this reason the best practice is to apply barnyard manure to corn or grass the year before the potatoes are grown. if it is considered necessary to apply it directly to the potato crop it should first be well rotted. if for several years before potatoes are planted the land has been properly manured with farm manures, or with green crops plowed under, commercial fertilizers can be advantageously used on most soils. generally, a complete fertilizer should be used--i. e., one which contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. the farmer is justified in supplying all three of these fertilizing ingredients, unless by previous tests he has learned that on his soil a certain one of them can be safely omitted. of nitrogenous fertilizers, one of the best for potatoes is the quick-acting nitrate of soda. of phosphatic fertilizers, superphosphate is preferred. among potash fertilizers the sulphate of potash has been found to afford a better quality of potato than kainit and muriate of potash. ashes, are extensively and effectively used to supply potash to potatoes. as little farmyard manure is available in the southern states where the early crop of potatoes is chiefly produced, this seldom enters as a factor in the production of the crop. commercial fertilizers of a nature especially adapted to the potato crop form the chief reliance of the growers. a fertilizer carrying to per cent of nitrogen, to per cent of phosphoric acid, and to per cent of potash is used at the rate of to , pounds to the acre, depending upon the crop which is to follow the potato crop and the liberality of the grower. the fertilizer may be applied broadcast if put on at the rate of , pounds or more to the acre. when less than , pounds to the acre are used it is almost universally applied along the line of the row, a furrow being opened for the reception of the fertilizer; which is scattered by hand or by a distributor which can be used to fertilize several rows at a time. after the fertilizer has been distributed, a cultivator is run along the line of the rows to incorporate the fertilizer with the soil in order to prevent its coming in contact with the seed when planted. sometimes the furrow is refilled and reopened prior to the planting of the seed, so as to incorporate the fertilizer more completely with the soil. still another plan is to open the furrow, distribute about one-half the quantity of fertilizer to be used in the bottom, incorporate it with the soil, plant the potatoes, partially cover them, and scatter the remainder of the application on the seed bed above the seed. _planting._--the rows should be laid off as close together as practicable without interfering with horse cultivation. generally the seed pieces should be dropped in furrows made in the level field and not on ridges. however, low ridges are advantageous for an early crop and on poorly drained land. in covering the seed pieces, whether they are planted flat or on ridges, it is well to leave a small, sharp ridge marking the line of the row. in some localities, however, where excessive moisture is not feared, the opening furrows are only partially filled after planting, leaving a depression along the row to be filled by the use of the smoothing harrow or other implement. in planting late in the season this course is sometimes advisable. the pieces may be dropped by hand in the open furrow, or a potato planter may be used, dropping and covering the seed pieces at one operation. there are several potato planters that do very satisfactory work, but their cost restricts their use to those who plant a large acreage in potatoes or to cases where several farmers can use one together. their more extended use is perhaps desirable, since they save a considerable amount of labor and enable the potato grower to take full advantage of even a brief period of favorable weather at planting time regardless of scarcity of labor. in the preparation of the ground and in planting, the earth along the line of the row should be compacted as little as possible consistent with thorough work, and hence the team should be made to walk between the rows whenever possible instead of along the drill. there is a simple potato coverer constructed somewhat like a triangular snowplow, with the wide end forward and a portion of the point or apex cut away so as to leave a narrow opening at the rear. no special implement, however, is required for this purpose. _planting machines._--planting potatoes by hand on any large scale is out of the question on account of the expense. the large potato grower can of course afford the most modern machinery. in a community of small potato growers it is possible for them to own machinery jointly, and thus avoid any large expense to the individual farmer. the two most expensive machines connected with potato growing are the planter and the digger. a word of caution about the type of planter is perhaps desirable. there are some planters which pick up the seed potatoes by means of a prong or fork which breaks the skin of the tuber. this exposes the potato to any germs of potato diseases which may be present in the soil. furthermore, it carries any germ disease that may be on some of the seed potatoes to others. there are planters which pick up the potatoes in such a way as not to break the skin. this point is especially important in planting whole seed. in planting cut seed there is still the danger of transferring the disease from one piece of potato to another. whatever planter may be used, some one should ride on the machine in order to see that it works regularly, so as to give as nearly a perfect stand as possible. the improved planters of today open the furrow, drop the seed, cover it, firm the dirt over the seed, and mark the next furrow. such a planter is drawn by two horses. experiments with potatoes planted in rows all the way from to inches apart indicate that the best distance depends upon the seasonal conditions and type of soil; it is a problem for each grower to solve for himself. the distance apart the potatoes should be planted in the row also depends so much upon the variety, the fertility of the soil, the availability of water, etc., that each farmer must determine this from his own experience. _time of planting._--each community is the best judge of the proper date for planting. where potatoes are grown for the early market the aim is to plant as early as possible, without subjecting the young plants to severe cold. the crop should be planted at such a date as to bring the stage of growth during which the tubers are rapidly developing at a time when there is ordinarily an adequate supply of moisture. the month when dry weather is most certain varies with the locality, and each potato grower should so time his planting as to be least affected by drought. where the growing season is long the crop that is to be stored over winter should be planted very late, so that it may remain in the ground until cool weather. on the other hand, where the season is short, late varieties should be planted in time to ripen before frost. _depth of planting._--the toots of a young potato plant grow, not directly from the seed piece, but from the underground joints or nodes of the stem. from these underground nodes also grow the short stems which bear the tubers at their extremities. hence the seed pieces should be placed deep enough in the soil to permit several of these joints to form below the surface, so as to afford room for an ample supply of roots and tuber-bearing stems to grow. many experiments have been made to ascertain the best depth for planting. the results, with some exceptions, favor planting not less than inches deep. the favorable effects of deep planting were especially marked on well-prepared, friable soil and in dry seasons. very deep planting is open to objection because of the increased labor of harvesting and the danger of a deficient stand when weather conditions are unfavorable. very shallow planting reduces the yield and injures the quality of the crop. _growing seed potatoes under mulch._--the nebraska experiment station reported an interesting comparison of the value for seed purposes of potatoes grown under mulch with those grown with ordinary cultivation under like conditions, which indicates that the mulch method offers a convenient and practical means of producing good home-grown seeds under nebraska conditions. the theory of the method and the results obtained in the comparative tests are thus stated: potatoes are a cool-weather crop. it is because of this that they succeed so well in the far north. moreover, potatoes require for their best development fairly uniform conditions, especially as regards soil moisture and soil temperature. this being the case, why should not potatoes grown under a litter mulch be especially well developed and therefore make strong seed? the soil beneath a mulch not only has a moderately low temperature during summer, but its temperature is also exceptionally uniform, varying not more than a degree or two between day and night and only a few degrees from day to day. the soil moisture beneath a good mulch is also more abundant and much more nearly uniform in amount than in case of bare ground, even though the latter is given good tillage. the value for seed purposes of tubers grown under a litter mulch has been tested during two seasons at the experiment station. in a plat of potatoes was mulched with straw and an adjoining plat was given careful cultivation. the soil of the two plats was practically uniform and the seed planted on the two plats was taken from the same lot of tubers. seed was saved from the mulched and cultivated plats separately, kept under the same conditions during winter, planted on adjoining plats in the spring of , and given identical cultivation during the summer. in the experiment was repeated with seed grown in mulched and in cultivated ground the year before. the same precautions were observed as in the first test. uniform seed was used to start with in . the seed saved from the mulched and from the cultivated plats was taken as it came, without selection, and was kept over winter under the same conditions. both kinds of seed were cut in the same way, planted in the same way, on adjoining plats, and treated alike as regards tillage, spraying, etc. under these conditions any constant differences in yield between the two plats must be ascribed to the effect of the methods of culture employed the previous season. the yields obtained from the mulched and from the cultivated seed were as follows: cultivated seed, pounds in ; mulched seed, pounds in ; cultivated seed, pounds in ; mulched seed, pounds in . the use of seed that had been grown under a mulch the preceding year increased the yield of potatoes per cent in and per cent in . if further tests confirm the results reported here, it would seem that mulching might be used for the production of high-grade seed potatoes at home. moreover, mulching usually results in increased yields if properly handled. mulching potatoes on a large scale is of course impracticable, but most farmers could easily mulch enough of their potato field to produce the seed that they would require the following year, and in doing so they would not necessarily increase the cost of production per bushel. _time to cut seed potatoes._--at least three american experiment stations have conducted tests to learn the effect of cutting seed potatoes several days or weeks in advance of planting. the results varied somewhat according to the length of time that the cut sets remained unplanted, but on the whole indicated no marked difference in productiveness between planting freshly cut pieces and those that had been cut for a week or less. the investigations of kraus and of wollny in germany led to the conclusion that a slight wilting of the seed pieces increased the yield on moist soils and in wet seasons, but reduced it on soils not retentive of water and in dry seasons. on the whole it appears that the storing of cut pieces for several days, which sometimes becomes necessary, is attended with no great disadvantages. of course due care should be taken in such instances to prevent heating, and it may be well to dust the cuttings with gypsum (land plaster) to prevent excessive wilting. _seed end v. stem end._--when potatoes are cut in half through their smaller diameter there is a seed or bud end more or less crowded with eyes and a stem or butt end on which there are few eyes. experiments to determine the relative values of cuttings from the stem end and from the seed end of the tuber have been numerous. the majority of these showed that the yield was greater when the seed end was used. the superior productiveness of the seed end as compared with the stem end was maintained, whether the halves of the potatoes, the thirds, or smaller cuttings were employed. _effect of sprouting._--the growth of sprouts before planting is made at the expense of the tubers from which they draw their support. hence if these shoots are rubbed off before planting there is a total loss of the nutriment contained in them. moreover, numerous weak shoots grow from the injured eye. to prevent these evil consequences of premature sprouting, seed potatoes are stored in a dark, dry, cool place. in spite of all precautions the tubers sometimes sprout; but when practicable only potatoes that have not sprouted should be selected for planting. if the eyes appear dormant in spring, seed potatoes may be exposed to the light and warmth for a few days before planting so as to promote germination and prompt growth. if long exposed, sprouts will form and careful cutting and planting by hand become necessary, so as to avoid breaking of these sprouts. _quantity of seed potatoes per acre._--a bushel of potatoes ( pounds) may contain quarter-pound tubers. when the seed pieces are planted a foot apart in -foot rows an acre requires , sets. when tubers averaging ounces are employed an acre requires at these distances bushels for planting whole potatoes, bushels when halves are used, and bushels when quarters are planted. in a number of tests the amount of seed cut to eyes, spaced by feet, averaged bushels per acre, the usual range being from to bushels. in experiments with many varieties the average amount of seed cut to single eyes was at these distances . bushels per acre, the usual range being from to bushels, though the varieties with large tubers bearing few eyes required considerably more seed. _size of seed pieces._--in the size of the seed piece planted the practice of different farmers varies widely, some advocating a liberal use of seed and others claiming equally good results from small cuttings. to aid in settling this question the state agricultural experiment stations have made numerous tests of seed pieces of different sizes. taken separately these experiments show certain amount of divergence in results, as might naturally be expected of tests conducted under widely different conditions. however, the majority of these tests, and especially the figures expressing the average results of all available american experiments, may be safely taken as indications of what the farmer, under ordinary conditions, will generally, but not always obtain. the effect of size of seed pieces on yield of crop will be treated here under three distinct heads: ( ) on the total yield; ( ) on the gross yield of salable potatoes, and ( ) on the net yield of salable potatoes, i. e., after deducting the amount of seed planted. _effect on total yield._--in making up the averages below it was found practicable to use the results of tests of single eyes _v._ -eye pieces, tests of -eye cuttings _v._ quarters, comparisons of quarters and halves, and tests of halves _v._ whole potatoes. the results of other experiments less completely reported were used for the purpose of corroboration. the following table shows the _average_ results of these tests, including potatoes of all sizes: bushels. per cent. excess from use of-- -eye pieces over -eye pieces quarters over -eye pieces halves over quarters whole tubers over halves if there are compared all the total yields with the total yield produced by single eyes there appears an increase of per cent for -eye pieces, per cent for quarters, per cent for halves, and per cent for entire tubers. the total yield resulting from planting whole potatoes is practically double that obtained by planting single eyes. thus far there is considered only the total yield, i. e., large and small potatoes, and it is found that the total yield increases somewhat uniformly as the size of the seed piece is increased. the farmer and gardener, however, have to consider other factors than the total yield, for a heavy crop may consist very largely of tubers too small for the market, or the great expenditures for seed when large pieces are planted may more than counterbalance the increased yield. before noting the gross and net yields of large or salable tubers, resulting from seed pieces of different sizes, it is well to consider the causes inducing a somewhat regular increase in total yield accompanying the use of larger seed pieces. several causes operate to increase the yield when large seed pieces are planted. the larger the cutting the greater generally the number of eyes and the number of stalks. the young shoot, before it develops a strong system of feeding roots, is dependent for nutriment on the material stored up in the seed piece; hence the more abundant this supply the more vigorous the growth of the plant and this increased luxuriance is not confined to the early stages of growth, but is marked throughout the growing season. investigation has shown that severing the connection between the seed piece and the growing vine, even after the latter is thoroughly rooted, reduces the yield of potatoes. the danger of partial or entire failure resulting from an imperfect stand is much greater with small cuttings than with large seed pieces. the small pieces with extensive cut surfaces are liable to perish should the season be unfavorable, either through excessive moisture or drought. the sprouts from small cuttings being weaker reach the surface with difficulty, or fail entirely on soil not properly prepared. _effect on gross salable yield._--by averaging the results of the experiments referred to above, it is found that the actual increase in the potatoes of salable size due to using larger seed pieces was as follows, every increase in the size of the seed pieces being followed by an increased gross salable yield: bushels. per cent. excess from use of-- -eye pieces over -eye pieces quarters over -eye pieces halves over quarters whole tubers over halves _effect on net salable crop._--before concluding that the largest seed pieces are the most profitable it becomes necessary to deduct from the crop the amount of seed planted. it is plain that the increased amount of seed potatoes required when larger pieces are used may more than counterbalance the increase in yield obtained. the true test of profit is the market value of the crop produced, less the cost of seed planted. should the quantity of seed potatoes used be subtracted from the total yield of large and small potatoes or from the salable crop? if small or unsalable seed potatoes are planted, then the former course is the proper one, but since large or medium tubers (either entire or cut) are generally selected for seed purposes, it seems best to subtract the seed from the salable crop, thus ascertaining the net salable yield. the following table shows the actual average results for the net salable yield; that is, the crop after deducting the small potatoes and the seed used: bushels. per cent. excess from use of-- -eye pieces over -eye pieces . quarters over -eye pieces . halves over quarters . halves over whole tubers . the amount of the net salable crop rose with the increase in the size of the cutting employed, but when the whole potato was planted the figures declined on account of the large amount of seed potatoes which had to be deducted. the above figures indicate a very slight advantage in planting halves rather than quarters when the price of seed and crop produced are the same. as a matter of fact, spring prices are usually somewhat higher than fall prices. a high price for seed potatoes may make it profitable to plant smaller pieces (as, for example, quarters) than would be economical where seed and crop command the same price per bushel. _amount of seed potatoes._--in the following diagram represents the total yield from planting single eyes. the figures may be read as bushels per acre, if it is constantly borne in mind that there are being considered soils of such character as to average bushels of large and small potatoes per acre when planted with -eye pieces. the first group answers the question, "what size of seed piece generally affords the largest yield of large and small potatoes?" the second group answers the query: "what size of seed piece generally gives the greatest yield exclusive of small potatoes?" the third group offers an answer to a still more important question: "what size of seed piece generally produces the largest yield after deducting both the small potatoes and the amount of seed planted?" _yield from planting different seed pieces, assuming as the total yield from single eyes._ relative total yield. eye...........| |______________ eyes..........| |____________________ quarters........| |____________________________ halves..........| |____________________________________ wholes..........| |___________________________________________ relative gross salable yield. eye...........| |_____________ eyes..........| |___________________ quarters........| |___________________________ halves..........| |_____________________________________ wholes..........| |_____________________________________________ relative net salable yield. eye...........| |______________ eyes..........| |___________________ quarters........| |______________________ halves..........| |___________________________ wholes..........| |_____________________ taking as the correct measure of profit the yield of salable potatoes less the amount of seed used, there is seen by the third section of the diagram that with seed and crop at the same price per bushel it was more profitable in these tests to plant halves than smaller cuttings and whole potatoes. if there be taken account of the yield of small potatoes the advantage of large seed pieces is even greater than the figures in the last section of the diagram would indicate, for the yield of small potatoes is greater with large than with small seed pieces. where large quantities of small potatoes can be profitably utilized, as, for example, as seed for the second crop, the potato planter may therefore use quite large seed pieces with advantage. on the other hand, the higher price of potatoes in spring rather than in fall is an argument in favor of planting quarters rather than halves or whole tubers. a number of investigators have noted that large seed pieces (either large cuttings or entire potatoes) afford an earlier crop than very small cuttings, a matter of much interest to growers of early potatoes. however, some growers have reported that uncut potatoes germinate more slowly than large cuttings. most of those who raise potatoes for the early market use large cuttings rather than whole potatoes. in this connection it may be said that the seed-end half gives an earlier crop than the other half. this suggests the expediency of cutting a potato lengthwise when halves or quarters are to be planted, thus securing on each piece one or more of the eyes which germinate first. another advantage of cutting lengthwise is that it insures a more even distribution of the eyes on the several pieces. of course this system is not practicable when very small cuttings are to be made from long, slender potatoes, since the large amount of exposed surface would render the long pieces susceptible to injury both from moisture and dryness. if it is desired to cut the potato into small pieces the operator should begin at the stem end, and the pieces should be cut in a compact shape, and of as nearly equal size as is practicable without leaving any piece entirely devoid of eyes. there are special implements for cutting potatoes, and their use is reported as enabling a man to cut four or five times as many bushels of seed per day as by hand. the character of the work is said to be satisfactory. no definite rule can be given as to the best size of seed piece, for this depends somewhat on the distance between the hills and on the character of the soil and season. another important factor in determining the proper amount of seed is variety. some varieties are able to produce a crop almost as large from small cuttings as from large pieces. _size of seed tubers._--a study of more than a hundred experiments testing the relative values of large, medium, and small uncut tubers confirms the general law that an increase in the weight of seed planted affords an increase in the total crop. the yield of salable potatoes increases less rapidly than the total yield. with whole potatoes as seed the salable yield reached its extreme upward limit in one test when tubers weighing about half a pound were planted; in another when those weighing - / ounces were employed. the limit of profitable increase was reached with tubers weighing - / and ounces respectively. the size of seed tubers selected becomes a matter of importance when they are to be cut, for we have seen that the heavier the cutting the larger the total yield, and seed tubers for cutting should be of such size that their halves, quarters, or other divisions shall not be extremely small. _small potatoes for planting._--whether or not to use uncut small potatoes for seed is an important question on which farmers are divided. some present the plausible argument that the use of undersized potatoes results in degeneration. if this claim is based on the results of experience it should determine practice, but if the conclusion is simply a generalization based on the fact that large seed usually give best results the reasoning is defective, and the question remains open. the potato tuber is not a seed, but an underground stem, and the relations existing between seeds and their progeny do not necessarily exist between a tuber and its descendants. others hold that potatoes just below marketable size, if shapely and sufficiently mature, may be used without serious deterioration, and that for economic reasons their use is especially desirable, because if not planted or used at home they must be lost or fed to stock, for which purpose their value is usually smaller than the market price. the result of tests at a number of experiment stations have uniformly indicated that small tubers uncut can be used for seed purposes without detriment to the succeeding crop. it may still be urged, however, that the choice of small seed year after year will result in degeneration. on this question the information is meager, but two experiments, extending over four and eight years, respectively, have been reported in which no degeneration resulting from the continued use of small potatoes from the preceding crop was apparent. although the evidence seems fairly conclusive that small uncut seed potatoes may sometimes be used with profit, it cannot be advised that small seed tubers be selected year after year from a crop which has been grown from small potatoes. potatoes of irregular shape and injured tubers should be rejected as unfit for planting. _number of eyes and weight per set._--many potato growers cut tubers into pieces containing one, two, or more eyes, laying greater stress on the number of eyes than on the size of the cutting. extensive experiments at the indiana station and elsewhere prove that of the two factors, number of eyes and weight of piece, the latter is the more important. of course it is desirable that each piece, whether large or small, should contain at least one eye, and it has been generally profitable for it to be of such size as to contain at least several eyes; but whether it has one or many eyes it is important that the seed piece be heavy enough to furnish abundant nutriment to the shoots which spring from it. a single eye may give rise to several stalks, for each eye is a compound bud or cluster of buds. an eye can be bisected, and each half may then grow successfully if it is not a victim to dryness or decay, to which its exposed condition subjects it. in one series of experiments it was found that the number of stalks growing in a hill was less dependent on the number of eyes than on the size of the seed piece, whether cut or entire. in general, as the number of eyes per piece increased each eye became less prolific in sending up stalks, so that there was less crowding of stalks where large seed pieces with many eyes were used than would be expected from the large number of eyes planted. after numerous experiments touching on almost every aspect of this subject the investigator advised that tubers be cut so as to make each piece of a constant size or weight, whatever the number of eyes that might fall to its share. _cuttings per hill._--a custom not uncommon among those who plant small cuttings is to drop two pieces in each hill. they usually get a larger yield by so doing than by planting single pieces, the increase generally, though not always, being sufficient to pay for the excess of seed. this does not prove the practice profitable, for better results may be secured by planting a single piece weighing as much as the combined weight of the two pieces which would have been dropped in one hill. thus the labor of cutting is considerably reduced and, what is more important, larger pieces improve the chances of getting a good stand in an unfavorable season, because they have less exposed surface than two small pieces of equivalent weight, hence are less liable to dry out excessively when drought follows planting. they are also better able to resist rotting if wet weather prevails. _stalks per hill._--the most common objection urged against planting large seed pieces is, next to the expense, the danger of having the hills so crowded with stalks, and consequently with tubers, that a large proportion of the potatoes never develop to marketable size. this objection is probably valid for entire tubers, and also for halves planted very close in the row. the evidence available does not permit us to conclude that in the case of quarters used as seed there results any injurious crowding, and it may be questioned whether halves give rise to this trouble when planted under favorable conditions and at considerable distance apart. the number of stalks that can be advantageously grown in each hill varies greatly with variety, season, soil, and distance apart. _distance between plants._--in deciding on the proper distance at which to plant potatoes it is necessary to take into consideration the size of the seed piece that is to be employed. in general, small seed pieces should be planted close and the distance allotted to each hill should be greater as the weight of the piece is increased. close planting for small cuttings is best attained, not by narrowing the row to less than about - / or feet (for if the distance is much less horse cultivation becomes difficult), but by planting the seed pieces close together in the row. to frame a general rule giving best distances for seed pieces of different sizes is plainly impossible, for the distance at which the largest yields is obtained depends also on the variety, the season, the soil, and the fertilizers. however, the results of some of the investigations covering this matter afford help in deciding on the proper distance under varying conditions. it has been shown that if very small cuttings are used, and if the soil is fertile, the distance can be reduced to or inches without sacrificing the yield, provided the season happens to be favorable, but this is not generally advisable. on rich soil cuttings of considerable size can be advantageously planted as close as inches. checking effects a saving of labor in cultivation, and also in planting and harvesting, when these latter operations are performed by hand; hence expensive labor and the absence of machines for planting and harvesting the crop are conditions in favor of checking. for planting in checks a variety can be chosen which makes a large growth of vines and which forms many tubers in each hill, thus more completely utilizing the space at its disposal than could a variety with small vines and few tubers. in checking there is danger on rich soil that some of the tubers may grow to an objectionable size. potato growers in attempting to obtain a phenomenal yield, as in contests for prizes, almost universally plant in drills rather than in hills, and place the seed pieces from to inches apart. the advocates of planting in drills claim that by this method a larger yield can be obtained, and experience seems to confirm the correctness of this view. the few experiments that have been made on this question are not entirely conclusive, though the majority of them favor drills. although no fixed rule regarding distance of planting can be given, the following general considerations are widely applicable: ( ) for maximum yield of salable potatoes plant in rows as narrow as can be conveniently cultivated. ( ) crowd small seed pieces close together in the row, increasing the distance with every increase in the size of the seed piece; avoid on the one hand such close planting as to greatly reduce the average weight of the tubers, and on the other such wide spacing as to leave any considerable portion of the soil unshaded by the full-grown vines. ( ) as a rule, the richer the land the less the required distance between sets. ( ) varieties with strong growth of vines or which set many tubers in a hill should have greater distance between plants than is necessary with less vigorous varieties. _cultivation._--soon after planting, and again just as the young plants are beginning to appear above ground, the field should be harrowed, inclining the teeth of the harrow backward. this is a cheap method of cultivation, since a wide space is covered. it is also effective in destroying small weeds, in leveling the ridges left in planting, in preventing the formation of a surface crust, and in keeping the land covered with a mulch of dry earth, thus conserving moisture within the soil below. subsequent cultivation should be frequent so as to accomplish these same ends. almost any pattern of cultivator may be used, provided it is made to do shallow work. however, if the ground has become packed the first cultivation may be deeper. experience and exact experiments generally favor flat or nearly flat cultivation. excessive hilling during cultivation intensifies the injurious effects of dry weather. it also results in breaking many of the feeding roots between the rows. the frequent use of the cultivator should be substituted as far as possible for hoeing. if a severe frost is apprehended soon after the plants come up, the tops should be covered by throwing a furrow to each row. _mulching._--while mulching with hay, straw, leaves, or other litter frequently increases the yield and is specially valuable in tiding over a season of drought, it is not generally practicable on farms where potatoes are grown on a large scale. its place is in the garden rather than in the field. it is a substitute for cultivation, and it is generally cheaper to maintain a soil mulch by frequent cultivation than to apply litter. if a mulch is employed, it can be applied over the entire surface or in the furrow above the seed pieces, or between the rows. mulching in the furrow is not commended by the results of tests in colorado, louisiana, and michigan. in striving for a large yield, with little regard to cost, or to insure against drought, mulching is useful. material intended to serve as a mulch should first be exposed to the weather, so as to cause the sprouting of any seed it may contain. it is better to apply a mulch after potato plants have made some growth, as an earlier application may result in smothering some plants and in injury from late frosts. _harvesting and storing._--the death of the vines is the signal for digging the main crop. for the early market potato growers do not wait for this, but are governed by the size of the tubers. as long as any portion of the vine is green the tubers can continue to grow. in gardens very early potatoes are sometimes obtained by carefully removing a few of the larger tubers from the growing plant, replacing the soil and allowing the smaller potatoes to continue growing ("grabbing"). the large amount of labor required prohibits "grabbing" except when early potatoes are selling at a price very much higher than can be expected from the later crop. in harvesting a large area a high-priced potato digger is frequently used; hand digging with a four-tined fork is probably the best method on small areas, though many make use of a potato hoe or of a plow. careful handling always pays, and extreme carefulness is necessary, especially with the early crop, to prevent injury to the tender skin of the immature potatoes. in harvesting, as well as in storage, potatoes should be exposed to light as little as possible. in storing potatoes a low temperature is required. the potato tuber is uninjured by a temperature of ° f., and one authority gives the freezing temperature of potatoes . ° f. warmth favors sprouting, which injures potatoes both for planting and eating. most of the farmers have potato houses or cellars constructed for storing their stock and holding the unsold portion of the crop through even the coldest weather until they can market it. some growers, especially those near town, depend on the warehouses of the dealers alongside the railroad tracks. the common type of storehouse on the farm is a cellar walled up with concrete or stonework, about or feet deep, with a low wooden roof above it, giving a considerable space for the storage of tools, barrels, etc., on the floor above the cellar portion. these cellars are usually built on the side of a hill, so that the potatoes are unloaded down through the floor in the fall and taken out at a lower doorway during the winter. [illustration: _photo by verne morton, groton, n. y._ thorough cultivation of the growing crop is an essential of successful potato raising] _grading._--the grading of early potatoes is quite as important as the grading of fruits. large and small tubers should not be mixed in the same barrel. the pickers should be taught to gather the large and merchantable tubers in one basket and the small or seed potatoes in another, and these if placed upon the market should go in separate receptacles and be clearly marked so as to represent the grade. if a mechanical sorter is used this work will be more effectively accomplished than if left to the pickers. the type of grader usually used is similar to that employed in some sections for grading apples and peaches, although the common type of potato grader is a rotary screen which separates the earth from the tubers and allows the small tubers to fall through the large meshes of the screen before reaching the general outlet which carries away those of merchantable size. the objection to a mechanical grader of this type is that it bruises the immature tubers and renders them somewhat less attractive than when not so handled and probably also shortens the length of time they can be safely held on the market. _marketing._--the perishable nature of the immature potato renders it necessary to place it upon the market in such quantities only as will admit of immediate consumption. producers in regions where the growing of early potatoes has been extensively developed appreciate this and have provided for this condition by organizing shippers' associations through which the crop is graded, often trade-marked, and distributed chiefly in carload lots. the officers of the association being in constant telegraphic communication with the various markets are thus informed regarding the most satisfactory destination for every consignment which may be necessary. it is the purpose of these associations, however, to conduct their business in such a way that the product can be sold f. o. b. shipping point instead of by consignment, and the best organized associations are usually able to do this. the great advantage of such a system of selling is that it enables the brokers in a small city or town to buy direct from the producer instead of through another city broker. it enables the consumer to obtain fresh products, as they are shipped direct from the point of production to the place of consumption. the plan carries other benefits which are of great moment to the producer. he is enabled to sell in carload lots at shipping point, thus saving to himself the cost of transportation, which ranges from to per cent of the gross selling price. the exchange secures a much wider distribution of the crop, with the result that overstocked markets are much less likely than under the consignment system. transportation companies provide better service, and claims are more promptly settled through the exchange than in the case of individuals. this plan enables the producer to be his own salesman. it transfers the distributing point from the city to the field, where it should be. it brings the market to the fields instead of the product to the market. the exchange becomes the farmer's commission house, and it is much easier to keep informed regarding the transactions of a home association than of a foreign concern. _varieties._--the following are among the most widely known varieties: _early_, early ohio, early rose, beauty of hebron, and triumph. _medium and late_, burbank, rural new yorker no. , empire state, mammoth pearl, white star, and dakota red. these are standard varieties, and though not necessarily the best, they seem to have given general satisfaction. _second-crop potatoes for seed at the south._--within recent years there has been a marked increase in the use of second crop potatoes for seed throughout the southern potato-growing sections. this crop is frequently grown on the same land from which the first crop of potatoes was harvested. in most instances, however, it follows beans or cucumbers, as the seed for this second potato crop is not usually planted until july or august. the seed for this crop is, as a rule, saved from the early crop, the small tubers being stored in a well-ventilated shed, where they are protected from the direct action of the sun and from storms until about ten days or two weeks before the time of planting, when they are spread thinly upon the ground and lightly covered with straw or litter to partially protect them from the sun. under these conditions the tubers quickly "green" and all those suitable for seed will develop sprouts. as soon as the sprouts are visible, and before they are large enough to be rubbed off in handling, the potatoes are ready to plant. the product of this planting gives a crop of partially matured tubers which are held over winter for spring planting. this practice gives excellent results in many localities and is found to be more economical than the purchase of northern-grown seed. to what extent it is safe to follow this practice without renewing the seed from the north by the use of fully matured tubers has not been determined. those following the method should carefully observe the quality and yield of the crop for the purpose of determining whether or not it is deteriorating under this treatment. in general, it is believed that it will be within the limits of good practice to secure every second or third year enough northern-grown seed to supply seed for the second crop; in fact, some of the most successful growers of potatoes who use second-crop seed get enough northern-grown seed each year to supply planting material for the second crop. in this practice it will be economy to err on the side of safety and obtain fresh seed frequently from reliable northern sources. in a majority of instances it is found that second-crop home-grown seed is slower to germinate and later in maturity than northern-grown seed, and as quick development is an important element in the crop at the south, growers are urged to consider this point carefully. _held-over seed._--the consensus of opinion is that in southern localities it is impracticable to keep early potatoes from harvest time to the next season's planting period. the conclusions of those who have given this problem careful study are that the exposure of the tubers to the sun at harvest time is the chief factor in determining their keeping qualities. in other words, it is possible to keep potatoes in the extreme south from season to season provided the tubers are not exposed to the sun after being dug. they should be immediately carried to a protected place where there is ample ventilation and where they will receive only diffused light, such as a cyclone or other cellar, or the basement of a house, or even where brush protection will prevent the sun shining directly upon them. it is, of course, necessary that the tubers be well matured before being dug and that they be the product of disease-free plants. plants killed by blight yield tubers which seldom keep well even under the most favorable conditions. _methods of securing extra-early potatoes._--one of the most important factors having an influence on the profitableness of market garden crops is that of earliness. a difference of two or three days or a week in placing a crop on the market often makes the difference between profit and loss, and the prices obtained for extra-early crops have stimulated cultural experiments with every kind of fruit and vegetables. some interesting results along this line with potatoes have recently been reported by the kansas and rhode island stations. at the kansas station seed tubers of four different varieties of medium-sized potatoes were placed in shallow boxes with the seed ends up in february. they were packed in sand, leaving the upper fourth of the tubers exposed, and the boxes were placed in a room with rather subdued light, having a temperature of ° to ° f. vigorous sprouts soon pushed from the exposed eyes. the whole potatoes were planted in furrows in march in the same position they occupied in the boxes. the same varieties of potatoes taken from a storage cellar were planted in parallel rows. the sand-sprouted potatoes took the lead from the start in vigor and strength of top and produced potatoes the first of june, a week earlier than the storage-cellar potatoes. at the final digging they showed better potatoes and gave a per cent larger total yield. in other experiments part of the potatoes was treated the same as in the first test, except that the sand was kept moistened, and the other part was placed in open boxes and kept in a light room having a temperature of ° f. the tubers placed in sand developed strong sprouts and nearly all rooted. when planted in the field they outstripped both the tubers sprouted in open boxes and the storage-cellar tubers in vigor of growth. the tubers started in the open boxes gave earlier yields than were obtained from the storage-cellar tubers, but not as early as the tubers sprouted in moist sand. the tubers sprouted in moist sand produced table potatoes from to days earlier than the storage-cellar seed. at the rhode island station medium-sized whole potatoes sprouted on racks, in a fairly warm and light room, gave a per cent better yield at the first digging than potatoes kept in a cold cellar until planting time; and this was increased to per cent at the final digging. the percentage of large tubers was also greater at each digging with the sprouted tubers. the results of these experiments are suggestive. the handling of seed potatoes in such manner as to secure strong, stocky sprouts before the tubers are planted out is shown to be an important factor in increasing both the earliness and the total yield of the crop. by planting only well-sprouted seed, a full stand is assured. one of the objections to this method of growing potatoes is the large amount of space required for exposing the tubers to the light for sprouting. this objection has been overcome in part by the use of trays and racks. at the rhode island station the rack used held trays. each tray was - / feet long and - / feet wide, and would hold about bushel of potatoes when spread out in a single layer for sprouting. the bottoms of the trays were made of pieces of lath placed about inch apart. nine trays were placed in a rack over each other, leaving about inches of space between each tray. this method of arrangement has the advantage of securing a very uniform distribution of light, heat, and air for all the trays. it greatly facilitates the handling of the potatoes and lessens the danger of breaking off the sprouts and transferring to the field for planting. another method of securing early potatoes in rhode island on a commercial scale is that of sprouting tubers in a cold frame and planting out as soon as danger of frost is past. the tubers are cut into pieces, not smaller than an english walnut, after rejecting the two or three eyes nearest the stem end, which have been found to start late. the pieces are placed side by side in the bed, skin side upward, and covered about inches deep with fine, rich earth. their growth can be controlled by proper regulation of the cold-frame sash. at planting time the tubers, the sprouts of which should be just breaking the surface of the soil, are carefully lifted with manure forks, separated by hand, and placed in well-fertilized rows, and entirely covered with soil; or, if danger of frost is past, they are placed with the apex of the sprout just at the surface of the soil. about square feet of cold frame is required to sprout sufficient potatoes to plant an acre in to inch rows, inches apart. eight men can transplant an acre in a day. on the island of jersey, where early potatoes are raised in large quantities for the london market, the potatoes destined for seed are placed side by side in shallow boxes and stored, as soon as cold weather sets in, in a light and well-sheltered loft or shed, out of danger of frost. the position of the boxes is changed from time to time so that the sprouts will be of equal length and strength at the planting season. medium-sized tubers selected from the best of the crop and allowed to lie in the field in the fall until they become greenish are used. _potatoes on western irrigated farms._--with thorough cultivation, for potatoes planted the first of may, irrigation is seldom necessary until july. generally speaking irrigation water is cold and it is highly important not to irrigate too frequently, since the water not only causes the soil to run together but lowers the temperature to a point that is not favorable to the growth of potatoes. irrigation water is applied only when the condition of the plants indicates that they are in need of water, as by darkening of the foliage. or one may dig down in the hill and press a handful of soil in the hand; if it fails to retain its form, irrigation is needed. care should be taken not to wait until the ground is too dry, because one can not cover the whole field of potatoes in one day's irrigation, and some are likely to suffer for water before being reached. experience shows that if potatoes are grown as rapidly as possible, so as to become strong and well established early in the season, they withstand the maximum of unfavorable weather conditions later on, when the hot dry winds becomes a menace to the crop. when the time for irrigation arrives, a v-shaped trench half-way between the rows should be opened in alternate middles with an or inch lister plow; that is, a narrow plow with a double mold-board which throws the dirt each way. in these furrows the irrigation water is run so that the soil will not become solidified by flooding, and the necessary amount of water may be properly distributed. for the second irrigation furrows are opened in the middles that were not opened at the first irrigation, and this alternation is continued for succeeding irrigations. at the head of each field is a feeder ditch from which the water is admitted to these irrigation furrows between the rows. it is essential that the right quantity of water be used, and that it be uniformly distributed. cultivation should commence as soon after irrigation as the soil will permit so as to insure rapid and uniform growth without check. this will not only result in the production of smooth, uniform tubers of attractive appearance, which are always in demand at high prices, but will also result in large, profitable yields and at the same time keep the soil in good mechanical condition for future crops. do not irrigate after august , so as to give fifty or sixty days for ripening in dry earth. there is no line of farming in the irrigated districts that gives such marvelous profits as that of scientific potato production. with scientific knowledge which can certainly be acquired by experiments in supplying perfectly balanced plant food and maintaining soil fertility, the scientific principles of which are similar to those used by every successful breeder in feeding and fitting prize-winning stock; and with the proper proportions of plant foods--phosphates, nitrogen, and potash--in the soil as found in many parts of the west; and by the use of clover and alfalfa, there is no reason for those who contemplate engaging in the potato industry to fear the outcome. too much stress can not be put upon the value and importance of livestock in keeping up favorable soil conditions, as no country now known has been continuously successful in crop production without the use of manures from the feeding of forage and grain crops. _varieties._--years of experience have demonstrated that comparatively few varieties of potatoes are really adapted to western or mountain conditions. among the early varieties none has been so universally successful as the early ohio. this potato is of fine quality and uniform in size and shape, though not a heavy yielder. another good potato, though not so early, is the rose seedling. for a medium to late variety, the dalmeny challenge, a scotch variety, is being used quite extensively on the western slope of colorado. for later varieties, the white pearl and rural new york no. are more extensively used at greeley, in the san luis valley, and in the uncompahgre valley; and the perfect peachblow is the favorite in the upper grand valley. pumpkin. the true pumpkin is hardly to be considered as a garden crop, and, as a rule, should be planted among the field corn. plant where the hills of corn are missing and cultivate with the corn. however, some of the better sorts of pie pumpkins should be grown in the garden for cooking purposes, because they are productive and much superior in quality to the common field pumpkins.--(f. b. ; mich e. s. , .) radish. the radish is quite hardy and may be grown throughout the winter in hotbeds at the north, in cold frames in the latitudes of washington, and in the open ground in the south. for the home garden the seed should be sown in the open ground as soon as the soil is moderately warm. plant in drills to inches apart, and as soon as the plants are up thin them slightly to prevent crowding. radishes require to be grown on a quick, rich soil, and some of the earlier sorts can be matured in two to three weeks after planting. if the radishes grow slowly they will have a pungent flavor and will not be fit for table use. for a constant supply successive plantings should be made every two weeks, as the roots lose their crispness and delicate flavor if allowed to remain long in the open ground. as a rule a large percentage of radish seed will grow, and it is often possible by careful sowing to avoid the necessity of thinning, the first radishes being pulled as soon as they are of sufficient size for table use, thus making room for those that are a little later. radishes will not endure hot weather and are suited to early spring and late autumn planting. there are a number of varieties of winter radishes, the seed of which may be planted the latter part of summer and the roots pulled and stored for winter use. these roots should remain in the ground as long as possible without frosting and should then be dug and stored the same as turnips. this type of radish will not compare with the earlier summer varieties, which may be easily grown in a hotbed or cold frame during the winter. one ounce of radish seed is sufficient to plant feet of row, and when grown on a large scale to pounds of seed will be required to the acre.--(f. b. , ; u. id. e. s. ; mich. e. s. ; n. car. e. s. .) rhubarb (pie plant). the soil for rhubarb should be deep, and there is little danger of having it too rich. like asparagus the seedling plants of rhubarb can be grown and transplanted. ten to twelve good hills are sufficient to produce all the rhubarb required by the average family, and these are most easily established by planting pieces of roots taken from another bed. good roots may be secured from dealers and seedsmen at about $ . a dozen. the old hills may be divided in the early spring or late fall by digging away the earth on one side and cutting the hill in two with a sharp spade, the part removed being used to establish a new hill. the usual method of planting rhubarb is to set the plants in a single row along the garden fence, and the hills should be about feet apart. if more than one row is planted the hills should be - / or feet each way. the thick leaf stems are the part used, and none should be pulled from the plants the first year after setting. rhubarb should receive the same treatment during winter as asparagus, and the plants should never be allowed to ripen seed. the roots may be brought into the greenhouse, pit, cold frame, or cellar during the winter and forced. rhubarb does not thrive in warm climates. the use of rhubarb is principally during the early spring for making pies and sauces, and the stems may be canned for winter use.--(f. b. ; n. car. e. s. ; u. id. e. s. .) ruta-baga (swedes). the culture of the ruta-baga is the same as for the turnip, except that the former requires more room and a longer period for its growth. the roots are quite hardy and will withstand considerable frost. the ruta-baga is used like the turnip, and also for stock feed. two pounds of seed are required for one acre.--(f. b. ; mich. e. s. .) salsify (vegetable oyster). sow seeds of salsify during the spring in the same manner as for parsnips or carrots. at the south, a sowing may be made in summer to produce roots for winter use. one ounce of seed is required to plant feet of row, and on a large scale pounds to the acre. after the plants are well established they should be thinned sufficiently to prevent their crowding. the cultivation should be the same as for parsnips or carrots, and frequent use of a wheel hoe will avoid the necessity for hand weeding. salsify may be dug in the autumn and stored or allowed to remain in the ground during the winter, as its treatment is the same as for parsnips. salsify is a biennial, and if the roots are not dug before the second season they will throw up stems and produce seed. it is of a weedy nature and care should be taken that it does not run wild by seeding freely. salsify is deserving of more general cultivation, as it is one of the more desirable of the root crops for the garden. the uses of salsify are similar to those of the parsnip, and when boiled and afterwards coated with rolled crackers and fried in butter it has a decided oyster flavor, from which the name vegetable oyster is derived.--(f. b. , ; n. car. e. s. ; idaho e. s. .) scolymus. scolymus is a vegetable with spiny, thistle-like leaves, from spain, with roots much like a small parsnip and keeping equally well in winter.--(s. dak. e. s. .) skirret. this is called "zuckerwurzel" (sugar root) in germany. the plump, fleshy roots are sweet and used boiled during winter, the same as salsify.--(s. dak. e. s. .) sorrel. this plant resembles the weed "sour dock" of the fields. the leaves are large, tender and juicy, very broad and often inches long, retaining the pleasant acid flavor of the original weed. much prized in france where it is cultivated as a spring vegetable and used singly or mixed with spinach.--(mich. e. s. ; u. idaho e. s. .) spinach. spinach thrives in a rather cool climate and attains its best development in the middle south, where it can be grown in the open ground during the winter. large areas are grown near norfolk, va., cuttings being made at anytime during the winter when the fields are not frozen or covered with snow. when the weather moderates in the early spring the plants make a new growth, and a large crop of early greens is available. north of the latitude of norfolk, spinach can be planted in the autumn and carried over winter by mulching with straw or leaves. sow the seeds in drills foot apart at the rate of ounce to feet of row or to pounds to the acre. to produce good spinach, a rich loam which will give the plants a quick growth is required. as ordinarily grown, it occupies the land during the autumn and winter only and does not interfere with summer cultivation. it is an easily grown garden crop, and there is, perhaps, no other of its kind that will give as good satisfaction. three or four ounces of seed, planted in the autumn after a summer crop has been harvested from the land, will produce an abundance of greens for the average family during the late autumn and early spring. in gathering spinach the entire plant is removed rather than merely cutting off the leaves. the larger plants are selected first, and the smaller or later ones are thus given room to develop. no thinning is required if this plan of harvesting is practiced.--(f. b. ; mich. e. s. ; u. id. e. s. ; n. c. e. s. .) squash. there are two types of the squash, the bush varieties, which may be planted in hills or feet apart each way, and the running varieties, which will require from to feet for their development. squashes may properly be grown in the garden, as or hills will produce all that are required for family use. they require practically the same soil and cultural methods as the muskmelon. a number of varieties are used during the summer in the same manner as vegetable marrow, but squashes are principally used during the winter, in much the same way as pumpkins, to which they are superior in many respects. squashes are also used extensively for pie purposes. the varieties known as hubbard and boston marrow are most commonly grown. squashes, like pumpkins, should be handled carefully to avoid bruising, and should be stored in a moderately warm but well ventilated room.--(f. b. ; mich. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. , .) stachys. this vegetable, known to the botanists as _stachys sieboldi_, has been introduced into america from japan and has a number of different names, such as japanese potato, chinese artichoke, chorogi, etc., but the name stachys seems to have been adopted as the common one in this country. the plant is a small perennial belonging to the mint family and produces just below the ground a multitude of small, white, crisp edible tubers, varying from an inch to two and one-half inches in length, and about one-half an inch in thickness and marked by irregular spiral rings, which give them a corkscrew-like appearance. stachys has been tested at the new york (cornell) and a number of the other agricultural experiment stations, and proved so easy of cultivation and pleasant in taste (the flavor resembling artichokes) that the vegetable has made many friends and is now procurable at the markets in most of our larger cities. the agreeable quality is in considerable measure due to the crispness of the tubers, and as this disappears when they are exposed to the air they should be stored in sand or sawdust. they are ready for use when the plant dies down in the autumn, though they may be easily carried over the winter and are prepared for the table like potatoes or other vegetables, or may be eaten raw like radishes.--(f. b. .) sweet basil. the leaves are used for flavoring purposes. sweet corn. plant sweet corn as soon as the soil is warm in the spring, and make successive plantings every two weeks until july, or the same result can be attained to some extent by a careful selection of early, medium, and late varieties. plant the seeds in drills feet apart and thin to a single stalk every to inches, or plant to seeds in hills feet apart each way, and thin out to to stalks in a hill. cover the seeds about inches deep. cultivate frequently and keep down all weeds, removing suckers from around the base of the stalk. sweet corn should be planted on rich land, and the method of cultivation is practically the same as for field corn, but should be more thorough. there are a number of good early varieties, and for a midsummer and late sort there is none better than stowell's ever-green.--(f. b. ; n. j. e. s. ; s. dak. e. s. .) sweet marjoram. leaves and ends of shoots used for seasoning. sweet potato. owing to the tropical nature of the sweet potato it naturally thrives best in the south atlantic and gulf coast states, but it may be grown for home use as far north as southern new york and westward along that latitude to the rocky mountains. the climatic requirements for the production of sweet potatoes on a commercial scale are ( ) a growing period of at least four and half months without frost, ( ) warm nights and abundant sunshine during the day, and ( ) a moderate rainfall during the growing period. where irrigation is depended upon for the supply of moisture, the greatest quantity of water should be applied between the time the plants are set in the field and the time when the vines practically cover the ground. if too much water is applied during the latter part of the season the result may be an abundant growth of vine and a small yield of stringy potatoes. for some time before harvesting the crop the water should be withheld altogether, in order that the roots may ripen properly. _soil._--sweet potatoes thrive on a moderately fertile sandy loam which does not contain an excess of organic matter. they are frequently grown upon almost pure sand, especially where the subsoil is a yellow clay. soils containing considerable calcium or underlain with limestone are well adapted to the growing of the crop. the sweet potato is exceptional in that a fairly good crop can be grown upon soils that are too poor for the production of the majority of farm crops. sweet potatoes yield a fair crop on the "worn-out" tobacco and cotton lands of the south, especially when used in a rotation including some leguminous crop for increasing the humus in the soil. like many other crops, the sweet potato thrives on newly cleared land, but the crop should not be planted continuously in the same place. with the sweet potato, as with other crops, rotation is the keynote of success. good drainage is essential, the original idea of planting upon high ridges being for the purpose of securing better drainage. the surface soil should extend to a depth of or inches, and the subsoil should be of such a nature that it will carry off excessive moisture without leaching away the fertilizers applied to the land. too great a depth of loose surface soil or an alluvial soil having no subsoil will produce long, irregular potatoes that are undesirable for marketing. planting upon land having a loose, sandy surface soil underlain by a well-drained clay subsoil will tend to produce the type of rather thick, spindle-formed potato that commands the highest price. the depth of plowing is a prominent factor in the preparation of land for sweet potatoes, and on soils of too great depth before the subsoil is reached very shallow plowing should be practiced, leaving the soil firm beneath, against which the roots must force their way. if the surface soil is of insufficient depth, it should be gradually increased by plowing a little deeper each year or by subsoiling in the furrow behind the regular turning plow. _fertilizers._--the root portion of the plant is the part having the greatest value, though the foliage and vines have some value as food for certain kinds of stock. it has been found that an excessive amount of organic matter in the soil will frequently produce an abundant growth of vines at the expense of the roots. it has also been noted that the potatoes will be small and the yield unsatisfactory on soils that do not contain sufficient organic matter to produce a fair growth of vine. the use of stable manure as a fertilizer for sweet potatoes is recommended on lands that are deficient in organic matter. heavy applications of fresh manure shortly before planting the land to sweet potatoes will stimulate not only the growth of weeds but also of the vines at the expense of the roots. well-rotted stable manure may be used at the rate of to carloads to the acre, spread broadcast or beneath the ridges and harrowed into the soil, but it is always well to apply the manure with the crop grown the previous season. by this method the manure will become thoroughly incorporated with the soil and become somewhat reduced before the sweet potatoes are planted upon the land. stable manure will be found most beneficial on worn-out soils, but on the more fertile soils its use should be restricted and the method of application carefully studied. the sweet potato is one of the few crops that thrive equally as well (or better) upon commercial fertilizers as upon stable manure. a fertilizer for use on the majority of sweet potato lands should contain to per cent of nitrogen, or per cent of phosphoric acid, and to per cent of potash. every grower should make a study of the requirements of his soil and apply the fertilizer that will give the best results. many growers purchase the ingredients and mix their own special fertilizers, or use a standard fertilizer as a base and increase the percentage of certain elements by adding high-grade elementary ingredients. some soils require that certain elements should be in a more available form than others; in the case of nitrogen it is often desirable to have a portion of that contained in the fertilizer quickly available and the remainder more slowly in order to feed the plants throughout the season. a mixture adapted to the growing of sweet potatoes on most soils may be made by combining the following: pounds of high-grade sulphate of ammonia, per cent pure. pounds of dried blood, or pounds of fish scrap. , pounds of acid phosphate, per cent pure. pounds of high-grade muriate of potash, per cent pure. the quantity of fertilizer that may be profitably applied will be governed entirely by local conditions. many growers do not depend upon commercial fertilizers, but merely apply from to pounds to each acre as a supplement to the organic matter and natural fertility of the soil. others apply from to , pounds, according to the condition of the soil, while a few growers use a ton to the acre. the general rule is to apply the fertilizer in the row where the crop is to be grown, but where large quantities are used it should be distributed at least ten days before planting and thoroughly incorporated with the soil. an application of , pounds of high-grade fertilizer placed in the row at planting time has been known to injure seriously or kill the plants. for the best results the fertilizer should be applied at least ten days before planting, or a portion of the fertilizer may be applied a month or more in advance and the remainder at the time of preparing the land for planting. hardwood ashes are desirable for use on sweet potato land and may be applied at the rate of from , to , pounds to the acre. the value of wood ashes depends upon how much they have become leached, but hardwood ashes should contain from to per cent of available potash. wood ashes also contain considerable lime. where large quantities of any green crop are plowed into the soil there is a tendency to sourness, and occasional applications of from to tons of lime to the acre are beneficial. the presence of an abundance of lime in soils devoted to the growing of sweet potatoes hastens the maturity of the crop and increases the yield. on poor soils the lime and potash work together to produce potatoes of uniform size and shape, but on rich or alluvial soils the tendency is toward the production of over-large and irregular roots. the lime should be applied the previous season, or at least the autumn before planting the land to sweet potatoes. _propagation of plants._--the more common varieties of the sweet potato have for a great many years been propagated by cuttings, or sets, taken either from the potatoes themselves or from growing vines, and as a result the plants have ceased to flower and produce seed. the greater portion of the commercial crop is grown from sets, or "draws," produced by sprouting medium-sized potatoes in a warm bed of soil. where only a small area of sweet potatoes is to be grown for home use, the necessary plants can generally be secured from some one who makes a business of growing them. if an acre or more is to be planted it will in most cases be more economical to prepare a bed and grow the plants. the method of starting the plants will depend upon the locality and the acreage to be planted, the essentials being a bed of warm earth and a covering to protect the young plants during the early springtime. _selection of seed._--the potatoes that are to serve as seed from which to grow the plants for the next season's crop should always be selected at the time of digging and housing the crop. for seed purposes it is the custom to select the medium or undersized potatoes, such as are too small for marketing. those potatoes that will pass through a -inch ring or can be circled by the thumb and first finger of a man having a hand of average size are used for seed purposes. the seed potatoes should be uniform in size and of the shape desired in the following year's crop. the seed should be free from cuts, bruises, decay, or disease of any kind. throughout the handling of the seed potatoes they should not receive any treatment that would break eggs. the seed should always be handled and kept separate from the regular crop. the oftener the seed is handled the greater the danger of decay, and it should not be sorted over until everything is ready for bedding. the best seed is grown from cuttings taken from the regular plants after they have begun to form vines. these cuttings produce large numbers of medium or small-sized potatoes that are free from diseases and adapted for use as seed the following year. _hotbeds._--toward the northern part of the area over which sweet potatoes are grown it is necessary to start the plants in a hotbed in order that the length of season may be sufficient to mature the crop. the roots that are too small for marketing are used for seed, and these are bedded close together in the hotbed and covered with about inches of sand or fine soil, such as leaf mold. the seed should be bedded about five or six weeks before it will be safe to set the plants in the open ground, which is usually about may or may . toward the last the hotbed should be ventilated very freely in order to harden off the plants. _drawing the sets._--as a general rule sweet potato plants are set in the field shortly after a rain. in order to avoid delay in planting, the hands should begin to get out the sets as soon as the rain ceases falling and place them in crates or baskets ready for transportation to the field. the sets are not all produced at once, and only those that have formed good roots are "drawn," the others being left until later. in drawing the sets the seed potato is held down with one hand while the plants are removed with the thumb and finger of the other hand. it often happens that five or six plants will cling together at the base, and these should be separated in order to avoid loss of time in the field. the roots should all be kept in one direction, and if the tops are long or irregular they may be trimmed off even by means of a knife. while drawing the sets it is a good plan to have at hand a large pail or tub containing water to which there has been added a quantity of clay and cow manure which has been stirred until it forms a thin slime. as the plants are pulled from the bed they are taken in small bunches and their roots dipped into this mixture. this process, termed "puddling," covers the roots with a coating which not only prevents their becoming dry in handling but insures a direct contact with the soil when they are planted in the field or garden. after removing the sets that are ready, the bed should be watered to settle the soil where it has become disturbed and then left for the younger plants to develop. _packing for shipment._--in preparing sweet potato plants for shipment or for sale, they are "drawn" from the bed and tied in bunches of each with soft string. sweet potato plants will not withstand excessive moisture and should always be packed while the tops are dry. a little damp moss or paper may be placed in the crate or basket and the roots bedded in it, but the tops should remain dry and have free ventilation. if the roots of sweet potato plants are carefully puddled without the mixture coming in contact with the tops, they will keep in good condition for a week or ten days. _preparation of land._--the character of soil devoted to sweet potato culture is generally quite easy to prepare. in preparing land for planting to sweet potatoes the plowing and fitting are practically the same as for corn. it should be borne in mind, however, that the work necessary for thorough preparation will be well repaid by the increased ease in handling the crop later. it is always desirable that a crop like sweet potatoes be grown as a part of the regular farm rotation. in the northern portion of the sweet-potato-growing area the crop will occupy the land the entire growing season, and a three or four year rotation should be practiced. where the climate will permit, a crop of early snap beans, peas, or cabbage may precede the sweet potatoes, but in any case the land should not be planted to sweet potatoes oftener than once every three years. a good rotation is to devote the land to corn one year, sowing crimson clover in the alleys between the rows at the time the corn is given the last cultivation. during the following spring the crimson clover should be turned under and sweet potatoes planted; then in the autumn, after the potatoes are harvested, the land may be plowed, fitted and sown to rye or winter oats with plenty of grass seed. in this way a crop of grain may be obtained during the time that the grass is becoming established. allow the land to remain in grass one or two years and then repeat the rotation. where corn is followed by sweet potatoes in the rotation, stable manure should be applied while fitting the land for the corn, and commercial fertilizers should be applied with the sweet potato crop. the usual depth of plowing in preparing land for corn will prove satisfactory for sweet potatoes. the fact that sweet potatoes are not planted in the field until quite late in the spring makes it possible for the grower to select a time when conditions are favorable for the preparation of the land. plowing may be deferred until the soil has become sufficiently dry to break up fine and mellow. it is important that the land should be harrowed within a few hours after plowing; further fitting may be deferred until later, and if the soil is inclined to be lumpy the work of pulverizing may best be done shortly after a shower and while the lumps are mellow. when the primary work of preparation is finished, the soil should be mellow to a depth of or inches and the surface smooth and even. subsequent handling of the soil preparatory to planting will depend upon whether ridge or level culture is to be followed. _preparation for planting._--after plowing and fitting the land it is generally allowed to lie several days before being put in shape for planting. if level culture is to be practiced, the only thing necessary will be to run the harrow over the soil once and then mark in both directions at the desired distances for planting. the marking is generally done with either a one-horse plow, a flat-soled marker, or a disk marker. the disk marker is well adapted to this work, as it throws up a slight ridge which furnishes fresh earth in which to plant. some growers who practice level culture mark the ground with a small one-horse plow and throw up a slight ridge upon which to plant; behind the plow a roller is used to compress this ridge to a low, flat elevation. where the more universal ridge method of planting is employed the soil is thrown up by means of a turning plow or a disk machine. the ridges should be made at least one week before planting, in order that the soil may become settled and compact. the majority of sweet-potato growers make the ridges whenever the land is in good condition to work and then either roll or drag the tops just ahead of the planters. _setting the plants._--the success of the crop depends largely upon the way in which the plants start after being removed from the bed and set in the field or garden. practical growers always plan to set the plants during a "season" or period when the conditions are suitable to a quick start into growth, either just before a rain or as soon afterward as the soil can be worked. the method of setting will depend entirely upon local conditions and the acreage to be grown, the essential features, however, being to get the roots in contact with moist earth and the soil firmly pressed about the plants. the use of water around the roots of the plants is desirable under most circumstances, as it not only moistens the soil but assists in settling it about the roots. a large quantity of water is not necessary, one-half pint to each plant being generally considered sufficient. where level culture is practiced, the plants are set from to inches apart in each direction. on the eastern shore of virginia the greater portion of the crop is planted inches apart each way, requiring about , plants to an acre. by planting inches apart each way, only about , plants are required to set one acre. where the crop is grown on ridges it is customary to have the ridges from to inches apart from center to center and to place the plants to inches apart in the row. by this method an acre will require from , to , plants. an acre of good sweet potato land will readily support , to , plants, and the number most commonly planted by the several methods will fall within these figures. _cultivation._--the methods of handling a crop of sweet potatoes do not differ materially from those employed with ordinary farm and garden crops. within a few days after planting, a sweep or one-horse plow should be run in the alleys to break out the strip of earth left in ridging. the loose earth in the alleys should be worked toward the rows until a broad, flat ridge is formed upon which a small-tooth cultivator can be run quite close to the plants. after each rain or irrigation the soil should receive a shallow cultivation, and during dry weather frequent cultivations are necessary in order to retain moisture. about two hand hoeings are generally necessary in order to keep the rows free from weeds and the soil loose around the plants. as hand labor is expensive, it should be the aim to perform the greater part of the work by means of horse tools. where sweet potatoes are planted in check rows and worked in both directions the hand work required will be reduced to a minimum, but a certain amount of hoeing is always necessary. when the vines begin to interfere with further cultivation the crop may be "laid by," i. e., given a final working in which the soil is drawn well up over the ridges and the vines then allowed to take full possession of the land. to do this it is often necessary to turn the vines first to one side of the row and then to the other by means of a stick or a wooden rake. after "laying by," very little attention is required until time for harvesting the crop. _harvesting._--the harvesting and marketing of sweet potatoes direct from the field begins about the middle of august and continues until the crop is all disposed of or placed in storage for winter marketing. during the early part of the harvesting season the yield is light, but as a rule the prices paid are good. the supply for home use and those potatoes that are to be kept in storage should not be dug until just before frost. in the localities where frosts do not occur until quite late in the season the sweet potatoes ripen and the vines show a slight tinge of yellow when ready for handling. _effect of frost._--the foliage of the sweet potato is very tender and is easily injured by frost. a light frosting of the leaves will do no harm, but should the vines become frozen before digging they should be cut away to prevent the frozen sap passing down to the roots and injuring them. where there is a heavy yield of potatoes the soil is frequently cracked or the ends of the potatoes protrude above ground and are liable to injury from severe frost. if on account of rainy weather or for any other cause the potatoes can not be dug before frost or immediately afterwards, the vines should be cut away and the potatoes removed at the first opportunity. if cold weather continues it may be necessary to draw a little extra soil over the hills to protect the potatoes, or the vines may be piled in a ridge over the row. a very slight frosting of the potatoes will cause them to decay within a short time after being placed in storage. it is desirable that the soil should be comparatively dry at the time of harvesting sweet potatoes, and bright, drying weather is essential to the proper handling of the crop. sweet potatoes differ from irish potatoes in that they are not so easily injured by sunlight. however, they should not be exposed for any length of time if the sunshine is very warm. during the handling in the field it should be the purpose to remove all soil and surface moisture from the potatoes. sweet potatoes should not lie exposed upon the surface of the ground during the night. _grading and packing._--in sorting sweet potatoes preparatory to packing, about four grades are recognized, as fancy, primes, seconds and culls. those packed as fancy include only the most select, both in size and shape. the primes include all those adapted to general first-class trade, while the seconds include the smaller and more irregular stock which goes to a lower priced trade. the culls are not marketed unless good stock is exceedingly scarce, and as a rule are used for feeding to hogs. sweet potatoes are usually shipped in barrels holding eleven pecks each. some markets require that the barrels be faced and headed, while for others the tops are slightly rounded and covered with burlap. small lots of extra-fancy sweet potatoes are sometimes shipped in one-bushel crates having raised tops; also in patent folding crates. throughout the process of handling care must be exercised to see that the sweet potatoes do not become bruised, for upon this their shipping and keeping qualities greatly depend. _storage._--unlike most perishable products, the sweet potato requires warmth and a dry atmosphere while in storage. the method of storing will depend both upon the locality and the quantity of potatoes to be cared for. the temperature and conditions of a rather cool living room are admirably adapted for keeping sweet potatoes intended for home use in the north, while in the south they may be placed in pits or stored in outdoor cellars. the home supply may be placed in crates and stored in a loft over the kitchen part of the dwelling. sweet potatoes should not be stored in bags or in barrels without ventilation. the seed stock for planting the following year should be selected and stored separately in a small bin. as the potatoes are separated into their respective grades they are put into baskets and carried to the bins. some growers prefer to do the grading in the field, but this necessitates the employment of a larger percentage of expert labor and delays the work of getting the potatoes hauled to the storehouse. women and children can pick up the potatoes in the field, and two or three experienced men can do the sorting and grading at the house in a much shorter time and in a more satisfactory manner. before starting to fill a bin, or inches of dry pine needles, straw, or chaff should be placed upon the floor. beginning at the back of the bin the potatoes are piled to a depth of or inches until the entire floor space is covered and a number of slats are required to be placed across the doorway opening. a few grain bags filled with straw should be placed upon the potatoes at intervals from front to back of the bin, and upon these planks on which the men may walk while carrying in the next layer of potatoes may be laid. in this way a bin may be filled to a depth of or feet by about three layers. by dumping them in layers the potatoes have an opportunity to become thoroughly dry before a new layer is placed over them. _temperature and ventilation of storage houses._--two or three days before beginning to bring in the potatoes, the storage house should be thoroughly cleaned and the heating appliance put in working order and started, in order to have the house both warm and dry when the crop comes in. throughout the time of storing and for about ten days after the potatoes are all in the bins a temperature of ° or ° f. should be maintained in the house, with plenty of ventilation. this constitutes what is known as the sweating or curing process, and the keeping qualities of the potatoes depend upon the thoroughness with which this part of the work is done. wood-burning stoves are frequently employed for heating sweet potato storage houses, but a hot-water boiler with coils of pipes along the walls of the building is very satisfactory. after the crop is all in and thoroughly cured, the temperature of the storage house should be gradually lowered and may vary between ° and ° f., but considerable ventilation should be maintained. sweet potatoes should be handled very carefully and as few times as possible, the essentials to good keeping being a reasonable degree of warmth, a dry atmosphere, and careful handling. great care should be taken with the seed for the next year's planting to see that it is carefully handled and properly stored. while a temperature of ° or ° f. is required to properly start the seed into growth in the spring, a higher temperature during a long period of time in storage is liable to injure or even kill the buds. potatoes intended for seed should not be stored in too great quantities, and where but a small supply is needed they can often be kept buried in dry sand after having first been thoroughly cured. the sand used for this purpose should be baked to insure the driving off of moisture, and may be placed around the potatoes while slightly warm. in controlling the ventilation of the storage house during the winter months, outside air should be admitted only when quite dry and when its temperature is lower than that of the air in the storage house. if warm, moist air is admitted considerable moisture will be deposited upon the potatoes, thus injuring their keeping qualities. _loss from shrinkage in storage._--under proper storage conditions sweet potatoes will shrink from to per cent, but the loss in weight will be greater if the temperature of the house is carried too high. if the potatoes are not mature when dug from the field the loss from shrinkage may be as much as per cent, and immature stock should be marketed early in the winter. _marketing during winter months._--for marketing from outside pits it is desirable to have the quantity stored in one pit small enough to permit of all being removed at one time. the potatoes may be removed from outdoor cellars as desired. in marketing from heated storage houses the potatoes should not be disturbed until they are barreled or crated, and then they should be placed directly upon the market and sold without delay. when shipping during cold weather the barrels should at least be lined with paper, and a covering of heavy brown paper over the outside of the barrels will form a safeguard. if the potatoes are shipped in carload lots during the winter the cars should be either of the regular refrigerator type or felt lined. _varieties._--of the large number of varieties of the sweet potato there are not more than ten that are now of great commercial importance in the united states. for the markets that require a dry, mealy-fleshed potato those varieties belonging to the jersey group are suitable. for the southern trade and where a moist-fleshed potato is desired those commonly designated as yams are in demand. among the jerseys that are extensively grown are the big-stem jersey, the yellow jersey and the red jersey. the principal varieties of the yam group are the southern queen, the pumpkin yam, the georgia, the florida, and the red bermuda. of the varieties mentioned there are a large number of special strains, known under many local names. in the selection of varieties for home use one must be governed largely by locality. as a rule those of the jersey group will thrive farther north than those of the so-called yam types. for market purposes the particular variety or strain grown in the vicinity should first be selected, and afterward other varieties may be experimented with in a small way.--(f. b. , , ; tuskegee e. s. , , ; ariz. e. s. ; n. mex. e. s. ; s. car. e. s. , ; s. dak. e. s. .) swiss chard. the part eaten is not the root, but the midrib of the leaf which is prepared much the same as asparagus. the flavor is distinct from that of the ordinary beet root. give the same culture as required for beets. the soil should be richer. in the fall cover with straw. this will aid an early growth and help blanch the stems. this is a very valuable plant and should be cultivated more extensively. thyme. the leaves are used for seasoning, and a tea is also made therefrom for nervous headache. tomatoes. because of the tropical origin of the tomato it requires a long season for its growth and development, and on this account it is necessary in the northern states, in order to secure paying crops, to resort to methods which lengthen the growing season. it is much easier for the gardener to accomplish this while the plant is small than when it is large, and because early fruits are as a rule more valuable than late ones it is of advantage to the gardener to secure his crop as early in the season as practicable. the season is, therefore, lengthened at the beginning rather than at the end. this is accomplished by sowing seeds in hotbeds or greenhouses several weeks in advance of the time when they could be safely planted in the open. _the tomato as a field crop at the north._--east of the mississippi river and north of the latitude of washington, d. c., the tomato is handled as an annual, the seeds being sown in hotbeds about the middle of march. the young plants, as soon as they have developed their first true leaves, are transplanted to stand about inches apart each way and are allowed to develop in these quarters until they have attained a height of from to inches and the leaves begin to crowd considerably. they are then transplanted to pots, or inches in diameter. _training plants to stakes._--for earliest returns it is desirable to train forced plants to a single stem by tying them to a stake or feet in height. these stakes should be driven firmly into the ground beside the plants and the plants carefully tied to them to prevent whipping and to keep the fruits off the ground. all side shoots should be kept pinched out and only the central leading stem allowed to develop to bring larger results. if the plants are to be trained in this way they can be set from inches to feet apart in the row, and about - / to feet between the rows. _training plants on frames._--another plan sometimes followed in the training of tomatoes is to place a flaring frame, about inches square at the base and inches square at the top over the plants before they begin to spread. the shoots as they become heavy with fruit fall over against the sides of the rack and are prevented from coming in contact with the earth. for a kitchen garden where but few plants are grown this is a very satisfactory plan. the plants can be set somewhat closer than is the case where no supports are provided. for commercial plantations, however, the cost of the frames is prohibitive. the common commercial practice is to place the plants about feet apart each way in check rows so as to allow them to be cultivated in both directions. under intensive cultivation in a small garden, however, the first method, that of tying the vines to stakes, will be found very satisfactory. where tomatoes are grown on a large scale and where the product brings only a small price per bushel, expensive methods of handling and training can not be profitably followed. the common practice in growing tomatoes for the general market and for canning purposes in localities north of new york city is to sow the seed very thinly in a hotbed about march and allow the plants to grow slowly without transplanting them until they can be put in the field about june . the plants, even with the most careful attention, when grown under these conditions will become long and thin stemmed, with a small tuft of leaves at the top. _setting the plants._--plants more than a foot high which have been grown under these conditions should be treated somewhat as follows: instead of attempting to set the plant deeply and maintain it in an upright position, remove all except three or four of the top-most leaves about the growing point. dig a shallow trench along the row--a trench or inches deep--slightly sloping from a deep point at one end to the surface of the ground at the other. place the bare stem of the tomato and the root in this trench, with the root in the deepest portion, cover the stem throughout its length with fresh soil, and pack this firmly. under these conditions the plant will take root throughout the length of the buried stem, and in a short time the added root system which is thus given the plant will force it into vigorous growth. plants of this character which are to be grown on an extensive scale are never trained. they are allowed to grow at will, and the fruits are gathered as they ripen without special attention to keep them off the ground or otherwise to care for them. _length of season._--the season of fruit production is longer in the higher than in the lower latitudes. this is a rather interesting and unexpected condition. normally one would expect to find that the tomato would begin maturing its fruit earlier and would continue bearing longer in the latitude of the city of washington than it would in the latitude of boston; but this is not the case. tomatoes in the latitude of washington and south of this point come into bearing, quickly produce a heavy flush of fruit, and then refuse to do more, and in order to have a continuous supply throughout the season it is necessary for market gardeners and truckers to plant seeds in succession so as to keep up a continuous supply. _fertilizers._--since the tomato is grown exclusively for its fruit, those fertilizers which induce a large growth of plant and foliage are not desirable in the production of this crop. soils vary greatly in regard to the quantity of available plant food they contain. the use of a fertilizer is determined largely by the character, mechanical condition, and composition of the soil. if a soil is deficient in all the essential elements of plant food--nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid--the application of any one or even two of them will not materially influence the yield of the crop. on the other hand, on soils deficient only in potash or phosphoric acid, or both, little would be gained by adding nitrogen, which is already in excess, to the other element or elements to be applied. economy of operation, as well as the general effect upon the soil, must also be considered. this may be influenced by the character of the season, but should be based on the increased yield and increased net receipts of the crop. as a general rule, readily soluble, "quick-acting" fertilizers which produce an early growth and early ripening of the crop are most desirable. heavy dressings of stable manure tend to produce too much vine, and are seldom or never employed. if stable manure is used it is at a moderate rate, usually not more than one or two shovelfuls to a plant. this, if well decomposed and thoroughly incorporated with the soil, is very stimulating to the young plant and consequently very beneficial. any fertilizer used should be applied, in part at least, at the time the plants are transplanted to the field. _cultivation._--as soon as the young seedling plants from the hotbed or greenhouse are transferred to the field they should be given clean cultivation with implements which stir the surface of the soil but do not produce ridges or furrows. when the plants are set in check rows feet apart each way it is possible in field culture to keep the plantation almost free from weeds by the use of horse hoes. if, however, the plants are set so that cultivation can be carried on only in one direction, hand hoeing will be necessary to keep down weeds between the plants in the row. where land is not expensive, and where labor costs heavily, the cost of producing a crop of tomatoes can be decidedly lessened by planting in check rows and carrying on the cultivation by horsepower. the grower should bear in mind, however, that the object of cultivation is not merely to kill weeds. the destruction of weeds is an important factor and in itself sufficient to justify clean culture, but the preservation of a soil mulch for the purpose of husbanding the moisture of the soil during periods of drought is of even greater value. with care in the choice of implements both results can be attained with the same expenditure of labor. _harvesting and marketing._--the fruits should be gathered two or three times a week if the tomato is grown as a truck crop. when used for canning purposes the harvesting periods need not be quite so close, and when the fruits are to be shipped some distance they should be gathered as soon as partially colored, instead of allowing them to become colored on the vine. the fruit of the tomato is velvet green up to the time the ripening process begins, and at this stage, if the products are to be shipped long distances, the fruits should be harvested. for home markets, however, the fruits should be allowed to ripen upon the plant. in harvesting, none except sound fruits of a similar stage of maturity should be harvested and packed in any one receptacle. leaky fruits and deformed fruits should be rejected. in packing tomatoes for the market, those that are symmetrical in form and uniform in size and of a like degree of ripeness should be selected for filling any one receptacle. _varieties for the north._--there are a large number of sorts of tomatoes, each one possessing some points of merit or difference which distinguish it from all others. these differences enable the intelligent cultivator to select sorts for special purposes, as well as for special soils and climates. the varying demands of the markets and the different soil and climatic conditions presented in the various sections of the united states where the tomato is grown can only be satisfied by a variety list as variable as are the conditions. early ripening sorts are frequently irregular in shape, have comparatively thin walls, large seed cavities, and numerous seeds. the fruit is apt to color and ripen unevenly, remaining green around the stem, or to contain a hard green core. later-ripening sorts, while not all superior to the others, have as a rule thicker and firmer walls, smaller seed cavities, and few seeds. the most highly developed varieties now make few seeds and ripen evenly. these characteristics of the fruits are important factors in determining their fitness for special purposes. medium-sized, smooth, spherical fruits, which ripen evenly and have small seed cavities and thick walls are especially suited to long-distance shipment. these qualities should enter into every sort selected to the greatest possible degree consistent with earliness, lateness, heavy yield, or any other special quality which gives the variety a marked commercial advantage. the following list is made up of varieties possessing some markedly distinct character, such as earliness, great size, purple, red, or yellow color, dwarf habit, etc.: _early ripening varieties._--sparks' earliana, atlantic prize, early freedom. _large-fruited varieties._--ponderosa, beefsteak. _purple-fruited varieties._--beauty, acme, imperial. _red-fruited varieties._--favorite (late), honor bright, matchless, stone, royal red, new jersey. _yellow-fruited varieties._--golden queen, lemon blush. _dwarf or tree types._--dwarf champion, station upright tree, aristocrat. _potato-leaf types._--livingston's potato-leaf, mikado, turner's hybrid. _the tomato as a field crop at the south._--commercial tomato growing in the southern states is almost exclusively confined to the production of tomatoes at a season when they can not be grown at the north, except in greenhouses. on this account the commercial production of this crop is restricted to areas where there is very little, if any, freezing during the winter months. _time of planting._--at the extreme southern limit of the commercial cultivation of this crop in florida the plants are grown so as to be ready for setting in the open about december . the date of seed sowing advances as the cultivation of the crop progresses northward, so that in northern florida the seeds are sown early in january and the young plants placed in the field in march. where frost conditions do not form barriers against the production of seedling plants in the open, the seed beds for the young plants are prepared in some sheltered situation where partial shade can be given and where the seed bed can be frequently watered. the young plants, as soon as they have attained the proper size--that is, from to inches in height--are transferred to the field in practically the same manner as are the hotbed-grown plants produced for general field culture at the north, and except for a specially early crop they are not transplanted or potted. the young seedlings in the cold frame will require careful attention in the way of watering and ventilation; otherwise many plants will be lost by damping off or from sun-scorching during bright days unless the sash are lifted or entirely removed. _yield._--the yield of fruit in the south, under the conditions mentioned, is much less than it is in regions having the long growing periods characteristic of higher latitudes. yields vary from to bushels to the acre, but the high price obtained for the fruits which are thus produced at a season when the sole competition comes from the products of northern greenhouses renders the crop, when well handled, very remunerative. _soil._--the soil which is preferred for the production of this crop is one which contains a comparatively high percentage of sand. in this region sandy loam or a sandy soil is preferred to bottom land for the cultivation of tomatoes. an area with a gentle slope to the south is considered more desirable than that with other exposure. if a wind-break can be secured along the north and west sides of the area very early crops can frequently be preserved through a wind-storm when the temperature, while not low enough to freeze the plants, will, when accompanied by a high wind, chill and destroy them. _varieties for the south._--in the south, where the tomato is handled as a short-season crop, certain varieties are found to give best results in certain districts. along the atlantic seaboard the growers of tomatoes use such sorts as beauty, stone, perfection, aristocrat, and paragon. in the truck regions of eastern texas the dwarf champion is perhaps more universally grown than any other variety, but in this same region the success is found to be a more profitable late-season or fall crop than the champion. _forcing tomatoes._--in the forcing of plants, which means the growing of a plant out of its natural season and in an artificial environment, the first requirement for success is a properly constructed protective structure or greenhouse. because of the tropical nature of the tomato more than ordinary provisions must be made in order to meet the demands of this crop. in the forcing of most vegetables a lower temperature and benches without bottom heat are satisfactory, but with the tomato the house must be piped so as to maintain a minimum temperature of degrees f., and the benches should be so constructed as to admit of applying bottom heat. _type of greenhouse._--the type of house that is generally employed for the forcing of tomatoes is the even-span or a three-fourths span house. if the even-span house is used it is preferable to have the ridge running north and south; if the three-fourths span house is employed it is best to have the long side sloping toward the south. the tomato when grown in the forcing house, because of its long fruiting season and the fact that its clusters of fruit are borne one above the other, requires a considerable amount of head room. low houses are therefore not desirable in the production of this crop. the side walls of a house designed for the forcing of tomatoes should be at least feet in height, and the distance from the top of the middle bench to the ridge of the house should be at least feet. _soil._--the soil for the production of this crop should be well decomposed loam, made, if possible, from sods from an old pasture, the soil of which is a rather light clay loam or a heavy sandy loam. with this should be incorporated about one-fourth its bulk of well-rotted stable manure, preferably cow manure. by composting these two materials for from four to six months before they are required for use a very satisfactory soil for the forcing of tomatoes will result. care should be exercised to allow the soil that is used for forcing tomatoes to be frozen each year. the depth of soil required for the successful growth of tomatoes is considerably more than that employed for roses, although the temperature and other requirements are very similar to those demanded by the rose. while or inches of soil are adequate to produce a crop of roses, the soil for tomatoes should be at least or inches in depth; inches is preferable. it is not well to allow the soil to remain in the greenhouse longer than a single season. it becomes somewhat exhausted and is likely to become infested with injurious forms of life, particularly nematodes, which cause root-knots upon the tomato plants, thus defeating the work of the gardener. this trouble, however, can be easily overcome by subjecting the soil to freezing. _seedling plants._--two types of plants are used for forcing purposes--seedling plants and cutting plants. the former are, of course, seedlings grown from seed especially sown for the purpose of raising plants to be grown in a greenhouse. it is customary in the latitude of new york and northward to sow the seed for a forcing crop of tomatoes in the month of august. the young seedling plants, as soon as they develop the first true leaves, are then transplanted from the seed bed to small pots, preferably -inch pots. they are planted deeply at this time and are kept growing rapidly but not sufficiently to produce a soft, succulent growth. as soon as the -inch pots are filled with roots the plants are shifted to -inch pots, and when the plants have attained a height of or inches, and have developed their first blossoms, they are usually placed on the benches of the greenhouse, where they are to produce their crop. the plants are then set or inches apart each way in a soil prepared as previously described. _cutting plants._--cuttings should be taken from strong, healthy, vigorous-growing plants in the field, and placed in the cutting bed about the last of august, where they will quickly take root. as soon as the roots have developed to a length of from one-half to inch the young plants are shifted to or inch pots, where they are allowed to develop until the blossom buds are well formed or the blossoms have expanded, when they should be planted on the bench where they are to mature their crop, in like manner as noted for seedling plants. _pollination._--in the field, where the tomato plants are exposed to the action of wind and to the visits of insects, no special attention is necessary in order to secure the pollination of the flowers and the setting of the fruits. under the conditions existing in a greenhouse, however, it is necessary to artificially pollinate the flowers of the tomato; otherwise only a very small percentage of fruits will set and the object of the work will be defeated. it is therefore necessary to allow the temperature of the house to become quite high in the middle of the day on bright sunshiny days while the plants are in bloom, and to pass through the house at this time with a little stick, inches or feet in length, with which to strike the supporting strings or wires and thus to set the plants in motion and liberate the pollen and cause it to fertilize the flowers. a more satisfactory way, however, is to use a watch glass, - / or - inches in diameter, embedded in putty, at the end of a handle composed of a light material, preferably white pine, which shall be or inches long. grasp this spatula in the left hand and, with a light pine stick of equal length in the right hand, pass through the house, tapping each open flower lightly with the wand, at the same time holding the watch glass under the flowers to catch the pollen. before removing the watch glass from this position lift it sufficiently to cause the stigma of the flower to dip into the pollen contained in the glass. by carefully going through the house from day to day during the blooming period nearly per cent of the blossoms which develop can be caused to set. during dark, cloudy, stormy weather, however, a smaller percentage of plants will be fertilized than during bright, comparatively dry weather. the conditions in the greenhouse can not be modified so as to entirely overcome the adverse conditions existing on the outside, although with care much can be done in this direction. _manuring._--it is desirable to keep plants of the tomato which are designed for forcing growing at a moderately rapid rate throughout the whole forcing period. growth should be strong and robust at all times, yet slow enough to produce close-jointed plants which bear their fruit clusters at near intervals. there is considerable difference in varieties of tomatoes in this respect, and those which naturally bear their fruit clusters close together should be selected for forcing purposes. the manuring of the plants should, therefore, take a form which will be conducive to this strong, vigorous growth, yet not sufficiently heavy to produce plants which run to wood at the expense of fruit bearing. _ventilating and watering._--if careful attention is given to keeping the plants in a healthy condition by never allowing them to suffer from overwatering or from becoming too dry, and if sufficient ventilation is given without allowing draughts of cold air upon the plants, much can be done to prevent the development of mildew. if the plants are to be sprayed it should be done once a week or once in ten days, and then only in the mornings of bright days. ordinarily, however, the atmosphere of the house should be kept dry rather than moist, as a very moist atmosphere is liable to produce a soft, succulent growth, which brings on a disease known to gardeners as oedema. this, however, can be prevented by care in keeping the house rather dry. the temperature of the house, too, should not be allowed to fluctuate through too wide a range. the night temperature for tomatoes should range between ° and ° f., while the day temperature should run from ° to ° f. _varieties for forcing._--the comparatively limited use of tomatoes for forcing purposes in this country has not resulted in the development of many sorts especially suited for this purpose. the lorillard is the one american sort which is now almost exclusively confined to this use, and it is perhaps more generally cultivated in forcing houses than any other single variety. _the tomato as a field crop for canneries._--owing to the fact that in canned tomatoes it is difficult for the average consumer to note any deficiencies in the appearance of the original fruit, many labor under the delusion that any variety will answer for this purpose. this is a mistaken idea, as quality in canned goods is now an important factor, and it is quite as necessary that a good quality of product should be used for canning as for growing for the early or general market, although from the field side it is natural that tonnage should be a primary consideration. in the matter of varieties, as in the case of early tomatoes, too much dependence should not be placed upon the name or upon the fact that a neighboring farmer secures good results from a given variety. there are so many variations in the character of soils, even in the same locality, which exert an influence upon the size and quality of crop that the best variety is usually one that is, in part at least, developed by the individual grower. the main point is to select varieties that produce large, smooth, solid fruits, which do not remain green or crack on the shaded side near the stem. those which possess size as their chief characteristic are frequently of poor quality, as they are likely to possess large seed cavities and to ripen unevenly. the conditions in some sections are such as to prevent the canners from making as much distinction between good and poor varieties as they would like. canneries are in a measure obliged to receive all that come, unless they can control absolutely the land upon which the crop is grown. the variation in the quality of the crops of different farmers will make a difference of from to cans on a ton of fruit, or from to per cent--a very considerable item. in good seasons and with good fruit cans may be regarded as the maximum number to be derived from a ton, though late in the season, and with poor varieties, as already stated, the pack from a ton is very much less. the interests of the grower and the canner are really identical in this regard. an improvement in the quality of the fruit will result in an improvement of the canned product and a consequent increase in the price of both the raw and manufactured products. less expense is involved in growing suitable plants for cannery purposes than for other crops. this is due to the fact that earliness is not so important a factor as it is in the market garden crop. _fertilizing and cultivating the soil._--in manuring and fertilizing, the character of the crop and the season of its growth should be remembered. hence, recommendations that were made for an early crop do not apply in all cases except perhaps on the poorer classes of soils. in the first place, the plants are not put in the soil until summer, when the conditions are most favorable for the rapid change of organic forms of nitrogen into nitrates, and thus, if the soil has been manured or is naturally rich in vegetable matter, the additional application of nitrogen in immediately available forms is not so important. in the second place, the object of the growth is not early maturity, but the largest yield of mature fruit. _setting and cultivating the plants._--the plants should be set from to - / feet apart each way and cultivation should begin immediately. the first cultivation should be deep, in order to conserve the moisture, and each subsequent cultivation shallower, in order not to destroy the roots, which will fill the soil as soon as the plants reach maturity. the crop in good seasons should begin to ripen in august, and picking will continue from that time until the last of september. _cost, yield, and value of crop._--the cost of production per acre is much less for fruit for canning than in the case of early tomatoes, the chief difference being in the production of the plants. the several items may be classified as follows: _cost of growing an acre of tomatoes for canning:_ plants $ . manures and fertilizers . preparation of land, setting plants and cultivation . picking and carting . _____ total $ . the yield, as in the case of the early tomatoes, varies widely, ranging from to as high as tons per acre, even tons per acre having been reported in exceptional cases, although the average for a series of years on average land will probably be under tons. where all conditions are carefully observed, -ton yields are frequently obtained, and at the prices received at the cannery, ranging from $ to $ . per ton, according to the locality, the crop is a fairly good one and the net profits are quite as large as for other field crops. turnips. a great variety of turnips is grown throughout temperate climates, some of which being coarse in texture are used as food for farm animals while other varieties are raised as table vegetables. there is considerable variation in the color, flavor, and composition of the turnip, the yellow-fleshed sorts as a group being commonly distinguished from the white by the name "swedes" or "ruta-bagas." in the summer the early white varieties are usually preferred in spite of the fact that they are more watery, while in winter the yellow turnips are more commonly used. the turnip requires a rich soil, and may be grown either as an early or a late crop. for an early crop, sow the seeds in drills to inches apart as early in the spring as the condition of the soil will permit. two pounds of seed are required to plant an acre. after the plants appear, thin to about inches. the roots will be ready for use before hot weather. for late turnips the seeds are usually sown broadcast on land from which some early crop has been removed, generally during july or august, but later in the south. turnips are quite hardy, and the roots need not be gathered until after several frosts. turnips may be stored in a cellar or buried in a pit outside. before storing, the tops should be removed.--(f. b. , ; u. id. e. s. ; mich. e. s. .) vegetable marrow. the so-called vegetable marrows are a valuable product and closely allied to the pumpkin, both as to species and habit of growth, the principal difference being that the vegetable marrows are used while quite young and tender, and may be baked and served very much the same as sweet potatoes. the vegetable marrows should receive thorough cultivation in order that a tender product may be secured, and should be gathered while the outside skin is still so tender that it may easily be broken by the finger nail. the flesh is either boiled and mashed or baked in the oven and served with butter while hot.--(f. b. ; oreg. e. s. b. .) _quantity of seeds or number of plants required for a row feet in length, with distances to plant, times for planting, and period required for production of crop_. brackets indicate that a late or second crop may be planted the same season. --------------------+---------------+------------------------------------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------------+-----------------+ | | distance for plants to stand---- | | time of planting in open ground. | | | seeds or +---------------------------+--------------+ depth +------------------------+----------------------+ ready for use | | plants | rows apart. | | of | | | after planting. | kind of vegetable. | required +-------------+-------------+ plants | planting. | south | north | | | for feet | horse | hand | apart | | | | | | of row. | cultivation.| cultivation.| in rows. | | | | | --------------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------+ artichoke, globe | / ounce | to ft.| to ft. | to ft. | to in. | spring | early spring | months. | artichoke, jerusalem| qts. tubers | to ft.| to ft. | to ft. | to in. | spring | early spring | to months. | asparagus, seed | ounce | to in.| to ft. | to in. | to in. | autumn or early spring | early spring | to years. | asparagus, plants | to plants| to ft.| to in.| to in. | to in. | autumn or early spring | early spring | to years. | beans, bush | pint | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| / to in.| february to april. | | | | | | | | | [august to september.]| april to july | to days. | beans, pole | / pint | to ft.| to ft. | to ft. | to in. | late spring | may and june | to days. | beets | ounces | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| to in. | february to april. | | | | | | | | | [august to september.]| april to august | to days. | brussels sprouts | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | january to july | may and june | to days. | cabbage, early | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | october to december | march and april. | | | | | | | | | (start in hotbed | | | | | | | | | during february) | to days. | cabbage, late | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | june and july | may and june | to days. | cardoon | / ounce | ft. | ft. | to in. | to in. | early spring | april and may | to months. | carrot | ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| / in. | march and april. | | | | | | | | | [september] | april to june | to days. | cauliflower | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | january and february. | april to june. | | | | | | | | [june] | (start in hotbed | | | | | | | | | during february | | | | | | | | | or march) | to days.| celeriac | / ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| / in. | late spring | may and june. | | | | | | | | | (start in cold | | | | | | | | | frame during april) | to days.| celery | / ounce | to ft.| to in.| to in. | / in. | august to october | may and june. (start | | | | | | | | | in hotbed or cold | | | | | | | | | frame during march | | | | | | | | | or april) | to days.| chervil | ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| in. | autumn | autumn | year. | chicory | / ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| / in. | march and april | may and june | to months. | citron | ounce | to ft.| to ft.| to ft. | to in. | march and april | may and june | to days.| collards | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | may and june | late spring | to days.| corn salad | ounces | in. | to in.| or to ft.| / to in.| january and february. | | | | | | | | | [september and october]| march to september | days. | corn, sweet | / pint | to in.| to in.| to in. | to in. | february to april | may to july | to days. | cress, upland | / ounce | in. | to in.| or to ft.| / to in.| january and february. | march to may | | | | | | | | (autumn) | [september] | to days. | cress, water | / ounce | broadcast | | | on surface | early spring | april to september | to days. | cucumber | / ounce | to ft.| to ft. | to ft. | to in. | february and march. | | | | | | | | | [september] | april to july | to days. | dandelion | / ounce | in. | to in.| to in. | / in. | early spring or autumns| early spring | to months. | eggplant | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / to in.| february to april | april and may. (start| | | | | | | | | in hotbed during | to days.| | | | | | | | march) | endive | ounce | in. | in. | to in. | / to in.| february to april | april [july] | to days.| horse-radish | roots | to in.| to in.| to in. | to in. | early spring | early spring | to years| kale or borecole | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | october to february | august and september.| | | | | | | | | [march and april] | to days.| kohl-rabi | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | september to march | march to may | to days.| leek | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in | in. | may to september | march to may | to days.| lettuce | / ounce | in | to in.| to in | / in. | september to march | march to september | to days.| melon, muskmelon | / ounce | to ft. | to ft.| hills ft. | to in. | february to april | april to june (start | | | | | | | | | early plants in | | | | | | | | | hotbed during march)| to days.| melon, watermelon | ounce | to ft.| to ft.| hills ft. | to in. | march to may | may and june | to days.| mustard | / ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| / in. | autumn or early spring | march to may. | to days. | | | | | | | | [september] | | new zealand spinach | ounce | in. | to in.| to in. | to in. | early spring | early spring | to days.| okra, or gumbo | ounces | to ft. | to ft.| to in. | to in. | february to april | may and june | to days.| onion, seed | ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| / to in.| october to march | april and may | to days.| onion, sets | qt. of sets.| to in.| to in.| or to ft.| to in. | early spring | autumn and february | | | | | | | | | to may | to days.| parsley | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | september to may | september and early | to days.| | | | | | | | spring | | parsnip | / ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| / to in.| | april and may | to days.| peas | to pints. | to ft. | to in.| to ft. | to in. | september to april | march to june | to days. | pepper | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | early spring | may and june (start | | | | | | | | | early plants in | | | | | | | | | hotbed during march)| to days.| physalis | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / in. | march to may | may and june | to days.| potato, irish | lbs. (or | | | | | | | | | bu. per acre) | to in.| to in.| to in. | in. | january to april | march to june | to days.| potato, sweet | lbs. (or | | | | | | | | | slips) | to ft. | to ft.| in. | in. | april and may | may and june (start | | | | | | | | | plants in hotbed | | | | | | | | | during april) | to days.| pumpkin | / ounce | to ft.| to ft.| hills to | to in. | april and may | may to july | to days.| | | | | ft. | | | spring | | radish | ounce | to in.| to in.| to to ft| / to in.| september to april | march to september | to days. | rhubarb, seed | / ounce | in. | to in.| to in. | / to in.| | early spring | to years. | rhubarb, plants | plants | to ft. | to ft.| ft. | to in. | | autumn or early | to years. | | | | | | | | spring | | ruta-baga | / ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / to in.| august and september | may and june | to days. | salsify | ounce | to in.| to in.| to in. | / to in.| | early spring | to days.| spinach | ounce | to in.| to in.| or to ft.| to in. | september to february | september or very | | | | | | | | | early spring | to days. | | squash, bush | / ounce | to ft. | to ft.| hills to | to in. | spring | april to june | to days. | | | | | ft. | | | | | squash, late | / ounce | to ft.| to ft.| hills to | to in. | spring | april to june | to days.| | | | | ft. | | | | | tomato | / ounce | to ft.| to ft. | ft. | / to in.| december to march | may and june (start | | | | | | | | | early plants in | | | | | | | | | hotbed during | to days.| | | | | | | | february and march) | | turnip | / ounce | to in | to in | or to ft | / to / in| august to october | april. [july] | to days. | vegetable marrow | / ounce | to ft.| to ft.| hills to | to in. | spring | april to june | to days.| | | | | ft. | | | | | --------------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------+ average composition of succulent roots. ----------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------- | | edible portion | +-------+-------+-------+---------------+------+--------+ | | | | | carbohydrates | | | | | | | +-------+-------+ | | kind of vegetable |refuse | | | |sugar, |crude | |fuel | | | water |protein| fat |starch,|fiber | ash |value | | | | | | etc. | | |per | | | | | | | | |pound | ----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+ |per ct.|per ct.|per ct.|per ct.|per ct.|per ct.|per ct|calories| | | | | | | | | | beets, fresh | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | beets, cooked | .... | . | . | . | . | ....| . | | celeriac | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | carrots, fresh | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | carrots, desiccated | .... | . | . | . | . | ....| . | , | parsnips | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | salsify "oyster plant"| . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | black salsify | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | radishes | .... | . | . | . | . | . | . | | turnips, white | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | turnips, yellow | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | (ruta-bagas) | | | | | | | | | kohl-rabi | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | onions | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | garlic | .... | . | . | . | . | . | . | | potatoes | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | | ----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+ (authorities consulted in the chapter on vegetable garden.--colo. ag. col. e. s.; u. ill. a. e. s.; u. idaho a. e.; purdue u. a. e. s.; n. h. col. a. e. s.; mich. st. a. e. s.; mass. ag. col. e. s.; ohio ag. e. s.; s. c. a. e. s.; okla. a. e. s.; texas a. e. s.; va. a. e. s.; w. va. u. a. e. s.; cornell u. a. e. s.; r. i. col. of ag. and mech. arts e. s.; n. c. col. of ag. and mech. arts; n. y. a. e. s.; u. tenn. a. e. s.; pa. st. col. a. e. s.; mich. st. ag. col. a. e. s.; s. dak. a. e. s.; u. wyo. e. s.; b. p. i.; kans. st. ag. col. e. s.; n. j. a. e. s.; tuskegee normal & industrial inst. e. s.; s. s. e. s. clemson ag. col.; n. mex. col. of ag. and mech. arts e. s.; fla. a. e. s.; iowa ag. col. e. s.; u. minn. a. e. s.; u. nevada a. e. s.; n. dak. e. s.; oreg. a. e. s.; del. col. a. e. s.; ark. ag. col. e. s.; u. nebr. a. e. s.; ga. e. s.; md. a. e. s.; miss. ag. e. s. the entire article on vegetable garden was taken bodily from the best portions of the above bulletins, etc.) the country life press garden city, n. y. transcriber's note: for reasons of clarity the illustration labels and tables have been moved to the end of the relative paragraph. the oe ligature has been expanded. the following changes have been made: page the word 'in' was repeated and deleted. page havings is now having. page to is now too. page tumber is now number page maturty is now maturity. page conditons is now conditions. page flshy is now fleshy. page bettles is now beetles. page the word 'as' was repeated and deleted. page cutlivated is now cultivated. page necessisity is now necessity. page toughtened is now toughened. none charles franks, charles aldarondo and the online distributed proofreading team. home vegetable gardening a complete and practical guide to the planting and care of all vegetables, fruits and berries worth growing for home use by f. f. rockwell author of _around the year in the garden_, _gardening indoors and under glass_, _the key to the land,_ etc., etc. preface with some, the home vegetable garden is a hobby; with others, especially in these days of high prices, a great help. there are many in both classes whose experience in gardening has been restricted within very narrow bounds, and whose present spare time for gardening is limited. it is as "first aid" to such persons, who want to do practical, efficient gardening, and do it with the least possible fuss and loss of time, that this book is written. in his own experience the author has found that garden books, while seldom lacking in information, often do not present it in the clearest possible way. it has been his aim to make the present volume first of all practical, and in addition to that, though comprehensive, yet simple and concise. if it helps to make the way of the home gardener more clear and definite, its purpose will have been accomplished. contents chapter i introduction ii why you should garden iii requisites of the home vegetable garden iv the planting plan v implements and their uses vi manures and fertilizers vii the soil and its preparation part two--vegetables viii starting the plants ix sowing and planting x the cultivation of vegetables xi the vegetables and their special needs xii best varieties of the garden vegetables xiii insects and disease, and methods of fighting them xiv harvesting and storing part three--fruits xv the varieties of pome and stone fruits xvi planting; cultivation; filler crops xvii pruning, spraying, harvesting xviii berries and small fruits xix a calendar of operations xx conclusion chapter i introduction formerly it was the custom for gardeners to invest their labors and achievements with a mystery and secrecy which might well have discouraged any amateur from trespassing upon such difficult ground. "trade secrets" in either flower or vegetable growing were acquired by the apprentice only through practice and observation, and in turn jealously guarded by him until passed on to some younger brother in the profession. every garden operation was made to seem a wonderful and difficult undertaking. now, all that has changed. in fact the pendulum has swung, as it usually does, to the other extreme. often, if you are a beginner, you have been flatteringly told in print that you could from the beginning do just as well as the experienced gardener. my garden friend, it cannot, as a usual thing, be done. of course, it may happen and sometimes does. you _might_, being a trusting lamb, go down into wall street with $ , [ed. note: all monetary values throughout the book are values] and make a fortune. you know that you would not be likely to; the chances are very much against you. this garden business is a matter of common sense; and the man, or the woman, who has learned by experience how to do a thing, whether it is cornering the market or growing cabbages, naturally does it better than the one who has not. do not expect the impossible. if you do, read a poultry advertisement and go into the hen business instead of trying to garden. i _have_ grown pumpkins that necessitated the tearing down of the fence in order to get them out of the lot, and sometimes, though not frequently, have had to use the axe to cut through a stalk of asparagus, but i never "made $ , in ten months from an eggplant in a city back-yard." no, if you are going to take up gardening, you will have to work, and you will have a great many disappointments. all that i, or anyone else, could put between the two covers of a book will not make a gardener of you. it must be learned through the fingers, and back, too, as well as from the printed page. but, after all, the greatest reward for your efforts will be the work itself; and unless you love the work, or have a feeling that you will love it, probably the best way for you, is to stick to the grocer for your garden. most things, in the course of development, change from the simple to the complex. the art of gardening has in many ways been an exception to the rule. the methods of culture used for many crops are more simple than those in vogue a generation ago. the last fifty years has seen also a tremendous advance in the varieties of vegetables, and the strange thing is that in many instances the new and better sorts are more easily and quickly grown than those they have replaced. the new lima beans are an instance of what is meant. while limas have always been appreciated as one of the most delicious of vegetables, in many sections they could never be successfully grown, because of their aversion to dampness and cold, and of the long season required to mature them. the newer sorts are not only larger and better, but hardier and earlier; and the bush forms have made them still more generally available. knowledge on the subject of gardening is also more widely diffused than ever before, and the science of photography has helped wonderfully in telling the newcomer how to do things. it has also lent an impetus and furnished an inspiration which words alone could never have done. if one were to attempt to read all the gardening instructions and suggestions being published, he would have no time left to practice gardening at all. why then, the reader may ask at this point, another garden book? it is a pertinent question, and it is right that an answer be expected in advance. the reason, then, is this: while there are garden books in plenty, most of them pay more attention to the "content" than to the form in which it is laid before the prospective gardener. the material is often presented as an accumulation of detail, instead of by a systematic and constructive plan which will take the reader step by step through the work to be done, and make clear constantly both the principles and the practice of garden making and management, and at the same time avoid every digression unnecessary from the practical point of view. other books again, are either so elementary as to be of little use where gardening is done without gloves, or too elaborate, however accurate and worthy in other respects, for an every-day working manual. the author feels, therefore, that there is a distinct field for the present book. and, while i still have the reader by the "introduction" buttonhole, i want to make a suggestion or two about using a book like this. do not, on the one hand, read it through and then put it away with the dictionary and the family bible, and trust to memory for the instruction it may give; do not, on the other hand, wait until you think it is time to plant a thing, and then go and look it up. for instance, do not, about the middle of may, begin investigating how many onion seeds to put in a hill; you will find out that they should have been put in, in drills, six weeks before. read the whole book through carefully at your first opportunity, make a list of the things you should do for your own vegetable garden, and put opposite them the proper dates for your own vicinity. keep this available, as a working guide, and refer to special matters as you get to them. do not feel discouraged that you cannot be promised immediate success at the start. i know from personal experience and from the experience of others that "book-gardening" is a practical thing. if you do your work carefully and thoroughly, you may be confident that a very great measure of success will reward the efforts of your first garden season. and i know too, that you will find it the most entrancing game you ever played. good luck to you! chapter ii why you should garden there are more reasons to-day than ever before why the owner of a small place should have his, or her, own vegetable garden. the days of home weaving, home cheese-making, home meat-packing, are gone. with a thousand and one other things that used to be made or done at home, they have left the fireside and followed the factory chimney. these things could be turned over to machinery. the growing of vegetables cannot be so disposed of. garden tools have been improved, but they are still the same old one-man affairs--doing one thing, one row at a time. labor is still the big factor--and that, taken in combination with the cost of transporting and handling such perishable stuff as garden produce, explains why _the home gardener can grow his own vegetables at less expense than he can buy them_. that is a good fact to remember. but after all, i doubt if most of us will look at the matter only after consulting the columns of the household ledger. the big thing, the salient feature of home gardening is not that we may get our vegetables ten per cent. cheaper, but that we can have them one hundred per cent. better. even the long-keeping sorts, like squash, potatoes and onions, are very perceptibly more delicious right from the home garden, fresh from the vines or the ground; but when it comes to peas, and corn, and lettuce,--well, there is absolutely nothing to compare with the home garden ones, gathered fresh, in the early slanting sunlight, still gemmed with dew, still crisp and tender and juicy, ready to carry every atom of savory quality, without loss, to the dining table. stale, flat and unprofitable indeed, after these have once been tasted, seem the limp, travel-weary, dusty things that are jounced around to us in the butcher's cart and the grocery wagon. it is not in price alone that home gardening pays. there is another point: the market gardener has to grow the things that give the biggest yield. he has to sacrifice quality to quantity. you do not. one cannot buy golden bantam corn, or mignonette lettuce, or gradus peas in most markets. they are top quality, but they do not fill the market crate enough times to the row to pay the commercial grower. if you cannot afford to keep a professional gardener there is only one way to have the best vegetables--grow your own! and this brings us to the third, and what may be the most important reason why you should garden. it is the cheapest, healthiest, keenest pleasure there is. give me a sunny garden patch in the golden springtime, when the trees are picking out their new gowns, in all the various self-colored delicate grays and greens--strange how beautiful they are, in the same old unchanging styles, isn't it?--give me seeds to watch as they find the light, plants to tend as they take hold in the fine, loose, rich soil, and you may have the other sports. and when you have grown tired of their monotony, come back in summer to even the smallest garden, and you will find in it, every day, a new problem to be solved, a new campaign to be carried out, a new victory to win. better food, better health, better living--all these the home garden offers you in abundance. and the price is only the price of every worth-while thing--honest, cheerful patient work. but enough for now of the dream garden. put down your book. put on your old togs, light your pipe--some kind-hearted humanitarian should devise for women such a kindly and comforting vice as smoking--and let's go outdoors and look the place over, and pick out the best spot for that garden-patch of yours. chapter iii requisites of the home vegetable garden in deciding upon the site for the home vegetable garden it is well to dispose once and for all of the old idea that the garden "patch" must be an ugly spot in the home surroundings. if thoughtfully planned, carefully planted and thoroughly cared for, it may be made a beautiful and harmonious feature of the general scheme, lending a touch of comfortable homeliness that no shrubs, borders, or beds can ever produce. with this fact in mind we will not feel restricted to any part of the premises merely because it is out of sight behind the barn or garage. in the average moderate-sized place there will not be much choice as to land. it will be necessary to take what is to be had and then do the very best that can be done with it. but there will probably be a good deal of choice as to, first, exposure, and second, convenience. other things being equal, select a spot near at hand, easy of access. it may seem that a difference of only a few hundred yards will mean nothing, but if one is depending largely upon spare moments for working in and for watching the garden--and in the growing of many vegetables the latter is almost as important as the former--this matter of convenient access will be of much greater importance than is likely to be at first recognized. not until you have had to make a dozen time-wasting trips for forgotten seeds or tools, or gotten your feet soaking wet by going out through the dew-drenched grass, will you realize fully what this may mean. exposure but the thing of first importance to consider in picking out the spot that is to yield you happiness and delicious vegetables all summer, or even for many years, is the exposure. pick out the "earliest" spot you can find--a plot sloping a little to the south or east, that seems to catch sunshine early and hold it late, and that seems to be out of the direct path of the chilling north and northeast winds. if a building, or even an old fence, protects it from this direction, your garden will be helped along wonderfully, for an early start is a great big factor toward success. if it is not already protected, a board fence, or a hedge of some low-growing shrubs or young evergreens, will add very greatly to its usefulness. the importance of having such a protection or shelter is altogether underestimated by the amateur. the soil the chances are that you will not find a spot of ideal garden soil ready for use anywhere upon your place. but all except the very worst of soils can be brought up to a very high degree of productiveness-- especially such small areas as home vegetable gardens require. large tracts of soil that are almost pure sand, and others so heavy and mucky that for centuries they lay uncultivated, have frequently been brought, in the course of only a few years, to where they yield annually tremendous crops on a commercial basis. so do not be discouraged about your soil. proper treatment of it is much more important, and a garden- patch of average run-down,--or "never-brought-up" soil--will produce much more for the energetic and careful gardener than the richest spot will grow under average methods of cultivation. the ideal garden soil is a "rich, sandy loam." and the fact cannot be overemphasized that such soils usually are made, not found. let us analyze that description a bit, for right here we come to the first of the four all-important factors of gardening--food. the others are cultivation, moisture and temperature. "rich" in the gardener's vocabulary means full of plant food; more than that--and this is a point of vital importance--it means full of plant food ready to be used at once, all prepared and spread out on the garden table, or rather in it, where growing things can at once make use of it; or what we term, in one word, "available" plant food. practically no soils in long- inhabited communities remain naturally rich enough to produce big crops. they are made rich, or kept rich, in two ways; first, by cultivation, which helps to change the raw plant food stored in the soil into available forms; and second, by manuring or adding plant food to the soil from outside sources. "sandy" in the sense here used, means a soil containing enough particles of sand so that water will pass through it without leaving it pasty and sticky a few days after a rain; "light" enough, as it is called, so that a handful, under ordinary conditions, will crumble and fall apart readily after being pressed in the hand. it is not necessary that the soil be sandy in appearance, but it should be friable. "loam: a rich, friable soil," says webster. that hardly covers it, but it does describe it. it is soil in which the sand and clay are in proper proportions, so that neither greatly predominate, and usually dark in color, from cultivation and enrichment. such a soil, even to the untrained eye, just naturally looks as if it would grow things. it is remarkable how quickly the whole physical appearance of a piece of well cultivated ground will change. an instance came under my notice last fall in one of my fields, where a strip containing an acre had been two years in onions, and a little piece jutting off from the middle of this had been prepared for them just one season. the rest had not received any extra manuring or cultivation. when the field was plowed up in the fall, all three sections were as distinctly noticeable as though separated by a fence. and i know that next spring's crop of rye, before it is plowed under, will show the lines of demarcation just as plainly. this, then, will give you an idea of a good garden soil. perhaps in yours there will be too much sand, or too much clay. that will be a disadvantage, but one which energy and perseverance will soon overcome to a great extent--by what methods may be learned in chapter viii. drainage there is, however, one other thing you must look out for in selecting your garden site, and that is drainage. dig down eight or twelve inches after you have picked out a favorable spot, and examine the sub-soil. this is the second strata, usually of different texture and color from the rich surface soil, and harder than it. if you find a sandy or gravelly bed, no matter how yellow and poor it looks, you have chosen the right spot. but if it be a stiff, heavy clay, especially a blue clay, you will have either to drain it or be content with a very late garden--that is, unless you are at the top of a knoll or on a slope. chapter vii contains further suggestions in regard to this problem. soil antecedents there was a further reason for, mentioning that strip of onion ground. it is a very practical illustration of what last year's handling of the soil means to this year's garden. if you can pick out a spot, even if it is not the most desirable in other ways, that has been well enriched or cultivated for a year or two previous, take that for this year's garden. and in the meantime have the spot on which you intend to make your permanent vegetable garden thoroughly "fitted," and grow there this year a crop of potatoes or sweet corn, as suggested in chapter ix. then next year you will have conditions just right to give your vegetables a great start. other considerations there are other things of minor importance but worth considering, such as the shape of your garden plot, for instance. the more nearly rectangular, the more convenient it will be to work and the more easily kept clean and neat. have it large enough, or at least open on two ends, so that a horse can be used in plowing and harrowing. and if by any means you can have it within reach of an adequate supply of water, that will be a tremendous help in seasons of protracted drought. then again, if you have ground enough, lay off two plots so that you can take advantage of the practice of rotation, alternating grass, potatoes or corn with the vegetable garden. of course it is possible to practice crop rotation to some extent within the limits of even the small vegetable garden, but it will be much better, if possible, to rotate the entire garden-patch. all these things, then, one has to keep in mind in picking the spot best suited for the home vegetable garden. it should be, if possible, of convenient access; it should have a warm exposure and be well enriched, well worked-up soil, not too light nor too heavy, and by all means well drained. if it has been thoroughly cultivated for a year or two previous, so much the better. if it is near a supply of water, so situated that it can be at least plowed and harrowed with a horse, and large enough to allow the garden proper to be shifted every other year or two, still more the better. fill all of these requirements that you can, and then by taking full advantage of the advantages you have, you can discount the disadvantages. after all it is careful, persistent work, more than natural advantages, that will tell the story; and a good garden does _not_ grow--it is made. chapter iv the planting plan having selected the garden spot, the next consideration, naturally, is what shall be planted in it. the old way was to get a few seed catalogues, pick out a list of the vegetables most enthusiastically described by the (wholly disinterested) seedsman, and then, when the time came, to put them in at one or two plantings, and sowing each kind as far as the seed would go. there is a better way--a way to make the garden produce more, to yield things when you want them, and in the proper proportions. all these advantages, you may suppose, must mean more work. on the contrary, however, the new way makes very much less work and makes results a hundred per cent. more certain. it is not necessary even that more thought be put upon the garden, but forethought there must be. forethought, however, is much more satisfactory than hind-thought. in the new way of gardening there are four great helps, four things that will be of great assistance to the experienced gardener, and that are indispensable to the success of the beginner. they are the planting plan, the planting table, the check list and the garden record. do not become discouraged at the formidable sound of that paragraph and decide that after all you do not want to fuss so much over your garden; that you are doing it for the fun of the thing anyway, and such intricate systems will not be worth bothering with. the purpose of those four garden helps is simply to make your work less and your returns more. you might just as well refuse to use a wheel hoe because the trowel was good enough for your grandmother's garden, as to refuse to take advantage of the modern garden methods described in this chapter. without using them to some extent, or in some modified form, you can never know just what you are doing with your garden or what improvements to make next year. of course, each of the plans or lists suggested here is only one of many possible combinations. you should be able to find, or better still to construct, similar ones better suited to your individual taste, need and opportunity. that, however, does not lessen the necessity of using some such system. it is just as necessary an aid to the maximum efficiency in gardening as are modern tools. do not fear that you will waste time on the planting plan. master it and use it, for only so can you make your garden time count for most in producing results. in the average small garden there is a very large percentage of waste--for two weeks, more string beans than can be eaten or given away; and then, for a month, none at all, for instance. you should determine ahead as nearly as possible how much of each vegetable your table will require and then try to grow enough of each for a continuous supply, and no more. it is just this that the planting plan enables you to do. i shall describe, as briefly as possible, forms of the planting plan, planting table, check list and record, which i have found it convenient to use. to make the planting plan take a sheet of white paper and a ruler and mark off a space the shape of your garden--which should be rectangular if possible--using a scale of one-quarter or one-eighth inch to the foot. rows fifty feet long will be found a convenient length for the average home garden. in a garden where many varieties of things are grown it will be best to run the rows the short way of the piece. we will take a fifty-foot row for the purpose of illustration, though of course it can readily be changed in proportion where rows of that length can not conveniently be made. in a very small garden it will be better to make the row, say, twenty-five feet long, the aim being always to keep the row a unit and have as few broken ones as possible, and still not to have to plant more of any one thing than will be needed. in assigning space for the various vegetables several things should be kept in mind in order to facilitate planting, replanting and cultivating the garden. these can most quickly be realized by a glance at the plan illustrated herewith. you will notice that crops that remain several years--rhubarb and asparagus--are kept at one end. next come such as will remain a whole season--parsnips, carrots, onions and the like. and finally those that will be used for a succession of crops--peas, lettuce, spinach. moreover, tall-growing crops, like pole beans, are kept to the north of lower ones. in the plan illustrated the space given to each variety is allotted according to the proportion in which they are ordinarily used. if it happens that you have a special weakness for peas, or your mother-in-law an aversion to peppers, keep these tastes and similar ones in mind when laying out your planting plan. do not leave the planning of your garden until you are ready to put the seeds in the ground and then do it all in a rush. do it in january, as soon as you have received the new year's catalogues and when you have time to study over them and look up your record of the previous year. every hour spent on the plan will mean several hours saved in the garden. the planting table is the next important system in the business of gardening, especially for the beginner. in it one can see at a glance all the details of the particular treatment each vegetable requires-- when to sow, how deep, how far apart the rows should be, etc. i remember how many trips from garden to house to hunt through catalogues for just such information i made in my first two seasons' gardening. how much time, just at the very busiest season of the whole year, such a table would have saved! ------------------------------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------------| | |pa| | | | rhubarb- |rs| | seed bed | | |le|??| | | |y | | | |-------------------------------------------------| | asparagus- | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | pole beans- | |-------------------------------------------------| | tomatoes- | |-------------------------------------------------| | cabbage early- | | late - | |-------------------------------------------------| | broccoli- | brussels sprouts- | | peppers- | egg plant- | |-------------------------------------------------| | celery- | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | onions- - / | | leeks- / | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | carrots- | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | beets- | |-------------------------------------------------| | turnips- - / | rutabaga- / | | parsnips- | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | corn- | | | | | | | | | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | peas- | | | | | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | bush beans- | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | lettuce- | | onion sets- | endive- | |-------------------------------------------------| | muskmelons- hills | cucumbers- hills | |-------------------------------------------------| | | | | pumpkins- h | watermelons- h | | | | |-------------------------------------------------| | | summer squash, bush- h | | winter squash- h | | | | summer squash, vine- h | | | | |-------------------------------------------------| a typical planting plan. the scale measurements at the left and top indicate the length and distance apart of rows. [ed. distances are approximate, due to typing line constraints.] the planting table prepared for one's own use should show, besides the information given, the varieties of each vegetable which experience has proved best adapted to one's own needs. the table shown herewith gives such a list; varieties which are for the most part standard favorites and all of which, with me, have proven reliable, productive and of good quality. other good sorts will be found described in part two. such a table should be mounted on cardboard and kept where it may readily be referred to at planting time. the check list is the counterpart of the planting table, so arranged that its use will prevent anything from being overlooked or left until too late. prepare it ahead, some time in january, when you have time to think of everything. make it up from your planting table and from the previous year's record. from this list it will be well to put down on a sheet of paper the things to be done each month (or week) and cross them off as they are attended to. without some such system it is almost a certainty that you will overlook some important things. the garden record is no less important. it may be kept in the simplest sort of way, but be sure to keep it. a large piece of paper ruled as follows, for instance, will require only a few minutes' attention each week and yet will prove of the greatest assistance in planning the garden next season. vegetable garden record-- -------------|---------------|--------|--------|---------------------- vegetable |variety | put in | ready | notes -------------|---------------|--------|--------|---------------------- beans, dwarf |red valentine | may | july | not best quality. try | | | | other earlies |golden wax | may | july | rusted. spray next | | | | year bean, pole |old homestead | may | july | too many. poles | | | | next year |early leviathan| may | aug. | good. dry. bean, lima |fordhook | may | | rotted. try may beet |egyptian | apr. | june | roots sprangled |eclipse | apr. | june | better quality cabbage |wakefield | apr. | june | injured by worms. | | | |hellebore next year etc., etc. | | | | -------------|---------------|--------|-------|---------------------- the above shows how such a record will be kept. of course, only the first column is written in ahead. i want to emphasize in passing, however, the importance of putting down your data on the day you plant, or harvest, or notice anything worth recording. if you let it go until tomorrow it is very apt to be lacking next year. try these four short-cuts to success, even if you have had a garden before. they will make a big difference in your garden; less work and greater results. check list jan. st--send for catalogues. make planting plan and table. order seeds. feb. st--inside: cabbage, cauliflower, first sowing. onions for plants. feb. th--inside: lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, beets. march st--inside: lettuce, celery, tomato (early). march th--inside: lettuce, tomato (main), eggplant, pepper, lima beans, cucumber, squash; sprout potatoes in sand. april st--inside: cauliflower (on sods), muskmelon, watermelon, corn. outside: (seed-bed) celery, cabbage, lettuce. onions, carrots, smooth peas, spinach, beets, chard, parsnip, turnip, radish. lettuce, cabbage (plants). may st--beans, corn, spinach, lettuce, radish. may th--beans, limas, muskmelon, watermelon, summer squash, peas, potatoes, lettuce, radish, tomato (early), corn, limas, melon, cucumber and squash (plants). pole-lima, beets, corn, kale, winter squash, pumpkin, lettuce, radish. june st--beans, carrots, corn, cucumber, peas, summer spinach, summer lettuce, radish, egg-plant, pepper, tomato (main plants). june th--beans, corn, peas, turnip, summer lettuce, radish, late cabbage, and tomato plants. july st--beans, endive, kale, lettuce, radish, winter cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts and celery plants. july th--beans, early corn, early peas, lettuce, radish. aug. st--early peas, lettuce, radish. aug. th--early peas, lettuce, radish in seed-bed, forcing lettuce for fall in frames. sept. st--lettuce, radish, spinach and onions for wintering over. note.--this list is for planting only (the dates are approximate: see note i at the end of the chapter). spraying and other garden operations may also be included in such a list. see "calendar of operations" at end of book. planting table depth to -distance apart- vegetable plant[ ] sow--ins. seeds[ ] rows i. crops remaining entire season asparagus, seed april-may - in. in. asparagus, plants april ft. ft. bean, pole may -june ft. ft. bean, lima may -june ft. ft. beet, late april-august - in. in. carrot, late may-july / - - in. in. corn, late may -july ft. ft. cucumber may -july ft. ft. egg-plant, plants june - .. ft. in. leek april .. - in. in. melon, musk may -june ft. ft. melon, water may -june - ft. - ft. onion april / - - in. in. okra may -june / - ft. ft. parsley[ ] april-may / - in. ft. parsnip april / - - in. in. pepper, seed june st / - in. in. pepper, plants june - .. ft. in. potatoes, main april -june - in. in. pumpkins may -june - - ft. - ft. rhubarb, plants april .. - ft. ft. salsify april-may - in. in. squash, summer may -july - ft. ft. squash, winter may -june - - ft. - ft. tomato, seed june / - in. in. tomato, plants may -july .. ft. ft. note.--the index reference numbers refer to notes at end of chapter. ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ |seed for | | ft. | vegetable | row | varieties ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ asparagus, seed | oz. | palmetto, giant argenteuil, barr's | | mammoth asparagus, plants | | palmetto, giant argenteuil, barr's | | mammoth bean, pole | / pt. | kentucky wonder, golden, cluster, | | burger's stringless bean, lima | / pt. | early leviathan, giant podded, burpee | | improved beet, late | oz. | crimson globe carrot, late | / oz. | danver's half-long, ox-heart, chantenay corn, late | / pt. | seymour's sweet orange, white evergreen, | | country gentleman cucumber | / oz. | early white spine, fordhook famous, davis | | perfect egg-plant, plants | | black beauty, n.y. purple leek | / oz. | american flag melon, musk | / oz. | netted gem, emerald gem, hoodoo melon, water | / oz. | cole's early sweetheart, halbert honey onion | / oz. | prizetaker, danver's globe, ailsa craig, | | southport red globe, mammoth | | silverskin (white) okra | / oz. | perfected perkins, white velvet parsley | / oz. | emerald parsnip | / oz. | hollow crowned (improved) pepper, seed | / oz. | ruby king, chinese giant pepper, plants | | ruby king, chinese giant potatoes, main | / pk. | irish cobbler, green mountain, uncle sam | | (norton beauty, norwood, early) pumpkins | / oz. | large cheese, quaker pie rhubarb, plants | | myatt's victoria salsify | / oz. | mammoth sandwich squash, summer | / oz. | white bush, delicata, fordhook, vegetable | | marrow squash, winter | / oz. | hubbard, delicious tomato, seed | / oz. | earliana, chalk's jewel, matchless, dwarf | | giant tomato, plants | | earliana, chalk's jewel, matchless, dwarf | | giant ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ planting table depth to -distance apart- vegetable plant[ ] sow--ins. seeds[ ] rows ii. crops for succession plantings bean, dwarf may -aug - in. - / - ft. kohlrabi[ ] april-july / - - in. - / - ft. lettuce[ ] april-august / ft. - - / ft. peas, smooth april -aug - - in. ft. peas, wrinkled april -july - - in. - ft. radish april -sept / - in. ft. spinach april-sept - in. in. turnip april-sept / - - in. in. iii. crops to be followed by others beet, early april-june - in. in. broccoli, early[ ] april / - - / ft. ft. borecole[ ] april / - ft. - / ft. brussels sprouts[ ] april / - - / ft. ft. cabbage, early[ ] april / - - / ft. ft. carrot april / - - in. in. cauliflower[ ] april / - - / ft. ft. com, early may - ft. - ft. onion sets april-may - - in. in. peas april -may - in. ft. crops in sec. ii. iv. crops that may follow others beet, late july-august - in. in. borecole may-june[ ] / - ft. - / ft. broccoli may-june[ ] / - ft. - / ft. brussels sprouts may-june[ ] / - - / ft. - / ft. cabbage late may-june[ ] / - - / ft. - / ft. cauliflower may-june[ ] / - ft. - / ft. celery, seed april / - in. ft. celery, plant july -aug .. in. - ft. endive[ ] april-august / ft. ft. peas, late may -aug - - in. ft. crops in sec. ii. ii. crops for succession plantings ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ |seed for | | ft. | vegetable | row | varieties ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ bean, dwarf | pt. | red valentine burpee's greenpod, | | improved refugee, brittle wax, | | rust-proof golden wax, burpee's | | white wax kohlrabi | / oz | white vienna lettuce | | mignonette, grand rapids, may king, | | big boston, new york, deacon, cos, | | paris white peas, smooth | pt | american wonder peas, wrinkled | pt | gradus, boston unrivaled, quite content radish | / oz. | rapid red, crimson globe, chinese spinach | / oz. | swiss chard beet, long season, victoria turnip | / oz. | white milan, petrowski, golden ball iii. crops to be followed by others beet, early | oz. | edmund's early, early model broccoli, early | | early white french borecole | | dwarf scotch curled brussels sprouts | | dalkeith, danish prize cabbage, early | | wakefield, glory of enkhuisen, | | early summer, succession, savoy carrot | / oz. | golden ball, early scarlet horn cauliflower | | burpee's best early, snowball, sea-foam | | dry weather corn, early | / pt. | golden bantam, peep o' day, cory onion sets | pt. | peas | pt. | crops in sec. ii. iv. crops that may follow others beet, late | oz. | crimson globe borecole | | dwarf scotch curled broccoli | | early white french brussels sprouts | | dalkeith, danish prize cabbage, late | | succession, danish ballhead drumhead cauliflower | | as above [savoy, mammoth rock (red)] celery, seed | oz. | white plume, golden self-blanching, | | winter queen celery, plant | | white plume, golden self-blanching, | | winter queen endive | / oz. | broad-leaved batavian, giant fringed peas, late | pt. | gradus crops in sec. ii. reference notes from the tables in the vicinity of new york city. each miles north or south will make a difference of to days later or earlier. this is for sowing the seed. it will take three to six weeks before plants are ready. hence the advantage of using the seed-bed. for instance, you can start your late cabbage about june th, to follow the first crop of peas, which should be cleared off by the th of july. distances given are those at which the growing _plants_ should stand, after thinning. seed in drills should be sown several times as thick. best started in seed-bed, and afterward transplanted; but may be sown when wanted and afterward thinned to the best plants. chapter v implements and their uses it may seem to the reader that it is all very well to make a garden with a pencil, but that the work of transferring it to the soil must be quite another problem and one entailing so much work that he will leave it to the professional market gardener. he possibly pictures to himself some bent-kneed and stoop-shouldered man with the hoe, and decides that after all there is too much work in the garden game. what a revelation would be in store for him if he could witness one day's operations in a modern market garden! very likely indeed not a hoe would be seen during the entire visit. modern implements, within less than a generation, have revolutionized gardening. this is true of the small garden as certainly as of the large one: in fact, in proportion i am not sure but that it is more so--because of the second wonderful thing about modern garden tools, that is, the low prices at which they can be bought, considering the enormous percentage of labor saved in accomplishing results. there is nothing in the way of expense to prevent even the most modest gardener acquiring, during a few years, by the judicious expenditure of but a few dollars annually, a very complete outfit of tools that will handsomely repay their cost. while some garden tools have been improved and developed out of all resemblance to their original forms, others have changed little in generations, and in probability will remain ever with us. there is a thing or two to say about even the simplest of them, however,-- especially to anyone not familiar with their uses. there are tools for use in every phase of horticultural operations; for preparing the ground, for planting the seed, for cultivation, for protecting crops from insects and disease, and for harvesting. first of all comes the ancient and honorable spade, which, for small garden plots, borders, beds, etc., must still be relied upon for the initial operation in gardening--breaking up the soil. there are several types, but any will answer the purpose. in buying a spade look out for two things: see that it is well strapped up the handle in front and back, and that it hangs well. in spading up ground, especially soil that is turfy or hard, the work may be made easier by taking a strip not quite twice as wide as the spade, and making diagonal cuts so that one vertical edge of the spade at each thrust cuts clean out to where the soil has already been dug. the wide-tined spading-fork is frequently used instead of the spade, as it is lighter and can be more advantageously used to break up lumps and level off surfaces. in most soils it will do this work as well, if not better, than the spade and has the further good quality of being serviceable as a fork too, thus combining two tools in one. it should be more generally known and used. with the ordinary fork, used for handling manure and gathering up trash, weeds, etc., every gardener is familiar. the type with oval, slightly up-curved tines, five or six in number, and a d handle, is the most convenient and comfortable for garden use. for areas large enough for a horse to turn around in, use a plow. there are many good makes. the swivel type has the advantage of turning all the furrows one way, and is the best for small plots and sloping ground. it should turn a clean, deep furrow. in deep soil that has long been cultivated, plowing should, with few exceptions, be down at least to the subsoil; and if the soil is shallow it will be advisable to turn up a little of the subsoil, at each plowing--not more than an inch--in order that the soil may gradually be deepened. in plowing sod it will be well to have the plow fitted with a coulter, which turns a miniature furrow ahead of the plowshare, thus covering under all sods and grass and getting them out of the way of harrows and other tools to be used later. in plowing under tall-growing green manures, like rye, a heavy chain is hung from the evener to the handle, thus pulling the crop down into the furrow so that it will all be covered under. where drainage is poor it will be well to break up the subsoil with a subsoil plow, which follows in the wake of the regular plow but does not lift the subsoil to the surface. tools for preparing the seed-bed the spade or spading-fork will be followed by the hoe, or hook, and the iron rake; and the plow by one or more of the various types of harrow. the best type of hoe for use after the spade is the wide, deep-bladed type. in most soils, however, this work may be done more expeditiously with the hook or prong-hoe (see illustration). with this the soil can be thoroughly pulverized to a depth of several inches. in using either, be careful not to pull up manure or trash turned under by the spade, as all such material if left covered will quickly rot away in the soil and furnish the best sort of plant food. i should think that our energetic manufactures would make a prong-hoe with heavy wide blades, like those of the spading-fork, but i have never seen such an implement, either in use or advertised. what the prong-hoe is to the spade, the harrow is to the plow. for general purposes the acme is an excellent harrow. it is adjustable, and for ground at all mellow will be the only one necessary; set it, for the first time over, to cut in deep; and then, set for leveling, it will leave the soil in such excellent condition that a light hand- raking (or, for large areas, the meeker smoothing-harrow) will prepare it for the finest of seeds, such as onions and carrots. the teeth of the acme are so designed that they practically constitute a gang of miniature plows. of disc harrows there are a great many makes. the salient feature of the disc type is that they can tear up no manure, grass or trash, even when these are but partly turned under by the plow. for this reason it is especially useful on sod or other rough ground. the most convenient harrow for putting on the finishing touches, for leveling off and fining the surface of the soil, is the lever spike-tooth. it is adjustable and can be used as a spike-tooth or as a smoothing harrow. any of the harrows mentioned above (except the meeker) and likewise the prong-hoe, will have to be followed by the iron rake when preparing the ground for small-seeded garden vegetables. get the sort with what is termed the "bow" head (see illustration) instead of one in which the head is fastened directly to the end of the handle. it is less likely to get broken, and easier to use. there is quite a knack in manipulating even a garden rake, which will come only with practice. do not rake as though you were gathering up leaves or grass. the secret in using the garden rake is _not_ to gather things up. small stones, lumps of earth and such things, you of course wish to remove. keep these raked off ahead of where you are leveling the soil, which is accomplished with a backward-and-forward movement of the rake. the tool-house of every garden of any size should contain a seed-drill. labor which is otherwise tedious and difficult is by it rendered mere play--as well as being better done. the operations of marking the row, opening the furrow, dropping the seed at the proper depth and distance, covering immediately with fresh earth, and firming the soil, are all done at one fell swoop and as fast as you can walk. it will even drop seeds in hills. but that is not all: it may be had as part of a combination machine, which, after your seeds are planted--with each row neatly rolled on top, and plainly visible--may be at once transformed into a wheel hoe that will save you as much time in caring for your plants as the seed-drill did in planting your seed. hoeing drudgery becomes a thing of the past. the illustration herewith shows such a machine, and some of the varied attachments which may be had for it. there are so many, and so varied in usefulness, that it would require an entire chapter to detail their special advantages and methods of use. the catalogues describing them will give you many valuable suggestions; and other ways of utilizing them will discover themselves to you in your work. valuable as the wheel hoe is, however, and varied in its scope of work, the time-tried hoe cannot be entirely dispensed with. an accompanying photograph [ed. not shown here] shows four distinct types, all of which will pay for themselves in a garden of moderate size. the one on the right is the one most generally seen; next to it is a modified form which personally i prefer for all light work, such as loosening soil and cutting out weeds. it is lighter and smaller, quicker and easier to handle. next to this is the warren, or heart-shaped hoe, especially valuable in opening and covering drills for seed, such as beans, peas or corn. the scuffle-hoe, or scarifier, which completes the four, is used between narrow rows for shallow work, such as cutting off small weeds and breaking up the crust. it has been rendered less frequently needed by the advent of the wheel hoe, but when crops are too large to admit of the use of the latter, the scuffle-hoe is still an indispensable time-saver. there remains one task connected with gardening that is a bug-bear. that is hand-weeding. to get down on one's hands and knees, in the blistering hot dusty soil, with the perspiration trickling down into one's eyes, and pick small weedlets from among tender plantlets, is not a pleasant occupation. there are, however, several sorts of small weeders which lessen the work considerably. one or another of the common types will seem preferable, according to different conditions of soil and methods of work. personally, i prefer the lang's for most uses. the angle blade makes it possible to cut very near to small plants and between close-growing plants, while the strap over the back of a finger or thumb leaves the fingers free for weeding without dropping the instrument. there are two things to be kept in mind about hand-weeding which will reduce this work to the minimum. first, never let the weeds get a start; for even if they do not increase in number, if they once smother the ground or crop, you will wish you had never heard of a garden. second, do your hand-weeding while the surface soil is soft, when the weeds come out easily. a hard-crusted soil will double and treble the amount of labor required. it would seem that it should be needless, when garden tools are such savers of labor, to suggest that they should be carefully kept, always bright and clean and sharp, and in repair. but such advice is needed, to judge by most of the tools one sees. always have a piece of cloth or old bag on hand where the garden tools are kept, and never put them away soiled and wet. keep the cutting edges sharp. there is as much pleasure in trying to run a dull lawnmower as in working with a rusty, battered hoe. have an extra handle in stock in case of accident; they are not expensive. in selecting hand tools, always pick out those with handles in which the grain does not run out at the point where there will be much strain in using the tool. in rakes, hoes, etc., get the types with ferrule and shank one continuous piece, so as not to be annoyed with loose heads. spend a few cents to send for some implement catalogues. they will well repay careful perusal, even if you do not order this year. in these days of intensive advertising, the commercial catalogue often contains matter of great worth, in the gathering and presentation of which no expense has been spared. for fighting plant enemies the devices and implements used for fighting plant enemies are of two sorts:--( ) those used to afford mechanical protection to the plants; ( ) those used to apply insecticides and fungicides. of the first the most useful is the covered frame. it consists usually of a wooden box, some eighteen inches to two feet square and about eight high, covered with glass, protecting cloth, mosquito netting or mosquito wire. the first two coverings have, of course, the additional advantage of retaining heat and protecting from cold, making it possible by their use to plant earlier than is otherwise safe. they are used extensively in getting an extra early and safe start with cucumbers, melons and the other vine vegetables. simpler devices for protecting newly-set plants, such as tomatoes or cabbage, from the cut-worm, are stiff, tin, cardboard or tar paper collars, which are made several inches high and large enough to be put around the stem and penetrate an inch or so into the soil. for applying poison powders, such as dry paris green, hellebore and tobacco dust, the home gardener should supply himself with a powder gun. if one must be restricted to a single implement, however, it will be best to get one of the hand-power, compressed-air sprayers--either a knapsack pump or a compressed-air sprayer--types of which are illustrated. these are used for applying wet sprays, and should be supplied with one of the several forms of mist-making nozzles, the non- cloggable automatic type being the best. for more extensive work a barrel pump, mounted on wheels, will be desirable, but one of the above will do a great deal of work in little time. extension rods for use in spraying trees and vines may be obtained for either. for operations on a very small scale a good hand-syringe may be used, but as a general thing it will be best to invest a few dollars more and get a small tank sprayer, as this throws a continuous stream or spray and holds a much larger amount of the spraying solution. whatever type is procured, get a brass machine--it will out-wear three or four of those made of cheaper metal, which succumbs very quickly to the, corroding action of the strong poisons and chemicals used in them. of implements for harvesting, beside the spade, prong-hoe and spading- fork already mentioned, very few are used in the small garden, as most of them need not only long rows to be economically used, but horse- power also. the onion harvester attachment for the double wheel hoe, costing $ . , may be used with advantage in loosening onions, beets, turnips, etc., from the soil or for cutting spinach. running the hand- plow close on either side of carrots, parsnips and other deep-growing vegetables will aid materially in getting them out. for fruit picking, with tall trees, the wire-fingered fruit-picker, secured to the end of a long handle, will be of great assistance, but with the modern method of using low-headed trees it will not be needed. another class of garden implements are those used in pruning--but where this is attended to properly from the start, a good sharp jack-knife and a pair of pruning shears (the english makes are the best, as they are in some things, when we are frank enough to confess the truth) will easily handle all the work of the kind necessary. still another sort of garden device is that used for supporting the plants; such as stakes, trellises, wires, etc. altogether too little attention usually is given these, as with proper care in storing over winter they will not only last for years, but add greatly to the convenience of cultivation and to the neat appearance of the garden. various contrivances are illustrated in the seed catalogues, and many may be home-made--such as a stake-trellis for supporting beans. as a final word to the intending purchaser of garden tools, i would say: first thoroughly investigate the different sorts available, and when buying, do not forget that a good tool or a well-made machine will be giving you satisfactory use long, long after the price is forgotten, while a poor one is a constant source of discomfort. get good tools, and _take_ good care of them. and let me repeat that a few dollars a year, judiciously spent, for tools afterward well cared for, will soon give you a very complete set, and add to your garden profit and pleasure. chapter vi. manures and fertilizers to a very small extent garden vegetables get their food from the air. the amount obtained in this way however, is so infinitesimal that from the practical standpoint it need not be considered at all. practically speaking, your vegetables must get all their food from the garden soil. this important garden fact may seem self-evident, but, if one may judge by their practice, amateur gardeners very frequently fail to realize it. the professional gardener must come to realize it for the simple reason that if he does not he will go out of business. without an abundant supply of suitable food it is just as impossible to grow good vegetables as it would be to train a winning football team on a diet of sweet cider and angel cake. without plenty of plant food, all the care, coddling, coaxing, cultivating, spraying and worrying you may give will avail little. the soil must be rich or the garden will be poor. plant food is of as many kinds, or, more accurately speaking, in as many _forms_, as is food for human beings. but the first distinction to make in plant foods is that between available and non- available foods--that is, between foods which it is possible for the plant to use, and those which must undergo a change of some sort before the plant can take them up, assimilate them, and turn them into a healthy growth of foliage, fruit or root. it is just as readily possible for a plant to starve in a soil abounding in plant food, if that food is not available, as it would be for you to go unnourished in the midst of soups and tender meats if the latter were frozen solid. plants take all their nourishment in the form of soups, and very weak ones at that. plant food to be available must be soluble to the action of the feeding root tubes; and unless it is available it might, as far as the present benefiting of your garden is concerned, just as well not be there at all. plants take up their food through innumerable and microscopic feeding rootlets, which possess the power of absorbing moisture, and furnishing it, distributed by the plant juices, or sap, to stem, branch, leaf, flower and fruit. there is one startling fact which may help to fix these things in your memory: it takes from to pounds of water to furnish food for the building of one pound of dry plant matter. you can see why plant food is not of much use unless it is available; and it is not available unless it is soluble. the theory of manuring the food of plants consists of chemical elements, or rather, of numerous substances which contain these elements in greater or less degrees. there is not room here to go into the interesting science of this matter. it is evident, however, as we have already seen that the plants must get their food from the soil, that there are but two sources for such food: it must either be in the soil already, or we must put it there. the practice of adding plant food to the soil is what is called manuring. the only three of the chemical elements mentioned which we need consider are: nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. the average soil contains large amounts of all three, but they are for the most part in forms which are not available and, therefore, to that extent, may be at once dismissed from our consideration. (the non-available plant foods already in the soil may be released or made available to some extent by cultivation. see chapter vii.) in practically every soil that has been cultivated and cropped, in long-settled districts, the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash which are immediately available will be too meager to produce a good crop of vegetables. it becomes absolutely necessary then, if one would have a really successful garden, no matter how small it is, to add plant foods to the soil abundantly. when you realize, ( ) that the number of plant foods containing the three essential elements is almost unlimited, ( ) that each contains them in different proportions and in differing degrees of availability, ( ) that the amount of the available elements already in the soil varies greatly and is practically undeterminable, and ( ) that different plants, and even different varieties of the same plant, use these elements in widely differing proportions; then you begin to understand what a complex matter this question of manuring is and why it is so much discussed and so little understood. what a labyrinth it offers for any writer--to say nothing of the reader--to go astray in! i have tried to present this matter clearly. if i have succeeded it may have been only to make the reader hopelessly discouraged of ever getting at anything definite in the question of enriching the soil. in that case my advice would be that, for the time being, he forget all about it. fortunately, in the question of manuring, a little knowledge is not often a dangerous thing. fortunately, too, your plants do not insist that you solve the food problem for them. set a full table and they will help themselves and take the right dishes. the only thing to worry about is that of the three important foods mentioned (nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash) there will not be enough: for it has been proved that when any one of these is exhausted the plant practically stops growth; it will not continue to "fill up" on the other two. of course there is such a thing as going to extremes and wasting plant foods, even if it does not, as a rule, hurt the plants. if, however, the fertilizers and manures described in the following sections are applied as directed, and as mentioned in chapter vii., good results will be certain, provided the seed, cultivation and season are right. various manures the terms "manure" and "fertilizer" are used somewhat ambiguously and interchangeably. using the former term in a broad sense--as meaning any substance containing available plant food applied to the soil, we may say that manure is of two kinds: organic, such as stable manure, or decayed vegetable matter; and inorganic, such as potash salts, phosphatic rock and commercial mixed fertilizers. in a general way the term "fertilizer" applies to these inorganic manures, and i shall use it in this sense through the following text. between the organic manures, or "natural" manures as they are often called, and fertilizers there is a very important difference which should never be lost sight of. in theory, and as a chemical fact too, a bag of fertilizer may contain twice the available plant food of a ton of well rotted manure; but out of a hundred practical gardeners ninety- nine--and probably one more--would prefer the manure. there is a reason why--two reasons, even if not one of the hundred gardeners could give them to you. first, natural manures have a decided physical effect upon most soils (altogether aside from the plant food they contain); and second, plants seem to have a preference as to the _form_ in which their food elements are served to them. fertilizers, on the other hand, are valuable only for the plant food they contain, and sometimes have a bad effect upon the physical condition of the soil. when it comes right down to the practical question of what to put on your garden patch to grow big crops, nothing has yet been discovered that is better than the old reliable stand-by--well rotted, thoroughly fined stable or barnyard manure. heed those adjectives! we have already seen that plant food which is not available might as well be, for our immediate purposes, at the north pole. the plant food in "green" or fresh manure is not available, and does not become so until it is released by the decay of the organic matters therein. now the time possible for growing a crop of garden vegetables is limited; in many instances it is only sixty to ninety days. the plants want their food ready at once; there is no time to be lost waiting for manure to rot in the soil. that is a slow process--especially so in clayey or heavy soils. so on your garden use only manure that is well rotted and broken up. on the other hand, see that it has not "fire-fanged" or burned out, as horse manure, if piled by itself and left, is very sure to do. if you keep any animals of your own, see that the various sorts of manure --excepting poultry manure, which is so rich that it is a good plan to keep it for special purposes--are mixed together and kept in a compact, built-up square heap, not a loose pyramidal pile. keep it under cover and where it cannot wash out. if you have a pig or so, your manure will be greatly improved by the rooting, treading and mixing they will give it. if not, the pile should be turned from bottom to top and outside in and rebuilt, treading down firmly in the process, every month or two-- applying water, but not soaking, if it has dried out in the meantime. such manure will be worth two or three times as much, for garden purposes, as that left to burn or remain in frozen lumps. if you have to buy all your manure, get that which has been properly kept; and if you are not familiar with the condition in which it should be, get a disinterested gardener or farmer to select it for you. when possible, it will pay you to procure manure several months before you want to use it and work it over as suggested above. in buying manure keep in mind not what animals made it, but what food was fed--that is the important thing. for instance, the manure from highly-fed livery horses may be, weight for weight, worth three to five times that from cattle wintered over on poor hay, straw and a few roots. there are other organic manures which it is sometimes possible for one to procure, such as refuse brewery hops, fish scraps and sewage, but they are as a rule out of the reach of, or objectionable for, the purposes of the home gardener. there are, however, numerous things constantly going to waste about the small place, which should be converted into manure. fallen leaves, grass clippings, vegetable tops and roots, green weeds, garbage, house slops, dish water, chip dirt from the wood-pile, shavings--any thing that will rot away, should go into the compost heap. these should be saved, under cover if possible, in a compact heap and kept moist (never soaked) to help decomposition. to start the heap, gather up every available substance and make it into a pile with a few wheelbarrows full, or half a cartload, of fresh horse manure, treading the whole down firmly. fermentation and decomposition will be quickly started. the heap should occasionally be forked over and restacked. light dressings of lime, mixed in at such times, will aid thorough decomposition. wood ashes form another valuable manure which should be carefully saved. beside the plant food contained, they have a most excellent effect upon the mechanical condition of almost every soil. ashes should not be put in the compost heap, because there are special uses for them, such as dusting on squash or melon vines, or using on the onion bed, which makes it desirable to keep them separate. wood ashes may frequently be bought for fifty cents a barrel, and at this price a few barrels for the home garden will be a good investment. coal ashes contain practically no available plant food, but are well worth saving to use on stiff soils, for paths, etc. value of green manuring another source of organic manures, altogether too little appreciated, is what is termed "green manuring"--the plowing under of growing crops to enrich the land. even in the home garden this system should be taken advantage of whenever possible. in farm practice, clover is the most valuable crop to use for this purpose, but on account of the length of time necessary to grow it, it is useful for the vegetable garden only when there is sufficient room to have clover growing on, say, one half- acre plot, while the garden occupies, for two years, another half-acre; and then changing the two about. this system will give an ideal garden soil, especially where it is necessary to rely for the most part upon chemical fertilizers. there are, however, four crops valuable for green-manuring the garden, even where the same spot must be occupied year after year: rye, field corn, field peas (or cow peas in the south) and crimson clover. after the first of september, sow every foot of garden ground cleared of its last crop, with winter rye. sow all ground cleared during august with crimson clover and buckwheat, and mulch the clover with rough manure after the buckwheat dies down. sow field peas or corn on any spots that would otherwise remain unoccupied six weeks or more. all these are sown broadcast, on a freshly raked surface. such a system will save a very large amount of plant food which otherwise would be lost, will convert unavailable plant food into available forms while you wait for the next crop, and add _humus_ to the soil--concerning the importance of which see chapter vii. chemical fertilizers i am half tempted to omit entirely any discussion of chemical fertilizers: to give a list of them, tell how to apply them, and let the why and wherefore go. it is, however, such an important subject, and the home gardener will so frequently have to rely almost entirely upon their use, that probably it will be best to explain the subject as thoroughly as i can do it in very limited space. i shall try to give the theory of scientific chemical manuring in one paragraph. we have already seen that the soil contains within itself some available plant food. we can determine by chemical analysis the exact amounts of the various plant foods--nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, etc.--which a crop of any vegetable will remove from the soil. the idea in scientific chemical manuring is to add to the available plant foods already in the soil just enough more to make the resulting amounts equal to the quantities of the various elements used by the crop grown. in other words: ) available plant food elements in ( the soil, plus > == amounts of food elements available chemical food elements ( in matured crop supplied in fertilizers ) that was the theory--a very pretty and profound one! the discoverers of it imagined that all agriculture would be revolutionized; all farm and garden practice reduced to an exact science; all older theories of husbandry and tillage thrown by the heels together upon the scrap heap of outworn things. science was to solve at one fell swoop all the age- old problems of agriculture. and the whole thing was all right in every way but one--it didn't work. the unwelcome and obdurate fact remained that a certain number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash--about thirty-three--in a ton of good manure would grow bigger crops than would the same number of pounds of the same elements in a bag of chemical fertilizer. nevertheless this theory, while it failed as the basis of an exact agricultural science, has been developed into an invaluable guide for using all manures, and especially concentrated chemical manures. and the above facts, if i have presented them clearly, will assist the home gardener in solving the fertilizer problems which he is sure to encounter. various fertilizers what are termed the raw materials from which the universally known "mixed fertilizers" are made up, are organic or inorganic substances which contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash in fairly definite amounts. some of these can be used to advantage by themselves. those practical for use by the home gardener, i mention. the special uses to which they are adapted will be mentioned in part two, under the vegetables for which they are valuable. ground bone is rich in phosphate and lasts a long time; what is called "raw bone" is the best "bone dust" or "bone flour" is finely pulverized; it will produce quick results, but does not last as long as the coarser forms. cotton-seed meal is one of the best nitrogenous fertilizers for garden crops. it is safer than nitrate of soda in the hands of the inexperienced gardener, and decays very quickly in the soil. peruvian guano, in the pure form, is now practically out of the market. lower grades, less rich in nitrogen especially, are to be had; and also "fortified" guano, in which chemicals are added to increase the content of nitrogen. it is good for quick results. nitrate of soda, when properly handled, frequently produces wonderful results in the garden, particularly upon quick-growing crops. it is the richest in nitrogen of any chemical generally used, and a great stimulant to plant growth. when used alone it is safest to mix with an equal bulk of light dirt or some other filler. if applied pure, be sure to observe the following rules or you may burn your plants: ( ) pulverize all lumps; ( ) see that none of it lodges upon the foliage; ( ) never apply when there is moisture upon the plants; ( ) apply in many small doses--say to pounds at a time for x feet of garden. it should be put on so sparingly as to be barely visible; but its presence will soon be denoted by the moist spot, looking like a big rain drop, which each particle of it makes in the dry soil. nitrate of soda may also be used safely in solution, at the rate of pound to gallons of water. i describe its use thus at length because i consider it the most valuable single chemical which the gardener has at command. muriate and sulphate of potash are also used by themselves as sources of potash, but as a general thing it will be best to use them in combination with other chemicals as described under "home mixing." lime will be of benefit to most soils. it acts largely as an indirect fertilizer, helping to release other food elements already in the soil, but in non-available forms. it should be applied once in three to five years, at the rate of to bushels per acre, after plowing, and thoroughly harrowed in. apply as long before planting as possible, or in the fall. mixed fertilizers mixed fertilizers are of innumerable brands, and for sale everywhere. it is little use to pay attention to the claims made for them. even where the analysis is guaranteed, the ordinary gardener has no way of knowing that the contents of his few bags are what they are labeled. the best you can do, however, is to buy on the basis of analysis, not of price per ton--usually the more you pay per bag, the cheaper you are really buying your actual plant food. send to the experiment station in your state and ask for the last bulletin on fertilizer values. it will give a list of the brands sold throughout the state, the retail price per ton, and the actual value of plant foods contained in a ton. then buy the brand in which you will apparently get the greatest value. for garden crops the mixed fertilizer you use should contain (about): ) nitrogen, per cent. ( basic formula phosphoric acid, per cent. > == for potash, per cent. ( garden crops ) if applied alone, use at the rate of to pounds per acre. if with manure, less, in proportion to the amount of the latter used. by "basic formula" (see above) is meant one which contains the plant foods in the proportion which all garden crops must have. particular crops may need additional amounts of one or more of the three elements, in order to attain their maximum growth. such extra feeding is usually supplied by top dressings, during the season of growth. the extra food beneficial to the different vegetables will be mentioned in the cultural directions in part two. home mixing if you look over the experiment station report mentioned above, you will notice that what are called "home mixtures" almost invariably show a higher value compared to the cost than any regular brand. in some cases the difference is fifty per cent. this means that you can buy the raw chemicals and make up your own mixtures cheaper than you can buy mixed fertilizers. more than that, it means you will have purer mixtures. more than that, it means you will have on hand the materials for giving your crops the special feeding mentioned above. the idea widely prevails, thanks largely to the fertilizer companies, that home mixing cannot be practically done, especially upon a small scale. from both information and personal experience i know the contrary to be the case. with a tight floor or platform, a square-pointed shovel and a coarse wire screen, there is absolutely nothing impractical about it. the important thing is to see that all ingredients are evenly and thoroughly mixed. a scale for weighing will also be a convenience. further information may be had from the firms which sell raw materials, or from your experiment station. applying manures the matter of properly applying manure, even on the small garden, is also of importance. in amount, from fifteen to twenty-five cords, or to cartloads, will not be too much; although if fertilizers are used to help out, the manure may be decreased in proportion. if possible, take it from the heap in which it has been rotting, and spread evenly over the soil immediately before plowing. if actively fermenting, it will lose by being exposed to wind and sun. if green, or in cold weather, it may be spread and left until plowing is done. when plowing, it should be completely covered under, or it will give all kinds of trouble in sowing and cultivating. fertilizers should be applied, where used to supplement manure or in place of it, at from to pounds per acre, according to grade and other conditions. it is sown on broadcast, after plowing, care being taken to get it evenly distributed. this may be assured by sowing half while going across the piece, and the other half while going lengthwise of it. when used as a starter, or for top dressings--as mentioned in connection with the basic formula--it may be put in the hill or row at time of planting, or applied on the surface and worked in during the growth of the plants. in either case, especially with highly concentrated chemicals, care must be taken to mix them thoroughly with the soil and to avoid burning the tender roots. this chapter is longer than i wanted to make it, but the problem of how best to enrich the soil is the most difficult one in the whole business of gardening, and the degree of your success in growing vegetables will be measured pretty much by the extent to which you master it. you cannot do it at one reading. re-read this chapter, and when you understand the several subjects mentioned, in the brief way which limited space made necessary, pursue them farther in one of the several comprehensive books on the subject. it will well repay all the time you spend upon it. because, from necessity, there has been so much of theory mixed up with the practical in this chapter, i shall very briefly recapitulate the directions for just what to do, in order that the subject of manuring may be left upon the same practical basis governing the rest of the book. to make your garden rich enough to grow big crops, buy the most thoroughly worked over and decomposed manure you can find. if it is from grain-fed animals, and if pigs have run on it, it will be better yet. if possible, buy enough to put on at the rate of about twenty cords to the acre; if not, supplement the manure, which should be plowed under, with to pounds of high-grade mixed fertilizer (analyzing nitrogen four per cent., phosphoric acid eight per cent., potash ten per cent.)--the quantity in proportion to the amount of manure used, and spread on broadcast after plowing and thoroughly harrowed in. in addition to this general enrichment of the soil, suitable quantities of nitrate of soda, for nitrogen; bone dust (or acid phosphate), for phosphoric acid; and sulphate of potash, for potash, should be bought for later dressings, as suggested in cultural directions for the various crops. if the instructions in the above paragraph are followed out you may rest assured that your vegetables will not want for plant food and that, if other conditions are favorable, you will have maximum crops. chapter vii the soil and its preparation having considered, as thoroughly as the limited space available permitted, the matter of plant foods, we must proceed to the equally important one of how properly to set the table, on or rather in, which they must be placed, before the plants can use them. as was noted in the first part of the preceding chapter, most tillable soils contain the necessary plant food elements to a considerable extent, but only in a very limited degree in _available_ forms. they are locked up in the soil larder, and only after undergoing physical and chemical changes may be taken up by the feeding roots of plants. they are unlocked only by the disintegration and decomposition of the soil particles, under the influence of cultivation--or mechanical breaking up--and the access of water, air and heat. the great importance of the part the soil must play in every garden operation is therefore readily seen. in the first place, it is required to furnish all the plant food elements--some seven in number, beside the three, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, already mentioned. in the second, it must hold the moisture in which these foods must be either dissolved or suspended before plant roots can take them up. the soil is naturally classified in two ways: first, as to the amount of plant food contained; second, as to its mechanical condition--the relative proportions of sand, decomposed stone and clay, of which it is made up, and also the degree to which it has been broken up by cultivation. the approximate amount of available plant food already contained in the soil can be determined satisfactorily only by experiment. as before stated, however, almost without exception they will need liberal manuring to produce good garden crops. i shall therefore not go further into the first classification of soils mentioned. of soils, according to their variation in mechanical texture, i shall mention only the three which the home gardener is likely to encounter. rocks are the original basis of all soils, and according to the degree of fineness to which they have been reduced, through centuries of decomposition by air, moisture and frost, they are known as gravelly, sandy or clayey soils. clay soils are stiff, wet, heavy and usually "cold." for garden purposes, until properly transformed, they hold too much water, are difficult to handle, and are "late." but even if there be no choice but a clay soil for the home garden, the gardener need not be discouraged. by proper treatment it may be brought into excellent condition for growing vegetables, and will produce some sorts, such as celery, better than any warm, light, "garden" soil. the first thing to do with the clay soil garden, is to have it thoroughly drained. for the small amount of ground usually required for a home garden, this will entail no great expense. under ordinary conditions, a half-acre garden could be under-drained for from $ to $ --probably nearer the first figure. the drains--round drain tile, with collars--should be placed at least three feet deep, and if they can be put four, it will be much better. the lines should be, for the former depth, twenty to thirty feet apart, according to character of the soil; if four feet deep, they will accomplish just as much if put thirty to fifty feet apart--so it pays to put them in deep. for small areas - / -inch land tile will do. the round style gives the best satisfaction and will prove cheapest in the end. the outlet should of course be at the lowest point of land, and all drains, main and laterals, should fall slightly, but without exception, toward this point. before undertaking to put in the drains, even on a small area, it will pay well to read some good book on the subject, such as draining for profit and draining for health, by waring. but drain--if your land requires it. it will increase the productiveness of your garden at least to per cent.--and such an increase, as you can readily see, will pay a very handsome annual dividend on the cost of draining. moreover, the draining system, if properly put in, will practically never need renewal. on land that has a stiff or clay sub-soil, it will pay well to break this up--thus making it more possible for the water to soak down through the surface soil rapidly--by using the sub-soil plow. (see chapter v.) the third way to improve clay soils is by using coarse vegetable manures, large quantities of stable, manures, ashes, chips, sawdust, sand, or any similar materials, which will tend to break up and lighten the soil mechanically. lime and land plaster are also valuable, as they cause chemical changes which tend to break up clayey soils. the fourth thing to do in treating a garden of heavy soil is to plow, ridging up as much as possible, in the fall, thus leaving the soil exposed to the pulverizing influences of weather and frost. usually it will not need replowing in the spring. if not plowed until the spring, care should be taken not to plow until it has dried out sufficiently to crumble from the plow, instead of making a wet, pasty furrow. the owner of a clayey garden has one big consolation. it will not let his plant food go to waste. it will hold manures and fertilizers incorporated with it longer than any other soil. sandy soil is, as the term implies, composed largely of sand, and is the reverse of clay soil. so, also, with the treatment. it should be so handled as to be kept as compact as possible. the use of a heavy roller, as frequently as possible, will prove very beneficial. sowing or planting should follow immediately after plowing, and fertilizers or manures should be applied only immediately before. if clay soil is obtainable nearby, a small area of sandy soil, such as is required for the garden, can be made into excellent soil by the addition of the former, applied as you would manure. plow the garden in the fall and spread the clay soil on evenly, harrowing in with a disc in the spring. the result will be as beneficial as that of an equal dressing of good manure--and will be permanent. it is one of the valuable qualities of lime, and also of gypsum to even a greater extent, that while it helps a clay soil, it is equally valuable for a sandy one. the same is true of ashes and of the organic manures--especially of green manuring. fertilizers, on sandy soils, where they will not long be retained, should be applied only immediately before planting, or as top and side dressing during growth. sandy soil in the garden will produce early and quick results, and is especially adapted to melons, cucumbers, beans and a number of the other garden vegetables. gravelly soil is generally less desirable than either of the others; it has the bad qualities of sandy soil and not the good ones of clay, besides being poorer in plant food. (calcareous, or limestone pebble, soils are an exception, but they are not widely encountered.) they are not suited for garden work, as tillage harms rather than helps them. the ideal garden soil is what is known as a "rich, sandy loam," at least eight inches deep; if it is eighteen it will be better. it contains the proper proportions of both sand and clay, and further has been put into the best of mechanical condition by good tilth. that last word brings us to a new and very important matter. "in good tilth" is a condition of the soil difficult to describe, but a state that the gardener comes soon to recognize. ground, continually and _properly cultivated_, comes soon to a degree of fineness and lightness at once recognizable. rain is immediately absorbed by it, and does not stand upon the surface; it does not readily clog or pack down; it is crumbly and easily worked; and until your garden is brought to this condition you cannot attain the greatest success from your efforts. i emphasized "properly cultivated." that means that the soil must be kept well supplied with humus, or decomposed vegetable matter, either by the application of sufficient quantities of organic manures, or by green manuring, or by "resting under grass," which produces a similar result from the amount of roots and stubble with which the soil is filled when the sod is broken up. only by this supply of humus can the garden be kept in that light, friable, spongy condition which is absolutely essential to luxuriant vegetable growth. preparing the soil unless your garden be a very small one indeed, it will pay to have it plowed rather than dug up by hand. if necessary, arrange the surrounding fence as suggested in the accompanying diagram, to make possible the use of a horse for plowing and harrowing. (as suggested in the chapter on implements), if there is not room for a team, the one- horse plow, spring-tooth and spike-tooth cultivators, can do the work in very small spaces. if however the breaking up of the garden must be done by hand, have it done deeply--down to the sub-soil, or as deep as the spading-fork will go. and have it done thoroughly, every spadeful turned completely and every inch dug. it is hard work, but it must not be slighted. plowing if the garden can be plowed in the fall, by all means have it done. if it is in sod, it must be done at that time if good results are to be secured the following season. in this latter case, plow a shallow furrow four to six inches deep and turning flat, as early as possible in the fall, turning under a coating of horse manure, or dressing of lime, and then going over it with a smoothing-harrow or the short blades of the acme, to fill in all crevices. the object of the plowing is to get the sods rotted thoroughly before the following spring; then apply manure and plow deeply, six to twelve inches, according to the soil. where the old garden is to be plowed up, if there has not been time to get in one of the cover crops suggested elsewhere in this text, plow as late as possible, and in ridges. if the soil is light and sandy, fall plowing will not be advisable. in beginning the spring work it is customary to put on the manure and plow but once. but the labor of double plowing will be well repaid, especially on a soil likely to suffer from drouth, if the ground be plowed once, deeply, before the manure is spread on, and then cross- plowed just sufficiently to turn the manure well under--say five or six inches. on stiff lands, and especially for root crops, it will pay if possible to have the sub-soil plow follow the regular plow. this is, of course, for thoroughly rotted and fined manure; if coarse, it had better be put under at one plowing, making the best of a handicap. if you have arranged to have your garden plowed "by the job," be on hand to see that no shirking is done, by taking furrows wider than the plow can turn completely; it is possible to "cut and cover" so that the surface of a piece will look well enough, when in reality it is little better than half plowed. harrowing that is the first step toward the preparation of a successful garden out of the way. next comes the harrowing; if the soil after plowing is at all stiff and lumpy, get a disc-harrow if you can; on clayey soils a "cut-a-way" (see implements). on the average garden soil, however, the acme will do the work of pulverizing in fine shape. if, even after harrowing, the soil remains lumpy, have the man who is doing your work get a horse-roller somewhere, and go over the piece with that. the roller should be used also on very sandy and light soils, after the first harrowing (or after the plowing, if the land turns over mellow) to compact it. to follow the first harrowing (or the roller) use a smoothing-harrow, the acme set shallow, or a "brush." fining. this treatment will reduce to a minimum the labor of finally preparing the seed- or plant-bed with the iron rake (or, on large gardens, with the meeker harrow). after the finishing touches, the soil should be left so even and smooth that you can with difficulty bring yourself to step on it. get it "like a table"--and then you are ready to begin gardening. whatever implements are used, do not forget the great importance of making the soil thoroughly fine, not only at the surface, but as far as possible below even under the necessity of repetition. i want to emphasize this again by stating the four chief benefits, of this thorough pulverization: first, it adds materially in making the plant foods in the soil available for use; secondly, it induces the growing plants to root deeply, and thus to a greater extent to escape the drying influence of the sun; thirdly, it enables the soil to absorb rain evenly, where it falls, which would otherwise either run off and be lost altogether, or collect in the lower parts of the garden; and last, and most important, it enables the soil to retain moisture thus stored, as in a subterranean storage tank, but where the plants can draw upon it, long after carelessly prepared and shallow soils are burning up in the long protracted drouths which we seem to be increasingly certain of getting during the late summer. prepare your garden deeply, thoroughly, carefully, in addition to making it rich, and you may then turn to those more interesting operations outlined in the succeeding sections, with the well founded assurance that your thought and labor will be rewarded by a garden so remarkably more successful than the average garden is, that all your extra pains-taking will be richly repaid. part two--vegetables chapter viii. starting the plants this beautifully prepared garden spot--or rather the plant food in it-- is to be transformed into good things for your table, through the ever wonderful agency of plant growth. the thread of life inhering in the tiniest seed, in the smallest plant, is the magic wand that may transmute the soil's dull metal into the gold of flower and fruit. all the thought, care and expense described in the preceding chapters are but to get ready for the two things from which your garden is to spring, in ways so deeply hidden that centuries of the closest observation have failed to reveal their inner workings. those two are seeds and plants. (the sticklers for technical exactness will here take exception, calling our attention to tubers, bulbs, corns and numerous other taverns where plant life puts up over night, between growth and growth, but for our present purpose we need not mind them.) the plants which you put out in your garden will have been started under glass from seed, so that, indirectly, everything depends on the seed. good seeds, and true, you must have if your garden is to attain that highest success which should be our aim. seeds vary greatly--very much more so than the beginner has any conception of. there are three essentials; if seeds fail in any one of them, they will be rendered next to useless. first, they must be true; selected from good types of stock and true to name; then they must have been good, strong, plump seeds, full of life and gathered from healthy plants; and finally, they must be fresh. [footnote: see table later this chapter] it is therefore of vital importance that you procure the best seeds that can be had, regardless of cost. poor seeds are dear at any price; you cannot afford to accept them as a gift. it is, of course, impossible to give a rule by which to buy good seed, but the following suggestions will put you on the safe track. first, purchase only of some reliable mail-order house; do not be tempted, either by convenience or cheapness, to buy the gaily lithographed packets displayed in grocery and hardware stores at planting time--as a rule they are not reliable; and what you want for your good money is good seed, not cheap ink. second, buy of seedsmen who make a point of growing and testing their own seed. third, to begin with, buy from several houses and weed out to the one which proves, by actual results, to be the most reliable. another good plan is to purchase seed of any particular variety from the firm that makes a leading specialty of it; in many cases these specialties have been introduced by these firms and they grow their own supplies of these seeds; they will also be surer of being true to name and type. good plants are, in proportion to the amounts used, just as important as good seed--and of course you cannot afford losing weeks of garden usefulness by growing entirely from seed sown out-doors. beets, cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, tomatoes, peppers, egg-plant, and for really efficient gardening, also onions, corn, melons, celery, lima beans, cucumbers, and squash, will all begin their joyous journey toward the gardener's table several weeks before they get into the garden at all. they will all be started under glass and have attained a good, thrifty, growing size before they are placed in the soil we have been so carefully preparing for them. it is next to impossible to describe a "good" vegetable plant, but he who gardens will come soon to distinguish between the healthy, short-jointed, deep-colored plant which is ready to take hold and grow, and the soft, flabby (or too succulent) drawn-up growth of plants which have been too much pampered, or dwarfed, weazened specimens which have been abused and starved; he will learn that a dozen of the former will yield more than fifty of the latter. plants may be bought of the florist or market gardener. if so, they should be personally selected, some time ahead, and gotten some few days before needed for setting out, so that you may be sure to have them properly "hardened off," and in the right degree of moisture, for transplanting, as will be described later. by far the more satisfactory way, however, is to grow them yourself. you can then be sure of having the best of plants in exactly the quantities and varieties you want. they will also be on hand when conditions are just right for setting them out. for the ordinary garden, all the plants needed may be started successfully in hotbeds and cold-frames. the person who has had no experience with these has usually an exaggerated idea of their cost and of the skill required to manage them. the skill is not as much a matter of expert knowledge as of careful regular care, daily. only a few minutes a day, for a few sash, but every day. the cost need be but little, especially if one is a bit handy with tools. the sash which serves for the cover, and is removable, is the important part of the structure. sash may be had, ready glazed and painted, at from $ . to $ . each, and with care they will last ten or even twenty years, so you can see at once that not a very big increase in the yield of your garden will be required to pay interest on the investment. or you can buy the sash unglazed, at a proportionately lower price, and put the glass in yourself, if you prefer to spend a little more time and less money. however, if you are not familiar with the work, and want only a few sash, i would advise purchasing the finished article. in size they are three feet by six. frames upon which to put the sash covering may also be bought complete, but here there is a chance to save money by constructing your own frames--the materials required, being x in. lumber for posts, and inch-boards; or better, if you can easily procure them, plank x in. so far as these materials go the hotbed and coldframe are alike. the difference is that while the coldframe depends for its warmth upon catching and holding the heat of the sun's rays, the hotbed is artificially heated by fermenting manure, or in rare instances, by hot water or steam pipes. in constructing the hotbed there are two methods used; either by placing the frames on top of the manure heap or by putting the manure within the frames. the first method has the advantage of permitting the hotbed to be made upon frozen ground, when required in the spring. the latter, which is the better, must be built before the ground freezes, but is more economical of manure. the manure in either case should be that of grain-fed horses, and if a small amount of straw bedding, or leaves--not more, however, than one-third of the latter--be mixed among it, so much the better. get this manure several days ahead of the time wanted for use and prepare by stacking in a compact, tramped-down heap. turn it over after three or four days, and re-stack, being careful to put the former top and sides of the pile now on the inside. having now ready the heating apparatus and the superstructure of our miniature greenhouse, the building of it is a very simple matter. if the ground is frozen, spread the manure in a low, flat heap--nine or ten feet side, a foot and a half deep, and as long as the number of sash to be used demands--a cord of manure thus furnishing a bed for about three sash, not counting for the ends of the string or row. this heap should be well trodden down and upon it should be placed or built the box or frame upon which the sash are to rest. in using this method it will be more convenient to have the frame made up beforehand and ready to place upon the manure, as shown in one of the illustrations. this should be at least twelve inches high at the front and some half a foot higher at the back. fill in with at least four inches--better six --of good garden soil containing plenty of humus, that it may allow water to soak through readily. the other method is to construct the frames on the ground before severe freezing, and in this case the front should be at least twenty-four inches high, part of which--not more than half--may be below the ground level. the x in. planks, when used, are handled as follows: stakes are driven in to support the back plank some two or three inches above the ground,--which should, of course, be level. the front plank is sunk two or three inches into the ground and held upright by stakes on the outside, nailed on. remove enough dirt from inside the frame to bank up the planks about halfway on the outside. when this banking has frozen to a depth of two or three inches, cover with rough manure or litter to keep frost from striking through. the manure for heating should be prepared as above and put in to the depth of a foot, trodden down, first removing four to six inches of soil to be put back on top of the manure,--a cord of the latter, in this case, serving seven sashes. the vegetable to be grown, and the season and climate, will determine the depth of manure required--it will be from one to two feet,--the latter depth seldom being necessary. it must not be overlooked that this manure, when spent for heating purposes, is still as good as ever to enrich the garden, so that the expense of putting it in and removing it from the frames is all that you can fairly charge up against your experiment with hotbeds, if you are interested to know whether they really pay. the exposure for the hotbeds should be where the sun will strike most directly and where they will be sheltered from the north. put up a fence of rough boards, five or six feet high, or place the frames south of some building. the coldframe is constructed practically as in the hotbed, except that if manure is used at all it is for the purpose of enriching the soil where lettuce, radishes, cucumbers or other crops are to be grown to maturity in it. if one can put up even a very small frame greenhouse, it will be a splendid investment both for profit and for pleasure. the cost is lower than is generally imagined, where one is content with a home-made structure. look into it. preparing the soil all this may seem like a lot of trouble to go to for such a small thing as a packet of seed. in reality it is not nearly so much trouble as it sounds, and then, too, this is for the first season only, a well built frame lasting for years--forever, if you want to take a little more time and make it of concrete instead of boards. but now that the frame is made, how to use it is the next question. the first consideration must be the soil. it should be rich, light, friable. there are some garden loams that will do well just as taken up, but as a rule better results will be obtained where the soil is made up specially as follows: rotted sods two parts, old rotted manure one part, and enough coarse sand added to make the mixture fine and crumbly, so that, even when moist, it will fall apart when pressed into a ball in the hand. such soil is best prepared by cutting out sod, in the summer, where the grass is green and thick, indicating a rich soil. along old fences or the roadside where the wash has settled will be good places to get limited quantities. those should be cut with considerable soil and stacked, grassy sides together, in layers in a compost pile. if the season proves very dry, occasionally soak the heap through. in late fall put in the cellar, or wherever solid freezing will not take place, enough to serve for spring work under glass. the amount can readily be calculated; soil for three sash, four inches deep, for instance, would take eighteen feet or a pile three feet square and two feet high. the fine manure (and sand, if necessary) may be added in the fall or when using in the spring. here again it may seem to the amateur that unnecessary pains are being taken. i can but repeat what has been suggested all through this book, that it will require but little more work to do the thing the best way as long as one is doing it at all, and the results will be not only better, but practically certain--and that is a tremendously important point about all gardening operations. sowing the seed having now our frames provided and our soil composed properly and good strong tested seed on hand, we are prepared to go about the business of growing our plants with a practical certainty of success--a much more comfortable feeling than if, because something or other had been but half done, we must anxiously await results and the chances of having the work we had put into the thing go, after all, for nothing. the seed may be sown either directly in the soil or in "flats." flats are made as follows: get from your grocer a number of cracker boxes, with the tops. saw the boxes lengthwise into sections, a few two inches deep and the rest three. one box will make four or five such sections, for two of which bottoms will be furnished by the bottom and top of the original box. another box of the same size, knocked apart, will furnish six bottoms more to use for the sections cut from the middle of the box. the bottoms of all, if tight, should have, say, five three- quarter-inch holes bored in them to allow any surplus water to drain off from the soil. the shallow flats may be used for starting the seed and the three-inch ones for transplanting. where sowing but a small quantity of each variety of seed, the flats will be found much more convenient than sowing directly in the soil--and in the case of their use, of course, the soil on top of the manure need be but two or three inches deep and not especially prepared. where the seed is to go directly into the frames, the soil described above is, of course, used. but when in flats, to be again transplanted, the soil for the first sowing will be better for having no manure in it, the idea being to get the hardest, stockiest growth possible. soil for the flats in which the seeds are to be planted should be, if possible, one part sod, one part chip dirt or leaf mould, and one part sand. the usual way of handling the seed flats is to fill each about one- third full of rough material--screenings, small cinders or something similar--and then fill the box with the prepared earth, which should first be finely sifted. this, after the seeds are sown, should be copiously watered--with a fine rose spray, or if one has not such, through a folded bag to prevent the washing of the soil. here is another way which i have used recently and, so far, with one hundred per cent, certainty of results. last fall, when every bit of soil about my place was ash dry, and i had occasion to start immediately some seeds that were late in reaching me, my necessity mothered the following invention, an adaptation of the principle of sub-irrigation. to have filled the flats in the ordinary way would not have done, as it would have been impossible ever to wet the soil through without making a solid mud cake of it, in which seeds would have stood about as good a chance of doing anything as though not watered at all. i filled the flats one-third full of sphagnum moss, which was soaked, then to within half an inch of the top with soil, which was likewise soaked, and did not look particularly inviting. the flats were then filled level-full of the dust-dry soil, planted, and put in partial shade. within half a day the surface soil had come to just the right degree of moisture, soaked up from below, and there was in a few days more a perfect stand of seedlings. i have used this method in starting all my seedlings this spring--some forty thousand, so far--only using soil screenings, mostly small pieces of decayed sod, in place of the moss and giving a very light watering in the surface to make it compact and to swell the seed at once. two such flats are shown [ed., unable to recreate in typed format], just ready to transplant. the seedlings illustrated in the upper flat had received just two waterings since being planted. where several hundred or more plants of each variety are wanted, sow the seed broadcast as evenly as possible and fairly thick--one ounce of cabbage, for instance, to three to five x inch flats. if but a few dozen, or a hundred, are wanted, sow in rows two or three inches apart, being careful to label each correctly. before sowing, the soil should be pressed firmly into the corners of the flats and leveled off perfectly smooth with a piece of board or shingle. press the seed evenly into the soil with a flat piece of board, cover it lightly, one- eighth to one-quarter inch, with sifted soil, press down barely enough to make smooth, and water with a very fine spray, or through burlap. for the next two days the flats can go on a pretty hot surface, if one is available, such as hot water or steam pipes, or top of a boiler, but if these are not convenient, directly into the frame, where the temperature should be kept as near as possible to that indicated in the following table. in from two to twelve days, according to temperature and variety, the little seedlings will begin to appear. in case the soil has not been made quite friable enough, they will sometimes "raise the roof" instead of breaking through. if so, see that the surface is broken up at once, with the fingers and a careful watering, as otherwise many of the little plants may become bent and lanky in a very short time. from now on until they are ready to transplant, a period of some three or four weeks, is the time when they will most readily be injured by neglect. there are things you will have to look out for, and your attention must be regular to the matters of temperature, ventilation and moisture. vegetable date to sow seed will best temperature to keep germinate (about) (about) beets feb. -apr. years degrees broccoli feb. -apr. years degrees brussels sprouts feb. -apr. years degrees cabbage feb. -apr. years degrees cauliflower feb. -apr. years degrees celery feb. -apr. years degrees corn apr. -may years degrees cucumber mar. -may years degrees egg-plant mar. -apr. years degrees kohlrabi mar. -apr. years degrees lettuce feb. -apr. years degrees melon, musk apr. -may years degrees melon, water apr. -may years degrees okra mar. -apr. years degrees onion jan. -mar. years degrees pepper mar. -apr. years degrees squash mar. -apr. years degrees tomato mar. -apr. years degrees the temperatures required by the different varieties will be indicated by the table above. it should be kept as nearly as possible within ten degrees lower and fifteen higher (in the sun) than given. if the nights are still cold, so that the mercury goes near zero, it will be necessary to provide mats or shutters (see illustrations) to cover the glass at night. or, better still, for the few earliest frames, have double-glass sash, the dead-air space making further protection unnecessary. ventilation: on all days when the temperature within the frame runs up to sixty to eighty degrees, according to variety, give air, either by tilting the sash up at the end or side, and holding in position with a notched stick; or, if the outside temperature permits, strip the glass off altogether. watering: keep a close watch upon the conditions of the soil, especially if you are using flats instead of planting directly in the soil. wait until it is fairly dry--never until the plants begin to wilt, however--and then give a thorough soaking, all the soil will absorb. if at all possible do this only in the morning (up to eleven o'clock) on a bright sunny day. plants in the seedling state are subject to "damping off"--a sudden disease of the stem tissue just at or below the soil, which either kills the seedlings outright, or renders them worthless. some authorities claim that the degree of moisture or dampness has nothing to do with this trouble. i am not prepared to contradict them, but as far as my own experience goes i am satisfied that the drier the stems and leaves can be kept, so long as the soil is in good condition, the better. i consider this one of the advantages of the "sub-irrigation" method of preparing the seed flats, described above. transplanting: under this care the little seedlings will come along rapidly. when the second true leaf is forming they will be ready for transplanting or "pricking off," as it is termed in garden parlance. if the plants are at all crowded in the boxes, this should be done just as soon as they are ready, as otherwise they will be injured by crowding and more likely to damp off. boxes similar to the seed-flats, but an inch deeper, are provided for transplanting. fill these with soil as described for frames--sifted through a coarse screen (chicken-wire size) and mixed with one-third rotted manure. or place an inch of manure, which must be so thoroughly rotted that most of the heat has left, in the bottom, and fill in with soil. find or construct a table or bench of convenient height, upon which to work. with a flat piece of stick or one of the types of transplanting forks lift from the seedling box a clump of seedlings, dirt and all, clear to the bottom. hold this clump in one hand and with the other gently tear away the seedlings, one at a time, discarding all crooked or weak ones. never attempt to pull the seedlings from the soil in the flats, as the little rootlets are very easily broken off. they should come away almost intact. water your seed-flats the day previous to transplanting, so that the soil will be in just the right condition, neither wet enough to make the roots sticky nor dry enough to crumble away. take the little seedling by the stem between thumb and forefinger, and with a small round pointed stick or dibber, or with the forefinger of the other hand, make a hole to receive the roots and about half the length--more if the seedlings are lanky--of the stem. as the seedling drops into place, the tips of both thumbs and forefingers, by one quick, firm movement, compress the earth firmly both down on the roots and against the stem, so that the plant sticks up firmly and may not be readily pulled out. of course there is a knack about it which cannot be put into words--i could have pricked off a hundred seedlings in the time i am spending in trying to describe the operation, but a little practice will make one reasonably efficient at it. in my own work this spring, i have applied the "sub-irrigation" idea to this operation also. the manure placed in the bottom of the boxes is thoroughly watered and an inch of soil put in and watered also, and the box then filled and the plants pricked in. by preparing a number of flats at one time, but little additional work is required, and the results have convinced me that the extra trouble is well worth while. of the early cabbage and cauliflower, not two plants in a thousand have dropped out. ordinarily about one hundred plants are put in a x inch flat, but if one has room and is growing only a few plants for home use, somewhat better plants may be had if fifty or seventy-five are put in. in either case keep the outside rows close to the edges of the flats, as they will have plenty of room anyway. when the flat is completed, jar the box slightly to level the surface, and give a thorough watering at once, being careful, however, to bend down the plants as little as possible. set the flats close together on a level surface, and, if the weather is bright, shade from the sun during the middle of the day for two or three days. from now on keep at the required temperature and water thoroughly on bright mornings as often as the soil in the flats gets on the dry side, as gardeners say--indicated by the whitening and crusting of the surface. above all, give all the air possible while maintaining the necessary temperature. the quality of the plants will depend more upon this than anything else in the way of care. whenever the temperature allows, strip off the sash and let the plants have the benefit of the rains. a good rain seems to do them more good than any watering. should your plants of cabbage, lettuce, beets or cauliflower by any chance get frozen, do not give them up for lost, for the chances are that the following simple treatment will pull them through: in the first place, shade them thoroughly from the sun; in the second, drench them with cold water, the coldest you can get--if you have to break the ice for it, so much the better. try, however, to prevent its happening again, as they will be less able to resist subsequent injury. in hot weather, where watering and ventilation are neglected, the plants will sometimes become infested with the green aphis, which under such conditions multiplies with almost incredible rapidity. hardening off: for five days or a week before setting plants in the field they should be thoroughly hardened off. if they have been given plenty of air this treatment will mean little change for them--simply exposing them more each day, until for a few nights they are left entirely without protection. they will then be ready for setting out in the open, an operation which is described in the next chapter. starting plants outside much of the above is applicable also to the starting of plants out-of- doors, for second and for succession crops, such as celery and late cabbage. select for the outside seed-bed the most thoroughly pulverized spot to be found, enriched and lightened with fine manure. mark off rows a foot apart, and to the necessary depth; sow the seed evenly; firm in if the soil is dry, cover lightly with the back of the rake and roll or smooth with the back of the spade, or of a hoe, along the drills. the seed, according to variety, will begin to push through in from four to twenty days. at all times keep the seed-bed clear of weeds; and keep the soil between the rows constantly cultivated. not unless it is very dry will watering be necessary, but if it is required, give a thorough soaking toward evening. as the cabbage, celery and similar plants come along it will add to their sturdiness and stockiness to shear off the tops--about half of the large leaves--once or twice after the plants have attained a height of about six inches. if the precautions concerning seed and soil which i have given are heeded and the details of the work of planting, transplanting and care are carried out, planting time (april) will find the prospective gardener with a supply of good, stocky, healthy plants on hand, and impatient to get them into that carefully prepared garden spot. all of this work has been--or should have been--interesting, but that which follows in the next chapter is more so. chapter ix sowing and planting the importance of having good seeds has already been declared. they must not only grow, but grow into what we have bought them for--be true to name. without the latter quality we cannot be sure of good gardens, and without the former they will not be full ones. a meagre "stand" from seeds properly sown is a rather exasperating and discouraging experience to encounter. the cost for fertilizing and preparing the land is just as much, and the cost of cultivating very nearly as much, when the rows are full of thrifty plants or strung out with poor ones. whether you use ten cents' worth or ten dollars' worth, the best seed to be had will be the most economical to buy--to say nothing of the satisfaction that full rows give. and yet good seedsmen are more thoughtlessly and unjustly abused in the matter of seed vitality than in any other. inexperienced gardeners seem universally to have the conviction that the only thing required in seed sowing is to cover the seed with soil. what sort of soil it is, or in what condition, or at what depth or temperature the seed is planted, are questions about which they do not trouble themselves to think. two conditions--moisture and warmth--are necessary to induce germination of seeds, no matter how full of life they may be; and as was shown in the preceding chapter the different varieties have some choice as to the degree of each, especially of temperature. this means of course that some commonsense must be used in planting, and when planting outdoors, where we cannot regulate the temperature to our need, we simply must regulate our seed sowing to its dictates, no matter how impatient we may be. to insure the best possible germination, and thus the best gardening, we must, first of all then, settle the question of temperature when sowing out-of-doors. for practical work it serves to divide the garden vegetables into two groups, though in planting, the special suggestions in the following chapter should be consulted. when to sow outdoors sow from the end of march to the beginning of may, or when plum and peach trees bloom, the following: beet cabbage carrot cauliflower celery endive kale kohlrabi lettuce onions parsley parsnip peas radish spinach turnip water-cress sow from the beginning of may to the middle of june, or when apple trees bloom, the following: beans corn cucumber melon, musk melon, water okra pumpkin squash tomato getting the seed to sprout, however, is only the first step in the game; they must be provided with the means of immediately beginning to grow. this means that they should not be left to germinate in loosely packed soil, full of air spaces, ready to dry out at the first opportunity, and to let the tiny seed roots be shriveled up and die. the soil should touch the seed--be pressed close about it on all sides, so that the first tiny tap root will issue immediately into congenial surroundings where it can instantly take hold. such conditions can be found only in a seed-bed fine but light enough to pack, reasonably rich and sufficiently moist, and where, in addition to this, the seed has been properly planted. methods of planting the seed-bed, as it is called, is the surface prepared to receive the seed, whether for a patch of radishes or an acre of onions. for crops to be sown directly where they are to go, the chapter on preparation of the soil takes us to this point, and as stated at the conclusion of that chapter, the final preparation of the bed should be made only immediately prior to its use. having, then, good seeds on hand and the soil properly prepared to receive them, the only problem remaining is what way they shall be put in. the different habits of growth characteristic of different plants make it patent at the outset that there must be different methods of planting, for very evidently a cabbage, which occupies but three or four square feet of space and stays in one place to make a head, will not require the same treatment as a winter squash, roaming all over the garden and then escaping under the fence to hide some of its best fruit in the tall grass outside. the three systems of planting usually employed are known as "drills," "rows" and "hills." i do not remember ever seeing a definition giving the exact distinctions between them; and in horticultural writing they seem to be used, to some extent at least, interchangeably. as a rule "drills" refer to the growing of plants continuously in rows, such as onions, carrots or spinach. "rows" refer to the growing of plants at fixed distances apart in the rows such as cabbage, or potatoes--the cultivation, except hand weeding and hoeing, being all done in one direction, as with drills. "hills" refer to the growing of plants usually at equal distances, four feet or more apart each way, with cultivating done in both directions, as with melons and squashes. i describe the different methods at length so that the reader may know more definitely just what is meant by the special instructions given in the following text. sowing the seed if one observes the suggestions as to temperature just given, and the following precautions in placing the seed within the soil, failure of good seed to germinate is practically impossible. in the first place, plant _on a freshly prepared surface_, always just before a rain if possible, except in the case of very small seeds, when just after a rain will be better. if the soil is at all dry, or likely to be followed by a spell of hot, dry weather, always firm by using the back of the hoe for small seed, or the ball of the foot for larger ones, such as peas, beans or corn, to press the seed firmly and evenly into the soil before covering. then when the soil is covered in over the seed, firm along the top of the row very lightly, just enough to mark it and hold the soil in place. the depth of the drill furrow in which the seed is to be sown will depend ( ) on the variety of vegetable, ( ) on the season of planting, and ( ) on weather conditions. remember that the seed must be supplied with moisture both to germinate and to continue to exist after germination; and also that it must have soil through which the air can to some extent penetrate. keeping these things in mind, common sense dictates that seed planted in the spring, or during a wet spell of weather, will not need to be put in as deeply as should the same seed in summer or early autumn, or during a hot, dry spell. the old general rule is, to cover seed planted under glass, where the moisture can be controlled, to a depth of two or three times its diameter; and out-of-doors, to four or five times. i should say these depths were the minimums desirable. in other words, the smallest seed, such as onion, carrot, lettuce, will go in one-quarter to one-half inch deep. beets, spinach, parsnips and other medium-sized seed one-half to one inch deep, and peas, beans, corn, etc., two to four inches deep-- usually near the first figure. after the seed is sown it is of course desirable to keep the ground from baking or crusting on top, as it is likely to do after a morning rain followed directly by hot sun. if the seed sprouts have not yet reached the surface of the soil, rake very lightly across the rows with an iron rake; if they have broken through, work as close as possible to the row. the best implement i have ever seen for this purpose is the disc attachment of the double wheel hoe--see implements. an ordinarily good garden loam, into which the desirable quantity of short manure has been worked, will give little trouble by raking. in a clay soil, it often will pay, on a small scale, to sift leaf mould, sphagnum moss, or some other light porous covering, over the rows, especially for small seed. the special seed-bed, for starting late cabbage or celery, may easily be sheltered. in very hot, dry weather this method will be a great help. setting out plants the reader has not forgotten, of course, that plants as well as seeds must go into the well managed garden. we have already mentioned the hardening-off process to which they must be subjected before going into the open ground. the flats should also be given a copious watering several hours, or the day before, setting out. all being ready, with your rows made straight and marked off at the correct distances, lift out the plants with a trowel or transplanting fork, and tear or cut them apart with a knife, keeping as much soil as possible with each ball of roots. distribute them at their positions, but not so many at a time that any will dry out before you get them in place. get down on your hands and knees, and, straddling the row, proceed to "set." with the left hand, or a trowel or dibber if the ground is not soft, make a hole large enough to take the roots and the better part of the stem, place the plant in position and firm into place by bearing down with the backs of the knuckles, on either side. proceed so to the end of the row, being careful to keep your toes from undoing your good work behind you, and then finish the job by walking back over the row, still further firming in each plant by pressing down the soil at either side of the stem simultaneously with the balls of the feet. when all the rows are completed, go over the surface with the iron rake, and you will have a job thoroughly done and neatly finished. if the weather and soil are exceptionally dry it may be necessary to take the additional precautions, when planting, of putting a pint or so of water in each hole (never on the surface) previous to planting; or of puddling the roots in a thick mixture of rich soil and water. the large leaves also should be trimmed back one-half. in the case of plants that are too tall or succulent, this should be done in any case --better a day or two previous to setting out. after-care transplanting should be done whenever possible in dull weather or before rain--or even during it if you really would deserve the name of gardener! if it must be done when the sun continues strong, shade the plants from, say, ten to three o'clock, for a day or two, with half sheets of old newspapers held in tent-shaped position over the plants by stones or earth. if it is necessary to give water, do it toward evening. if the plants have been properly set, however, only extreme circumstances will render this necessary. keep a sharp lookout for cut-worms, maggots or other enemies described in chapter xiii. and above all, cultivate. never let the soil become crusted, even if there is not a weed in sight. keep the soil loosened up, for that will keep things growing. chapter x the cultivation of vegetables before taking up the garden vegetables individually, i shall outline the general practice of cultivation, which applies to all. the purposes of cultivation are three--to get rid of weeds, and to stimulate growth by ( ) letting air into the soil and freeing unavailable plant food, and ( ) by conserving moisture. as to weeds, the gardener of any experience need not be told the importance of keeping his crops clean. he has learned from bitter and costly experience the price of letting them get anything resembling a start. he knows that one or two days' growth, after they are well up, followed perhaps by a day or so of rain, may easily double or treble the work of cleaning a patch of onions or carrots, and that where weeds have attained any size they cannot be taken out of sowed crops without doing a great deal of injury. he also realizes, or should, that every day's growth means just so much available plant food stolen from under the very roots of his legitimate crops. instead of letting the weeds get away with any plant food, he should be furnishing more, for clean and frequent cultivation will not only break the soil up mechanically, but let in air, moisture and heat--all essential in effecting those chemical changes necessary to convert non- available into available plant food. long before the science in the case was discovered, the soil cultivators had learned by observation the necessity of keeping the soil nicely loosened about their growing crops. even the lanky and untutored aborigine saw to it that his squaw not only put a bad fish under the hill of maize but plied her shell hoe over it. plants need to breathe. their roots need air. you might as well expect to find the rosy glow of happiness on the wan cheeks of a cotton-mill child slave as to expect to see the luxuriant dark green of healthy plant life in a suffocated garden. important as the question of air is, that of _water_ ranks beside it. you may not see at first what the matter of frequent cultivation has to do with water. but let us stop a moment and look into it. take a strip of blotting paper, dip one end in water, and watch the moisture run up hill, soak up through the blotter. the scientists have labeled that "capillary attraction"--the water crawls up little invisible tubes formed by the texture of the blotter. now take a similar piece, cut it across, hold the two cut edges firmly together, and try it again. the moisture refuses to cross the line: the connection has been severed. in the same way the water stored in the soil after a rain begins at once to escape again into the atmosphere. that on the surface evaporates first, and that which has soaked in begins to soak in through the soil to the surface. it is leaving your garden, through the millions of soil tubes, just as surely as if you had a two-inch pipe and a gasoline engine, pumping it into the gutter night and day! save your garden by stopping the waste. it is the easiest thing in the world to do--cut the pipe in two. and the knife to do it with is-- _dust_. by frequent cultivation of the surface soil--not more than one or two inches deep for most small vegetables--the soil tubes are kept broken, and a mulch of dust is maintained. try to get over every part of your garden, especially where it is not shaded, once in every ten days or two weeks. does that seem like too much work? you can push your wheel hoe through, and thus keep the dust mulch as a constant protection, as fast as you can walk. if you wait for the weeds, you will nearly have to crawl through, doing more or less harm by disturbing your growing plants, losing all the plant food (and they will take the cream) which they have consumed, and actually putting in more hours of infinitely more disagreeable work. "a stitch in time saves nine!" have your thread and needle ready beforehand! if i knew how to give greater emphasis to this subject of thorough cultivation, i should be tempted to devote the rest of this chapter to it. if the beginner at gardening has not been convinced by the facts given, there is only one thing left to convince him--experience. having given so much space to the _reason_ for constant care in this matter, the question of methods naturally follows. i want to repeat here, my previous advice--by all means get a wheel hoe. the simplest sorts cost only a few dollars, and will not only save you an infinite amount of time and work, but do the work better, very much better than it can be done by hand. you _can_ grow good vegetables, especially if your garden is a very small one, without one of these labor-savers, but i can assure you that you will never regret the small investment necessary to procure it. with a wheel hoe, the work of preserving the soil mulch becomes very simple. if one has not a wheel hoe, for small areas very rapid work can be done with the scuffle hoe. the matter of keeping weeds cleaned out of the rows and between the plants in the rows is not so quickly accomplished. where hand-work is necessary, let it be done at once. here are a few practical suggestions that will reduce this work to a minimum, ( ) get at this work while the ground is soft; as soon as the soil begins to dry out after a rain is the best time. under such conditions the weeds will pull out by the roots, without breaking off. ( ) immediately before weeding, go over the rows with a wheel hoe, cutting shallow, but just as close as possible, leaving a narrow, plainly visible strip which must be hand- weeded. the best tool for this purpose is the double wheel hoe with disc attachment, or hoes for large plants. ( ) see to it that not only the weeds are pulled but that _every inch_ of soil surface is broken up. it is fully as important that the weeds just sprouting be destroyed, as that the larger ones be pulled up. one stroke of the weeder or the fingers will destroy a hundred weed seedlings in less time than one weed can be pulled out after it gets a good start. ( ) use one of the small hand-weeders until you become skilled with it. not only may more work be done but the fingers will be saved unnecessary wear. the skilful use of the wheel hoe can be acquired through practice only. the first thing to learn is that it is necessary to watch _the wheels only:_ the blades, disc or rakes will take care of themselves. other suggestions will be found in the chapter on implements. the operation of "hilling" consists in drawing up the soil about the stems of growing plants, usually at the time of second or third hoeing. it used to be the practice to hill everything that could be hilled "up to the eyebrows," but it has gradually been discarded for what is termed "level culture"; and the reader will readily see the reason, from what has been said about the escape of moisture from the surface of the soil; for of course the two upper sides of the hill, which may be represented by an equilateral triangle with one side horizontal, give more exposed surface than the level surface represented by the base. in wet soils or seasons hilling may be advisable, but very seldom otherwise. it has the additional disadvantage of making it difficult to maintain the soil mulch which is so desirable. rotation of crops there is another thing to be considered in making each vegetable do its best, and that is crop rotation, or the following of any vegetable with a different sort at the next planting. with some vegetables, such as cabbage, this is almost imperative, and practically all are helped by it. even onions, which are popularly supposed to be the proving exception to the rule, are healthier, and do as well after some other crop, _provided_ the soil is as finely pulverized and rich as a previous crop of onions would leave it. here are the fundamental rules of crop rotation: ( ) crops of the same vegetable, or vegetables of the same family (such as turnips and cabbage) should not follow each other. ( ) vegetables that feed near the surface, like corn, should follow deep-rooting crops. ( ) vines or leaf crops should follow root crops. ( ) quick-growing crops should follow those occupying the land all season. these are the principles which should determine the rotations to be followed in individual cases. the proper way to attend to this matter is when making the planting plan. you will then have time to do it properly, and will need to give it no further thought for a year. with the above suggestions in mind, and _put to use_, it will not be difficult to give the crops mentioned in the following chapter those special attentions which are needed to make them do their very best. chapter xi the vegetables and their special needs the garden vegetables may be considered in three groups, in each of which the various varieties are given somewhat similar treatment: the root crops, such as beets and carrots; the leaf crops, such as cabbage and lettuce; the fruit crops, such as melons and tomatoes. root crops under the first section we will consider: beet carrot kohlrabi leek onion parsnip potato salsify turnip any of these may be sown in april, in drills (with the exception of potatoes) twelve to eighteen inches apart. the soil must be rich and finely worked, in order that the roots will be even and smooth--in poor or ill-prepared soil they are likely to be misshapen, or "sprangling." they must be thinned out to the proper distances, which should be done if possible on a cloudy day, hand-weeded as often as may be required, and given clean and frequent cultivation. all, with the exception of leeks and potatoes, are given level culture. all will be greatly benefited, when about one-third grown, by a top dressing of nitrate of soda. _beet:_--beets do best in a rather light soil. those for earliest use are started under glass (as described previously) and set out six to seven inches apart in rows a foot apart. the first outdoor sowing is made as soon as the soil is ready in spring, and the seed should be put in thick, as not all will come through if bad weather is encountered. when thinning out, the small plants that are removed, tops and roots cooked together, make delicious greens. the late crop, for fall and winter use, sow the last part of june. for this crop the larger varieties are used, and on rich soil will need six to eight inches in the row and fifteen inches between rows. _carrot:_--carrots also like a soil that is rather on the sandy side, and on account of the depth to which the roots go, it should be deep and fine. the quality will be better if the soil is not too rich. a few for extra early use may be grown in the hotbeds or frame. if radishes and carrots are sown together, in alternating rows six inches apart, the former will be used by the time the carrots need the room, and in this way a single x ft. sash will yield a good supply for the home garden. use chantenay or ox-heart (see chapter xii) for this purpose. the late crop is sometimes sown between rows of onions, skipping every third row, during june, and left to mature when the onions are harvested; but unless the ground is exceptionally free from weeds, the plan is not likely to prove successful. _kohlrabi:_--while not truly a "root crop"--the edible portion being a peculiar globular enlargement of the stem--its culture is similar, as it may be sown in drills and thinned out. frequently, however, it is started in the seed-bed and transplanted, the main crop (for market) being sown in may or june. a few of these from time to time will prove very acceptable for the home table. they should be used when quite young; as small as two inches being the tenderest. _leek:_--to attain its best the leek should be started in the seed-bed, late in april, and transplanted in late june, to the richest, heaviest soil available. hill up from time to time to blanch lower part of stalk; or a few choice specimens may be had by fitting cardboard collars around the stem and drawing the earth up to these, not touching the stalk with earth. _onions:_--onions for use in the green state are grown from white "sets," put out early in april, three to four inches apart in rows twelve inches apart; or from seed sown the previous fall and protected with rough manure during the winter. these will be succeeded by the crop from "prickers" or seedlings started under glass in january or february. as onions are not transplanted before going to the garden, sow directly in the soil rather than in flats. it is safest to cover the bed with one-half inch to one inch of coarse sand, and sow the seed in this. to get stocky plants trim back twice, taking off the upper half of leaves each time, and trim back the roots one-half to two- thirds at the time of setting out, which may be any time after the middle of april. these in turn will be succeeded by onions coming from the crop sown from seed in the open. the above is for onions eaten raw in the green state when less than half grown. for the main crop for bulbs, the home supply is best grown from prickers as described above. prize-taker and gibraltar are mostly used for this purpose, growing to the size of the large spanish onions sold at grocery stores. for onions to be kept for late winter and spring use, grow from seed, sowing outdoors as early as possible. no vegetable needs a richer or more perfectly prepared soil than the onion; and especial care must be taken never to let the weeds get a start. they are gathered after the tops dry down and wither, when they should be pulled, put in broad rows for several days in the sun, and then spread out flat, not more than four inches deep, under cover with plenty of light and air. before severe freezing store in slatted barrels, as described in chapter xiv. _parsnip:_--sow as early as possible, in deep rich soil, but where no water will stand during fall and winter. the seed germinates very slowly, so the seed-bed should be very finely prepared. they will be ready for use in the fall, but are much better after the first frosts. for method of keeping see chapter xiv. _potato:_--if your garden is a small one, buy your main supply of potatoes from some nearby farmer, first trying half a bushel or so to be sure of the quality. purchase in late september or october when the crop is being dug and the price is low. for an extra early and choice supply for the home garden, start a peck or so in early march, as follows: select an early variety, seed of good size and clean; cut to pieces containing one or two eyes, and pack closely together on end in flats of coarse sand. give these full light and heat, and by the middle to end of april they will have formed dense masses of roots, and nice, strong, stocky sprouts, well leaved out. dig out furrows two and a half feet apart, and incorporate well rotted manure in the bottom, with the soil covering this until the furrow is left two to three inches deep. set the sprouted tubers, pressing firmly into the soil, about twelve inches apart, and cover in, leaving them thus three to four inches below the surface. keep well cultivated, give a light top dressing of nitrate of soda--and surprise all your neighbors! this system has not yet come extensively into use, but is practically certain of producing excellent results. for the main crop, if you have room, cut good seed to one or two eyes, leaving as much of the tuber as possible to each piece, and plant thirteen inches apart in rows three feet apart. cultivate deeply until the plants are eight to ten inches high and then shallow but frequently. as the vines begin to spread, hill up moderately, making a broad, low ridge. handle potato-bugs and blight as directed in chapter xiii. for harvesting see chapter xiv. while big crops may be grown on heavy soils, the quality will be very much better on sandy, well drained soils. planting on well rotted sod, or after green manuring, such as clover or rye, will also improve the looks and quality of the crop. like onions, they need a high percentage of potash in manures or fertilizers used; this may be given in sulphate of potash. avoid planting on ground enriched with fresh barnyard manure or immediately after a dressing of lime. _salsify:_--the "vegetable oyster," or salsify, is to my taste the most delicious root vegetable grown. it is handled practically in the same way as the parsnip, but needs, if possible, ground even more carefully prepared, in order to keep the main root from sprangling. if a fine light soil cannot be had for planting, it will pay to hoe or hand-plow furrows where the drills are to be--not many will be needed, and put in specially prepared soil, in which the seed may get a good start. _radish:_--to be of good crisp quality, it is essential with radishes to grow them just as quickly as possible. the soil should be rather sandy and not rich in fresh manure or other nitrogenous fertilizers, as this tends to produce an undesirable amount of leaves at the expense of the root. if the ground is at all dry give a thorough wetting after planting, which may be on the surface, as the seeds germinate so quickly that they will be up before the soil has time to crust over. gypsum or land-plaster, sown on white and worked into the soil, will improve both crop and quality. they are easily raised under glass, in autumn or spring in frames, requiring only forty to fifty degrees at night. it is well to plant in the hotbed, after a crop of lettuce. or sow as a double crop, as suggested under _carrots_. for outside crops, sow every ten days or two weeks. _turnip:_--while turnips will thrive well on almost any soil, the quality--which is somewhat questionable at the best--will be much better on sandy or even gravelly soil. avoid fresh manures as much as possible, as the turnip is especially susceptible to scab and worms. they are best when quite small and for the home table a succession of sowing, only a few at a time, will give the best results. leaf crops under leaf crops are considered also those of which the stalk or the flower heads form the edible portion, such as celery and cauliflower. asparagus brussels sprouts cabbage cauliflower celery endive kale lettuce parsley rhubarb spinach the quality of all these will depend largely upon growing them rapidly and without check from the seed-bed to the table. they are all great nitrogen-consumers and therefore take kindly to liberal supplies of yard manure, which is high in nitrogen. for celery the manure is best applied to some preceding crop, such as early cabbage. the others will take it "straight." most of these plants are best started under glass or in the seed-bed and transplanted later to permanent positions. they will all be helped greatly by a top-dressing of nitrate of soda, worked into the soil as soon as they have become established. this, if it fails to produce the dark green healthy growth characteristic of its presence, should be followed by a second application after two or three weeks--care being taken, of course, to use it with reason and restraint, as directed in chapter vi. another method of growing good cabbages and similar plants, where the ground is not sufficiently rich to carry the crop through, is to "manure in the hill," either yard or some concentrated manure being used. if yard manure, incorporate a good forkful with the soil where each plant is to go. (if any considerable number are being set, it will of course be covered in a furrow--first being trampled down, with the plow). another way, sure of producing results, and not inconvenient for a few hundred plants, is to mark out the piece, dig out with a spade or hoe a hole some five inches deep at each mark, dilute poultry manure in an old pail until about the consistency of thick mud, and put a little less than half a trowelful in each hole. mix with the soil and cover, marking the spot with the back of the hoe, and then set the plants. by this method, followed by a top-dressing of nitrate of soda, i have repeatedly grown fine cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce and sprouts. cotton-seed meal is also very valuable for manuring in the hill--about a handful to a plant, as it is rich in nitrogen and rapidly decomposes. the cabbage group is sometimes hilled up, but if set well down and frequently cultivated, on most soils this will not be necessary. they all do best in very deep, moderately heavy soil, heavily manured and rather moist. an application of lime some time before planting will be a beneficial precaution. with this group rotation also is almost imperative. the most troublesome enemies attacking these plants are: the flea- beetle, the cabbage-worm, the cabbage-maggot (root) and "club-root"; directions for fighting all of which will be found in the following chapter. _asparagus:_--asparagus is rightly esteemed one of the very best spring vegetables. there is a general misconception, however--due to the old methods of growing it--concerning the difficulty of having a home supply. as now cared for, it is one of the easiest of all vegetables to grow, when once the beds are set and brought to bearing condition. nor is it difficult to make the bed, and the only reason why asparagus is not more universally found in the home garden, beside that mentioned above, is because one has to wait a year for results. in selecting a spot for the asparagus bed, pick out the earliest and best drained soil available, even if quite sandy it will do well. plow or dig out trenches three feet apart and sixteen to twenty inches deep. in the bottoms of these tramp down firmly six to eight inches of old, thoroughly rotted manure. cover with six to eight inches of good soil-- not that coming from the bottom of the trench--and on this set the crowns or root-clumps--preferably one-year ones--being careful to spread the roots out evenly, and covering with enough soil to hold in position, making them firm in the soil. the roots are set one foot apart. then fill in level, thus leaving the crowns four to six inches below the surface. as the stalks appear give a light dressing of nitrate of soda and keep the crop cleanly cultivated. (lettuce, beets, beans or any of the small garden vegetables may be grown between the asparagus rows during the first part of the season, for the first two years, thus getting some immediate return from labor and manure). the stalks should not be cut until the second spring after planting and then only very lightly. after that full crops may be had. after the first season, besides keeping cleanly cultivated at all times, in the fall clear off and burn all tops and weeds and apply a good coating of manure. dig or lightly cultivate this in the spring, applying also a dressing of nitrate of soda, as soon as the stalks appear. if the yield is not heavy, give a dressing of bone or of the basic fertilizers mentioned earlier. it is not difficult to grow plants from seed, but is generally more satisfactory to get the roots from some reliable seedsman. _broccoli:-the broccoli makes a flower head as does the cauliflower. it is, however, inferior in quality and is not grown to any extent where the latter will succeed. it has the one advantage of being hardier and thus can be grown where the cauliflower is too uncertain to make its culture worth while. for culture directions see _cauliflower_. _brussels sprouts:_--in my opinion this vegetable leaves the cabbage almost as far behind as the cauliflower does. it is, if anything, more easily grown than cabbage, except that the young plants do not seem able to stand quite so much cold. when mature, however, it seems to stand almost any amount of freezing, and it is greatly improved by a few smart frosts, although it is very good when succeeding the spring crop of cauliflower. it takes longer to mature than either cabbage or cauliflower. _cabbage:_--cabbage is one of the few vegetables which may be had in almost as good quality from the green-grocer as it can be grown at home, and as it takes up considerable space, it may often be advisable to omit the late sorts from the home garden if space is very limited. the early supply, however, should come from the garden--some people think it should stay there, but i do not agree with them. properly cooked it is a very delicious vegetable. what has already been said covers largely the conditions for successful culture. the soil should be of the richest and deepest, and well dressed with lime. lettuce is grown with advantage between the rows of early cabbage, and after both are harvested the ground is used for celery. the early varieties may be set as closely as eighteen inches in the row, and twenty-four between rows. the lettuce is taken out before the row is needed. the late crop is started in the outside seed-bed about june st to th. it will help give better plants to cut back the tops once or twice during growth, and an occasional good soaking in dry weather will prove very beneficial. they are set in the field during july, and as it often is very dry at this time, those extra precautions mentioned in directions for setting out plants, in the preceding chapter, should be taken. if the newly set plants are dusted with wood ashes, it will be a wise precaution against insect pests. _cauliflower:_--the cauliflower is easily the queen of the cabbage group: also it is the most difficult to raise. ( ) it is the most tender and should not be set out quite so early. ( ) it is even a ranker feeder than the cabbage, and just before heading up will be greatly improved by applications of liquid manure. ( ) it must have water, and unless the soil is a naturally damp one, irrigation, either by turning the hose on between the rows, or directly around the plants, must be given--two or three times should be sufficient. ( ) the heads must be protected from the sun. this is accomplished by tying up the points of leaves, so as to form a tent, or breaking them (snap the mid- rib only), and folding them down over the flower. ( ) they must be used as soon as ready, for they deteriorate very quickly. take them while the head is still solid and firm, before the little flower tips begin to open out. _celery:_--this is another favorite vegetable which has a bad reputation to live down. they used to plant it at the bottom of a twelve-inch trench and spend all kinds of unnecessary labor over it. it can be grown perfectly well on the level and in the average home garden. as to soil, celery prefers a moist one, but it must be well drained. the home supply can, however, be grown in the ordinary garden, especially if water may be had in case of injurious drouth. for the early crop the best sorts are the white plume and golden self- blanching. seed is sown in the last part of february or first part of march. the seed is very fine and the greatest pains must be taken to give the best possible treatment. the seed should be pressed into the soil and barely covered with very light soil--half sifted leaf-mould or moss. never let the boxes dry out, and as soon as the third or fourth leaf comes, transplant; cut back the outside leaves, and set as deeply as possible without covering the crown. the roots also, if long, should be cut back. this trimming of leaves and roots should be given at each transplanting, thus assuring a short stocky growth. culture of the early crop, after setting out, is easier than that for the winter crop. there are two systems: ( ) the plants are set in rows three or four feet apart, six inches in the row, and blanched, either by drawing up the earth in a hill and working it in about the stalks with the fingers (this operation is termed "handling"), or else by the use of boards laid on edge along the rows, on either side. ( ) the other method is called the "new celery culture," and in it the plants are set in beds eight inches apart each way (ten or twelve inches for large varieties), the idea being to make the tops of the plants supply the shade for the blanching. this method has two disadvantages: it requires extra heavy manuring and preparation of soil, and plenty of moisture; and even with this aid the stalks never attain the size of those grown in rows. the early crop should be ready in august. the quality is never so good as that of the later crops. for the main or winter crop, sow the seed about april st. the same extra care must be taken as in sowing under glass. in hot, dry weather, shade the beds; never let them dry out. transplant to second bed as soon as large enough to develop root system, before setting in the permanent position. when setting in late june or july, be sure to put the plants in up to the hearts, not over, and set firmly. give level clean culture until about august th, when, with the hoe, wheel hoe or cultivator, earth should be drawn up along the rows, followed by "handling." the plants for early use are trenched (see chapter xiv), but that left for late use must be banked up, which is done by making the hills higher still, by the use of the spade. for further treatment see chapter xiv. care must be taken not to perform any work in the celery patch while the plants are wet. _corn salad or fetticus:_--this salad plant is not largely grown. it is planted about the middle of april and given the same treatment as spinach. _chicory:_--this also is little grown. the witloof, a kind now being used, is however much more desirable. sow in drills, thin to five or six inches, and in august or september, earth up, as with early celery, to blanch the stalks, which are used for salads, or boiled. cut-back roots, planted in boxes of sand placed in a moderately warm dark place and watered, send up a growth of tender leaves, making a fine salad. _chervil:_--curled chervil is grown the same as parsley and used for garnishing or seasoning. the root variety resembles the stump- rooted carrot, the quality being improved by frost. sow in april or september. treat like parsnip. _chives:_--leaves are used for imparting an onion flavor. a clump of roots set put will last many years. _cress:_--another salad little grown in the home garden. to many, however, its spicy, pungent flavor is particularly pleasing. it is easily grown, but should be planted frequently--about every two weeks. sow in drills, twelve to fourteen inches apart. its only special requirement is moisture. water is not necessary, but if a bed can be started in some clean stream or pool, it will take care of itself. upland cress or "pepper grass" grows in ordinary garden soil, being one of the very first salads. sow in april, in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart. it grows so rapidly that it may be had in five or six weeks. sow frequently for succession, as it runs to seed very quickly. _chard:_--see _spinach. dandelion:_--this is an excellent "greens," but as the crop is not ready until second season from planting it is not grown as much as it should be. sow the seed in april--very shallow. it is well to put in with it a few lettuce or turnip seed to mark the rows. drills should be one foot apart, and plants thinned to eight to twelve inches. the quality is infinitely superior to the wild dandelion and may be still further improved by blanching. if one is content to take a small crop, a cutting may be made in the fall, the same season as the sowing. _endive:_--this salad vegetable is best for fall use. sow in june or july, in drills eighteen to twenty-four inches apart, and thin to ten to twelve inches. to be fit for use it must be blanched, either by tying up with raffia in a loose bunch, or by placing two wide boards in an inverted v shape over the rows; and in either case be sure the leaves are dry when doing this. _kale:_--kale is a non-heading member of the cabbage group, used as greens, both in spring and winter. it is improved by frost, but even then is a little tough and heavy. its chief merit lies in the fact that it is easily had when greens of the better sorts are hard to get, as it may be left out and cut as needed during winter--even from under snow. the fall crop is given the same treatment as late cabbage. siberian kale is sown in september and wintered-over like spinach. _lettuce:_--lettuce is grown in larger quantities than all the other salad plants put together. by the use of hotbeds it may be had practically the year round. the first sowing for the spring under-glass crop is made in january or february. these are handled as for the planting outside--see chapter viii.--but are set in the frames six to eight inches each way, according to variety. ventilate freely during the day when over ° give ° at night. water only when needed, but then thoroughly, and preferably only on mornings of bright sunny days. the plants for first outdoor crops are handled as already described. after april st planting should be made every two weeks. during july and august the seed-beds must be kept shaded and moist. in august, first sowing for fall under-glass crop is made, which can be matured in coldframes; later sowings going into hotbeds. in quality, i consider the hard-heading varieties superior to the loose-heading sorts, but of course that is a matter of taste. the former is best for crops maturing from the middle of june until september, the latter for early and late sowings, as they mature more quickly. the cos type is good for summer growing but should be tied up to blanch well. to be at its best, lettuce should be grown very rapidly, and the use of top-dressings of nitrate are particularly beneficial with this crop. the ground should be light, warm, and very rich, and cultivation shallow but frequent. _mushroom:_--while the mushroom is not a garden crop, strictly speaking, still it is one of the most delicious of all vegetables for the home table, and though space does not permit a long description of the several details of its culture, i shall try to include all the essential points as succinctly as possible, ( ) the place for the bed may be found in any sheltered, dry spot--cellar, shed or greenhouse-- where an even temperature of to degrees can be maintained and direct sunlight excluded. (complete darkness is _not_ necessary; it is frequently so considered, but only because in dark places the temperature and moisture are apt to remain more even.) ( ) the material is fresh horse-manure, from which the roughest of the straw has been shaken out. this is stacked in a compact pile and trampled--wetting down if at all dry--to induce fermentation. this process must be repeated four or five times, care being required never to let the heap dry out and burn; time for re-stacking being indicated by the heap's steaming. at the second or third turning, add about one-fifth, in bulk, of light loam. ( ) when the heat of the pile no longer rises above to degrees (as indicated by a thermometer) put into the beds, tramping or beating very firmly, until about ten inches deep. when the temperature recedes to degrees, put in the spawn. each brick will make a dozen or so pieces. put these in three inches deep, and twelve by nine inches apart, covering lightly. then beat down the surface evenly. after eight days, cover with two inches of light loam, firmly compacted. this may be covered with a layer of straw or other light material to help maintain an even degree of moisture, but should be removed as soon as the mushrooms begin to appear. water only when the soil is very dry; better if water is warmed to about degrees. when gathering never leave stems in the bed as they are likely to breed maggots. the crop should appear in six to eight weeks after spawning the bed. _parsley:_--this very easily grown little plant should have at least a row or two in the seed-bed devoted to it. for use during winter, a box or a few pots may be filled with cut-back roots and given moderate temperature and moisture. if no frames are on hand, the plants usually will do well in a sunny window. parsley seed is particularly slow in germinating. use a few seeds of turnip or carrot to indicate the rows, and have the bed very finely prepared. _rhubarb:_--this is another of the standard vegetables which no home garden should be without. for the bed pick out a spot where the roots can stay without interfering with the plowing and working of the garden--next the asparagus bed, if in a good early location, will be as good as any. one short row will supply a large family. the bed is set either with roots or young plants, the former being the usual method. the ground should first be made as deep and rich as possible. if poor, dig out the rows, which should be four or five feet apart, to a depth of two feet or more and work in a foot of good manure, refilling with the best of the soil excavated. set the roots about four feet apart in the row, the crowns being about four inches below the surface. no stalks should be cut the first season; after that they will bear abundantly many years. in starting from seed, sow in march in frames or outside in april; when well along-about the first of june--set out in rows, eighteen by twelve inches. by the following april they will be ready for their permanent position. manuring in the fall, as with asparagus, to be worked in in the spring, is necessary for good results. i know of no crop which so quickly responds to liberal dressings of nitrate of soda, applied first just as growth starts in in the spring. the seed stalks should be broken off as fast as they appear, until late in the season. _sea-kale:_--when better known in this country, sea-kale will be given a place beside the asparagus and rhubarb, for, like them, it may be used year after year. many believe it superior in quality to either asparagus or cauliflower. it is grown from either seed or pieces of the root, the former method, being probably the more satisfactory. sow in april, in drills fourteen inches apart, thinning to five or six. transplant in the following spring as described for rhubarb--but setting three feet apart each way. in the fall, after the leaves have fallen--and every succeeding fall-- cover each crown with a shovelful of clean sand and then about eighteen inches of earth, dug out from between the rows. this is to blanch the spring growth. after cutting, shovel off the earth and sand and enrich with manure for the following season's growth. _spinach:_--for the first spring crop of this good and wholesome vegetable, the seed is sown in september, and carried over with a protection of hay or other rough litter. crops for summer and fall are sown in successive plantings from april on, long-standing being the best sort to sow after about may th. seed of the new zealand spinach should be soaked several hours in hot water, before being planted. for the home garden, i believe that the swiss chard beet is destined to be more popular, as it becomes known, than any of the spinaches. it is sown in plantings from april on, but will yield leaves all season long; they are cut close to the soil, and in an almost incredibly short time the roots have thrown up a new crop, the amount taken during the season being wonderful. spinach wants a strong and very rich soil, and dressings of nitrate show good results. the fruit crops under this heading are included: bean, dwarf bean, pole corn peas cucumber egg-plant melon, musk melon, water okra pepper pumpkins squash tomato most of these vegetables differ from both the preceding groups in two important ways. first of all, the soil should not be made too rich, especially in nitrogenous manures, such as strong fresh yard-manure; although light dressings of nitrate of soda are often of great help in giving them a quick start--as when setting out in the field. second, they are warm-weather loving plants, and nothing is gained by attempting to sow or set out the plants until all danger from late frosts is over, and the ground is well warmed up. (peas, of course, are an exception to this rule, and to some extent the early beans.) third, they require much more room and are grown for the most part in hills. light, warm, "quick," sandy to gravelly soils, and old, fine, well rotted manure--applied generally in the hill besides that plowed under, make the best combination for results. such special hills are prepared by marking off, digging out the soil to the depth of eight to ten inches, and eighteen inches to two feet square, and incorporating several forkfuls of the compost. a little guano, or better still cottonseed meal, say / to gill of the former, or a gill of the latter, mixed with the compost when putting into the hill, will also be very good. hills to be planted early should be raised an inch or two above the surface, unless they are upon sloping ground. the greatest difficulty in raising all the vine fruits--melons, etc.-- is in successfully combating their insect enemies--the striped beetle, the borer and the flat, black "stink-bug," being the worst of these. remedies will be suggested in the next chapter. but for the home garden, where only a few hills of each will be required, by far the easiest and the only sure way of fighting them will be by protecting with bottomless boxes, large enough to cover the hills, and covered with mosquito netting, or better, "plant-protecting cloth," which has the additional merit of giving the hills an early start. these boxes may be easily made of one-half by eight-inch boards, or from ordinary cracker-boxes, such as used for making flats. plants so protected in the earlier stages of growth will usually either not be attacked, or will, with the assistance of the remedies described in the following chapter, be able to withstand the insect's visits. _beans, dwarf:_--beans are one of the most widely liked of all garden vegetables--and one of the most easily grown. they are very particular about only one thing--not to have a heavy wet soil. the dwarf or bush sorts are planted in double or single drills, eighteen to twenty-four inches apart, and for the first sowing not much over an inch deep. later plantings should go in two to three inches deep, according to soil. ashes or some good mixed fertilizer high in potash, applied and well mixed in at time of planting, will be very useful. as the plants gain size they should be slightly hilled--to help hold the stalks up firmly. never work over or pick from the plants while they are wet. the dwarf limas should not be planted until ten to fourteen days later than the early sorts. be sure to put them in edgeways, with the eye down, and when there is no prospect of immediate rain, or the whole planting is fairly sure to be lost. _beans, pole:_--the pole varieties should not go in until about the time for the limas. plant in specially prepared hills (see above) ten to twenty seeds, and when well up thin, leaving three to five. poles are best set when preparing the hills. a great improvement over the old-fashioned pole is made by nailing building laths firmly across x -in. posts seven or eight feet high (see illustration). to secure extra early pods on the poles pinch back the vines at five feet high. _corn:_--for extra early ears, corn may easily be started on sod, as directed for cucumbers. be sure, however, not to get into the open until danger from frost is over--usually at least ten days after it is safe for the first planting, which is seldom made before may st. frequent, shallow cultivation is a prime necessity in growing this crop. when well up, thin to four stalks to a hill--usually five to seven kernels being planted. a slight hilling when the tassels appear will be advisable. plant frequently for succession crops. the last sowing may be made as late as the first part of july if the seed is well firmed in, to assure immediate germination. sweet corn for the garden is frequently planted in drills, about three feet apart, and thinning to ten to twelve inches. _cucumber:_--this universal favorite is easily grown if the striped beetle is held at bay. for the earliest fruits start on sod in the frames: cut out sods four to six inches square, where the grass indicates rich soil. pack close together in the frame, grass side down, and push seven or eight seeds into each, firmly enough to be held in place, covering with about one and a half inches of light soil; water thoroughly and protect with glass or cloth, taking care to ventilate, as described in chapter viii. set out in prepared hills after danger of frost is over. outside crop is planted directly in the hills, using a dozen or more seeds and thinning to three or four. _egg-plant:_--the egg-plant is always started under glass, for the northern states, and should be twice transplanted, the second time into pots, to be of the best size when put out. this should not be until after tomatoes are set, as it is perhaps the tenderest of all garden vegetables as regards heat. the soil should be very rich and as moist as can be selected. if dry, irrigating will be necessary. this should not be delayed until the growth becomes stunted, as sudden growth then induced is likely to cause the fruit to crack. watch for potato-bugs on your egg-plants. they seem to draw these troublesome beetles as a magnet does iron filings, and i have seen plants practically ruined by them in one day. as they seem to know there will not be time to eat the whole fruit they take pains to eat into the stems. the only sure remedy is to knock them off with a piece of shingle into a pan of water and kerosene. egg-plants are easily burned by paris green, and that standard remedy cannot be so effectively used as on other crops; hellebore or arsenate of lead is good. as the season of growth is very limited, it is advisable, besides having the plants as well developed as possible when set out, to give a quick start with cotton-seed meal or nitrate, and liquid manure later is useful, as they are gross feeders. the fruits are ready to eat from the size of a turkey egg to complete development. _melon, musk:_--the culture of this delicious vegetable is almost identical with that of the cucumber. if anything it is more particular about having light soil. if put in soil at all heavy, at the time of preparing the hill, add sand and leaf-mould to the compost, the hills made at least three feet square, and slightly raised. this method is also of use in planting the other vine crops. _melon, water:_--in the warm southern states watermelons may be grown cheaply, and they are so readily shipped that in the small home gardens it will not pay to grow them, for they take up more space than any other vegetable, with the exception of winter squash. the one advantage of growing them, where there is room, is that better quality than that usually to be bought may be obtained. give them the hottest spot in the garden and a sandy quick soil. use a variety recommended for your particular climate. give the same culture as for musk melon, except that the hill should be at least six to ten feet apart each way. by planting near the edge of the garden, and pinching back the vines, room may be saved and the ripening up of the crop made more certain. _okra:_--although the okra makes a very strong plant--and incidentally is one of the most ornamental of all garden vegetables-- the seed is quickly rotted by wet or cold. sow not earlier than may th, in warm soil, planting thinly in drills, about one and a half inches deep, and thinning to a foot or so; cultivate as with corn in drills. all pods not used for soup or stems during summer may be dried and used in winter. _peas:_--with care in making successive sowings, peas may be had during a long season. the earliest, smooth varieties are planted in drills twelve to eighteen inches apart, early in april. these are, however, of very inferior quality compared to the wrinkled sorts, which may now be had practically as early as the others. with the market gardener, the difference of a few days in the maturing of the crop is of a great deal more importance than the quality, but for the home garden the opposite is true. another method of planting the dwarf-growing kinds is to make beds of four rows, six to eight inches apart, with a two-foot alley between beds. the tall-growing sorts must be supported by brush or in other ways; and are put about four feet apart in double rows, six inches apart. the early varieties if sown in august will usually mature a good fall crop. the early plantings should be made in light, dry soil and but one inch deep; the later ones in deep loam. in neither case should the ground be made too rich, especially in nitrogen; and it should not be wet when the seed is planted. _pepper:_--a dozen pepper plants will give abundance of pods for the average family. the varieties have been greatly improved within recent years in the quality of mildness. the culture recommended for egg-plant is applicable also to the pepper. the main difference is that, although the pepper is very tender when young, the crop maturing in the autumn will not be injured by considerable frost. _pumpkin:_--the "sugar" or "pie" varieties of the pumpkin are the only ones used in garden culture, and these only where there is plenty of ground for all other purposes. the culture is the same as that for late squashes, which follows. _squash:_--for the earliest squash the bush varieties of scallop are used; to be followed by the summer crookneck and other summer varieties, best among which are the fordhook and delicata. for all, hills should be prepared as described at the beginning of this section and in addition it is well to mix with manure a shovelful of coal ashes, used to keep away the borer, to the attack of which the squash is particularly liable. the cultivation is the same as that used for melons or cucumbers, except that the hills for the winter sorts must be at least eight feet apart and they are often put twelve. _tomato:_--for the earliest crop, tomatoes are started about march st. they should be twice transplanted, and for best results the second transplanting should be put into pots--or into the frames, setting six to eight inches each way. they are not set out until danger of frost is over, and the ground should not be too rich; old manure used in the hill, with a dressing of nitrate at setting out, or a few days after, will give them a good start. according to variety, they are set three to five feet apart--four feet, where staking or trellising is given, as it should always be in garden culture, will be as much as the largest- growing plants require. it will pay well, both for quality and quantity of fruit, to keep most of the suckers cut or rubbed off. the ripening of a few fruits may be hastened by tying paper bags over the bunches, or by picking and ripening on a board in the hot sun. for ripening fruit after frost see chapter xiv. a sharp watch should be kept for the large green tomato-worm, which is almost exactly the color of the foliage. his presence may first be noticed by fruit and leaves eaten. hand-picking is the best remedy. protection must be made against the cutworm in localities where he works. all the above, of course, will be considered in connection with the tabulated information as to dates, depths and distances for sowing, quantities, etc., given in the table in chapter iv, and is supplemented by the information about insects, diseases and harvesting given in chapters xiii and xiv, and especially in the chapter on varieties which follows, and which is given separately from the present chapter in order that the reader may the more readily make out a list, when planning his garden or making up his order sheet for the seedsman. chapter xii best varieties of the garden vegetables it is my purpose in this chapter to assist the gardener of limited experience to select varieties sure to give satisfaction. to the man or woman planning a garden for the first time there is no one thing more confusing than the selection of the best varieties. this in spite of the fact that catalogues should be, and might be, a great help instead of almost an actual hindrance. i suppose that seedsmen consider extravagance in catalogues, both in material and language, necessary, or they would not go to the limit in expense for printing and mailing, as they do. but from the point of view of the gardener, and especially of the beginner, it is to be regretted that we cannot have the plain unvarnished truth about varieties, for surely the good ones are good enough to use up all the legitimate adjectives upon which seedsmen would care to pay postage. but such is not the case. every season sees the introduction of literally hundreds of new varieties--or, as is more often the case, old varieties under new names--which have actually no excuse for being unloaded upon the public except that they will give a larger profit to the seller. of course, in a way, it is the fault of the public for paying the fancy prices asked--that is, that part of the public which does not know. commercial planters and experienced gardeners stick to well known sorts. new varieties are tried, if at all, by the packet only--and then "on suspicion." in practically every instance the varieties mentioned have been grown by the author, but his recommendations are by no means based upon personal experience alone. wherever introductions of recent years have proved to be actual improvements upon older varieties, they are given in preference to the old, which are, of course, naturally much better known. it is impossible for any person to pick out this, that or the other variety of a vegetable and label it unconditionally "the best." but the person who wants to save time in making out his seed list can depend upon the following to have been widely tested, and to have "made good." _asparagus:_--while there are enthusiastic claims put forth for several of the different varieties of asparagus, as far as i have seen any authentic record of tests (bulletin , n. j. agr. exp. station), the prize goes to palmetto, which gave twenty-eight per cent. more than its nearest rival, donald's elmira. big yield alone is frequently no recommendation of a vegetable to the home gardener, but in this instance it does make a big difference; first, because palmetto is equal to any other asparagus in quality, and second, because the asparagus bed is producing only a few weeks during the gardening season, and where ground is limited, as in most home gardens, it is important to cut this waste space down as much as possible. this is for beds kept in good shape and highly fed. barr's mammoth will probably prove more satisfactory if the bed is apt to be more or less neglected, for the reason that under such circumstances it will make thicker stalks than the palmetto. _beans (dwarf):_--of the dwarf beans there are three general types: the early round-podded "string" beans, the stringless round- pods, and the usually more flattish "wax" beans. for first early, the old reliable extra early red valentine remains as good as any sort i have ever tried. in good strains of this variety the pods have very slight strings, and they are very fleshy. it makes only a small bush and is fairly productive and of good quality. the care-taking planter, however, will put in only enough of these first early beans to last a week or ten days, as the later sorts are more prolific and of better quality. burpee's stringless greenpod is a good second early. it is larger, finer, stringless even when mature, and of exceptionally handsome appearance. improved refugee is the most prolific of the green-pods, and the best of them for quality, but with slight strings. of the "wax" type, brittle wax is the earliest, and also a tremendous yielder. the long-time favorite, rust-proof golden wax, is another fine sort, and an especially strong healthy grower. the top-notch in quality among all bush beans is reached, perhaps, in burpee's white wax--the white referring not to the pods, which are of a light yellow, and flat --but to the beans, which are pure white in all stages of growth. it has one unusual and extremely valuable quality--the pods remain tender longer than those of any other sort. of the dwarf limas there is a new variety which is destined, i think, to become the leader of the half-dozen other good sorts to be had. that is the burpee improved. the name is rather misleading, as it is not an improved strain of the dreer's or kumerle bush lima, but a mutation, now thoroughly fixed. the bushes are stronger-growing and much larger than those of the older types, reaching a height of nearly three feet, standing strongly erect; both pods and beans are much larger, and it is a week earlier. henderson's new early giant i have not yet tried, but from the description i should say it is the same type as the above. of the pole limas, the new giant-podded is the hardiest--an important point in limas, which are a little delicate in constitution anyway, especially in the seedling stage--and the biggest yielder of any i have grown and just as good in quality--and there is no vegetable much better than well cooked limas. with me, also, it has proved as early as that old standard, early leviathan, but this may have been a chance occurrence. ford's mammoth is another excellent pole lima of large size. of the other pole beans, the two that are still my favorites are kentucky wonder, or old homestead, and golden cluster. the former has fat meaty green pods, entirely stringless until nearly mature, and of enormous length. i have measured many over eight and a half inches long--and they are borne in great profusion. golden cluster is one of the handsomest beans i know. it is happily named, for the pods, of a beautiful rich golden yellow color, hang in generous clusters and great profusion. in quality it has no superior; it has always been a great favorite with my customers. one need never fear having too many of these, as the dried beans are pure white and splendid for winter use. last season i tried a new pole bean called burger's green-pod stringless or white-seeded kentucky wonder (the dried seeds of the old sort being brown). it did well, but was in so dry a place that i could not tell whether it was an improvement over the standard or not. it is claimed to be earlier. _beets:_--in beets, varieties are almost endless, but i confess that i have found no visible difference in many cases. edmund's early and early model are good for first crops. the egyptian strains, though largely used for market, have never been as good in quality with me. for the main crop i like crimson globe. in time it is a second early, of remarkably good form, smooth skin and fine quality and color. _broccoli:_--this vegetable is a poorer cousin of the cauliflower (which, by the way, has been termed "only a cabbage with a college education"). it is of little use where cauliflower can be grown, but serves as a substitute in northern sections, as it is more hardy than that vegetable. early white french is the standard sort. _brussels sprouts:_--this vegetable, in my opinion, is altogether too little grown. it is as easy to grow as fall and winter cabbage, and while the yield is less, the quality is so much superior that for the home garden it certainly should be a favorite. today (jan. th) we had for dinner sprouts from a few old plants that had been left in transplanting boxes in an open coldframe. these had been out all winter--with no protection, repeatedly freezing and thawing, and, while of course small, they were better in quality than any cabbage you ever ate. dalkeith is the best dwarf-growing sort. danish prize is a new sort, giving a much heavier yield than the older types. i have tried it only one year, but should say it will become the standard variety. _cabbage:_--in cabbages, too, there is an endless mix-up of varieties. the jersey wakefield still remains the standard early. but it is at the best but a few days ahead of the flat-headed early sorts which stand much longer without breaking, so that for the home garden a very few heads will do. glory of enkhuisen is a new early sort that has become a great favorite. early summer and succession are good to follow these, and danish ballhead is the best quality winter cabbage, and unsurpassed for keeping qualities. but for the home garden the savoy type is, to my mind, far and away the best. it is not in the same class with the ordinary sorts at all. perfection drumhead savoy is the best variety. of the red cabbages, mammoth rock is the standard. _carrots:_--the carrots are more restricted as to number of varieties. golden ball is the earliest of them all, but also the smallest yielder. early scarlet horn is the standard early, being a better yielder than the above. the danvers half-long is probably grown more than all other kinds together. it grows to a length of about six inches, a very attractive deep orange in color. where the garden soil is not in excellent condition, and thoroughly fined and pulverized as it should be, the shorter-growing kinds, ox-heart and chantenay, will give better satisfaction. if there is any choice in quality, i should award it to chantenay. _cauliflower_;--there is hardly a seed catalogue which does not contain its own special brand of the very best and earliest cauliflower ever introduced. these are for the most part selected strains of either the old favorite, henderson's snowball, or the old early dwarf erfurt. snowball, and burpee's best early, which resembles it, are the best varieties i have ever grown for spring or autumn. they are more likely to head, and of much finer quality than any of the large late sorts. where climatic conditions are not favorable to growing cauliflower, and in dry sections, dry-weather is the most certain to form heads. _celery:_--for the home garden the dwarf-growing, "self-blanching" varieties of celery are much to be preferred. white plume and golden self-blanching are the best. the former is the earliest celery and of excellent quality, but not a good keeper. recent introductions in celery have proved very real improvements. perhaps the best of the newer sorts, for home use, is winter queen, as it is more readily handled than some of the standard market sorts. in quality it has no superior. when put away for winter properly, it will keep through april. _corn:_--you will have to suit yourself about corn. i have not the temerity to name any best varieties--every seedsman has about half a dozen that are absolutely unequaled. for home use, i have cut my list down to three: golden bantam, a dwarf-growing early of extraordinary hardiness--can be planted earlier than any other sort and, while the ears are small and with yellow kernels, it is exceptionally sweet and fine in flavor. this novelty of a few years since, has attained wide popular favor as quickly as any vegetable i know. seymour's sweet orange is a new variety, somewhat similar to golden bantam, but later and larger, of equally fine quality. white evergreen, a perfected strain of stowell's evergreen, a standard favorite for years, is the third. it stays tender longer than any other sweet corn i have ever grown. _cucumbers:_--of cucumbers also there is a long and varied list of names. the old extra early white spine is still the best early; for the main crop, some "perfected" form of white spine. i myself like the fordhood famous, as it is the healthiest strain i ever grew, and has very large fruit that stays green, while being of fine quality. in the last few years the davis perfect has won great popularity, and deservedly so. many seedsmen predict that this is destined to become the leading standard--and where seedsmen agree let us prick up our ears! it has done very well with me, the fruit being the handsomest of any i have grown. if it proves as strong a grower it will replace fordhood famous with me. _egg-plant:_--new york improved purple is still the standard, but it has been to a large extent replaced by black beauty, which has the merit of being ten days earlier and a more handsome fruit. when once tried it will very likely be the only sort grown. _endive:_--this is a substitute for lettuce for which i personally have never cared. it is largely used commercially. broad-leaved batavian is a good variety. giant fringed is the largest. _kale:_--kale is a foreigner which has never been very popular in this country. dwarf scott curled is the tenderest and most delicate (or least coarse) in flavor. _kohlrabi:_--this peculiar mongrel should be better known. it looks as though a turnip had started to climb into the cabbage class and stopped half-way. when gathered young, not more than an inch and a half in diameter at the most, they are quite nice and tender. they are of the easiest cultivation. white vienna is the best. _leek:_--for those who like this sort of thing it is--just the sort of thing they like. american flag is the best variety, but why it was given the first part of that name, i do not know. _lettuce:_--to cover the lettuces thoroughly would take a chapter by itself. for lack of space, i shall have to mention only a few varieties, although there are many others as good and suited to different purposes. for quality, i put mignonette at the top of the list, but it makes very small heads. grand rapids is the best loose- head sort--fine for under glass, in frames and early outdoors. last fall from a bench x ft., i sold $ worth in one crop, besides some used at home. i could not sell winter head lettuce to customers who had once had this sort, so good was its quality. may king and big boston are the best outdoor spring and early summer sorts. new york and deacon are the best solid cabbage-head types for resisting summer heat, and long standing. of the cos type paris white is good. _muskmelon:_--the varieties of muskmelon are also without limit. i mention but two--which have given good satisfaction out of a large number tried, in my own experience. netted gem (known as rocky ford) for a green-fleshed type, and emerald gem for salmon-fleshed. there are a number of newer varieties, such as hoodoo, miller's cream, montreal, nutmeg, etc., all of excellent quality. _watermelon:_--with me (in connecticut) the seasons are a little short for this fruit. cole's early and sweetheart have made the best showing. halbert honey is the best for quality. _okra:_--in cool sections the perfected perkins does best, but it is not quite so good in quality as the southern favorite, white velvet. the flowers and plants of this vegetable are very ornamental. _onion:_--for some unknown reason, different seedsmen call the same onion by the same name. i have never found any explanation of this, except that a good many onions given different names in the catalogues are really the same thing. at least they grade into each other more than other vegetables. with me prizetaker is the only sort now grown in quantity, as i have found it to outyield all other yellows, and to be a good keeper. it is a little milder in quality than the american yellows--danvers and southport globe. when started under glass and transplanted out in april, it attains the size and the quality of the large spanish onions of which it is a descendant. weathersfield red is the standard flat red, but not quite so good in quality or for keeping as southport red globe. of the whites i like best mammoth silver-skin. it is ready early and the finest in quality, to my taste, of all the onions, but not a good keeper. ailsa craig, a new english sort now listed in several american catalogues, is the best to grow for extra fancy onions, especially for exhibiting; it should be started in february or march under glass. _parsley:_--emerald is a large-growing, beautifully colored and mild-flavored sort, well worthy of adoption. _parsnip:_--this vegetable is especially valuable because it may be had at perfection when other vegetables are scarce. hollow crown ("improved," of course!) is the best. _peas:_--peas are worse than corn. you will find enough exclamation points in the pea sections of catalogues to train the vines on. if you want to escape brain-fag and still have as good as the best, if not better, plant gradus (or prosperity) for early and second early; boston unrivaled (an improved form of telephone) for main crop, and gradus for autumn. these two peas are good yielders, free growers and of really wonderfully fine quality. they need bushing, but i have never found a variety of decent quality that does not. _pepper:_--ruby king is the standard, large, red, mild pepper, and as good as any. chinese giant is a newer sort, larger but later. the flesh is extremely thick and mild. on account of this quality, it will have a wider range of use than the older sorts. _pumpkins:_--the old large cheese, and the newer quaker pie, are as prolific, hardy and fine in quality and sweetness as any. _potato:_--bovee is a good early garden sort, but without the best of culture is very small. irish cobbler is a good early white. green mountain is a universal favorite for main crop in the east--a sure yielder and heavy-crop potato of excellent quality. uncle sam is the best quality potato i ever grew. baked, they taste almost as rich as chestnuts. _radish:_--i do not care to say much about radishes; i do not like them. they are, however, universal favorites. they come round, half- long, long and tapering; white, red, white-tipped, crimson, rose, yellow-brown and black; and from the size of a button to over a foot long by fifteen inches in circumference--the latter being the new chinese or celestial. so you can imagine what a revel of varieties the seedsmen may indulge in. i have tried many--and cut my own list down to two, rapid-red (probably an improvement of the old standard, scarlet button), and crimson globe (or giant), a big, rapid, healthy grower of good quality, and one that does not get "corky." a little land-plaster, or gypsum, worked into the soil at time of planting, will add to both appearance and quality in radishes. _spinach:_--the best variety of spinach is swiss chard beet (see below). if you want the real sort, use long season, which will give you cuttings long after other sorts have run to seed. new zealand will stand more heat than any other sort. victoria is a newer variety, for which the claim of best quality is made. in my own trial i could not notice very much difference. it has, however, thicker and "savoyed" leaves. _salsify:_--this is, to my taste, the most delicious of all root vegetables. it will not do well in soil not deep and finely pulverized, but a row or two for home use can be had by digging and fining before sowing the seed. it is worth extra work. mammoth sandwich is the best variety. _squash:_--of this fine vegetable there are no better sorts for the home garden than the little delicata, and fordhook. vegetable marrow is a fine english sort that does well in almost all localities. the best of the newer large-vined sorts is the delicious. it is of finer quality than the well known hubbard. for earliest use, try a few plants of white or yellow bush scalloped. they are not so good in quality as either delicata or fordhook, which are ready within a week or so later. the latter are also excellent keepers and can be had, by starting plants early and by careful storing, almost from june to june. _tomato:_--if you have a really hated enemy, give him a dozen seed catalogues and ask him to select for you the best four tomatoes. but unless you want to become criminally involved, send his doctor around the next morning. a few years ago i tried over forty kinds. a good many have been introduced since, some of which i have tried. i am prepared to make the following statements: earliana is the earliest quality tomato, for light warm soils, that i have ever grown; chalk's jewel, the earliest for heavier soils (bonny best early resembles it); matchless is a splendid main-crop sort; ponderosa is the biggest and best quality--but it likes to split. there is one more sort, which i have tried one year only, so do not accept my opinion as conclusive. it is the result of a cross between ponderosa and dwarf champion--one of the strongest-growing sorts. it is called dwarf giant. the fruits are tremendous in size and in quality unsurpassed by any. the vine is very healthy, strong and stocky. i believe this new tomato will become the standard main crop for the home garden. by all means try it. and that is a good deal to say for a novelty in its second year! _turnip:_--the earliest turnip of good quality is the white milan. there are several others of the white-fleshed sorts, but i have never found them equal in quality for table to the yellow sorts. of these, golden ball (or orange jelly) is the best quality. petrowski is a different and distinct sort, of very early maturity and of especially fine quality. if you have room for but one sort in your home garden, plant this for early, and a month later for main crop. do not fail to try some of this year's novelties. half the fun of gardening is in the experimenting. but when you are testing out the new things in comparison with the old, just take a few plants of the latter and give them the same extra care and attention. very often the reputation of a novelty is built upon the fact that in growing it on trial the gardener has given it unusual care and the best soil and location at his command. be fair to the standards--and very often they will surprise you fully as much as the novelties. chapter xiii insects and diseases and methods of fighting them i use the term "methods of fighting" rather than the more usual one, "remedies," because by both experience and study i am more and more convinced that so long as the commercial fields of agriculture remain in the present absolutely unorganized condition, and so long as the gardener--home or otherwise--who cares to be neglectful and thus become a breeder of all sorts of plant pests, is allowed so to do--just so long we can achieve no remedy worth the name. when speaking of a remedy in this connection we very frequently are putting the cart before the horse, and refer to some means of prevention. prevention is not only the best, but often the only cure. this the gardener should always remember. this subject of plant enemies has not yet received the attention from scientific investigators which other branches of horticulture have, and it is altogether somewhat complicated. before taking up the various insects and diseases the following analysis and list will enable the reader to get a general comprehension of the whole matter. plant enemies are of two kinds--( ) insects, and ( ) diseases. the former are of two kinds, (a) insects which chew or eat the leaves or fruit; (b) insects which suck the juices therefrom. the diseases also are of two kinds--(a) those which result from the attack of some fungus, or germ; (b) those which attack the whole organism of the plant and are termed "constitutional." concerning these latter practically nothing is known. it will be seen at once, of course, that the remedy to be used must depend upon the nature of the enemy to be fought. we can therefore reduce the matter to a simple classification, as follows: plant enemies insects class eating a sucking b diseases parasitical c constitutional d remedies mechanical number covered boxes........... collars................. cards................... destructive hand-picking............ kerosene emulsion....... whale-oil soap.......... miscible oils........... tobacco dust............ carbolic acid emulsion.. corrosive sublimate.... bordeaux mixture....... poisonous paris green............ arsenate of lead....... hellebore.............. it will be of some assistance, particularly as regards quick reference, to give the following table, which shows at a glance the method of fighting any enemy, the presence of which is known or anticipated. while this may seem quite a formidable list, in practice many of these pests will not appear, and under ordinary circumstances the following six remedies out of those mentioned will suffice to keep them all in check, _if used in time:_ covered boxes, hand-picking, kerosene emulsion, tobacco dust, bordeaux mixture, arsenate of lead. enemy | attacking | class | remedy --------------------|----------------------------|--------|------- aphis (plant-lice) | cabbage and other plants, | b | , , | especially under glass | | asparagus-beetle | asparagus | a | , asparagus rust | asparagus | c | black-rot | cabbage and the cabbage | d | | group | | borers | squash | b | caterpillars | cabbage group | a | , , caterpillars | tomato | a | club-root | cabbage group | c | see text cucumber-beetle | cucumber and vines | a | , , (striped beetle) | | | cucumber-wilt | cucumber and vines | c | cucumber-blight | cucumber, muskmelon, | c | | cabbage | | cut-worm | cabbage, tomato, onion | a | , , , flea-beetle | potato, turnip, radish | a | , potato-beetle | potato and egg-plant | a | , , potato-blight | potato | c | potato-scab | potato (tubers) | c | root-maggot | radish, onion, cabbage, | a | , , | melons | | squash-bug | squash, pumpkin | b | , , , white-fly | plants; cucumber, tomato | b | , , white-grub | plants | a | however, that the home gardener may be prepared to meet any contingency, i shall take up in brief detail the plant enemies mentioned and the remedies suggested. _aphis:_--the small, soft green plant-lice. they seldom attack healthy growing plants in the field, but are hard to keep off under glass. if once established it will take several applications to get rid of them. use kerosene or soap emulsion, or tobacco dust. there are also several trade-marked preparations that are good. aphine, which may be had of any seed house, has proved very effective in my own work, and it is the pleasantest to use that i have so far found. _asparagus-beetle:_--this pest will give little trouble on cleanly cultivated patches. thorough work with arsenate of lead ( to ) will take care of it. _black-rot:_--this affects the cabbage group, preventing heading, by falling of the leaves. in clean, thoroughly limed soil, with proper rotations, it is not likely to appear. the seed may be soaked, in cases where the disease has appeared previously, for fifteen minutes in a pint of water in which one of the corrosive sublimate tablets which are sold at drug stores is dissolved. _borers:_--this borer is a flattish, white grub, which penetrates the main stem of squash or other vines near the ground and seems to sap the strength of the plant, even when the vines have attained a length of ten feet or more. his presence is first made evident by the wilting of the leaves during the noonday heat. coal ashes mixed with the manure in the hill, is claimed to be a preventative. another is to plant some early squash between the hills prepared for the winter crop, and not to plant the latter until as late as possible. the early squash vines, which act as a trap, are pulled and burned. last season almost half the vines in one of my pieces were attacked after many of the squashes were large enough to eat. with a little practice i was able to locate the borer's exact position, shown by a spot in the stalk where the flesh was soft, and of a slightly different color. with a thin, sharp knife-blade the vines were carefully slit lengthwise on this spot, the borer extracted and killed and the vines in almost every instance speedily recovered. another method is to root the vines by heaping moist earth over several of the leaf joints, when the vines have attained sufficient length. _cabbage-caterpillar:_--this small green worm, which hatches upon the leaves and in the forming heads of cabbage and other vegetables of the cabbage group, comes from the eggs laid by the common white or yellow butterfly of early spring. pick off all that are visible, and spray with kerosene emulsion if the heads have not begun to form. if they have, use hellebore instead. the caterpillar or worm of tomatoes is a large green voracious one. hand-picking is the only remedy. _club-root:_--this is a parasitical disease attacking the cabbage group, especially in ground where these crops succeed each other. lime both soil and seed-bed--at least the fall before planting, unless using a special agricultural lime. the crop infested is sometimes carried through by giving a special dressing of nitrate of soda, guano or other quick-acting powerful fertilizer, and hilled high with moist earth, thus giving a special stimulation and encouraging the formation of new roots. while this does not in any way cure the disease, it helps the crop to withstand its attack. when planting again be sure to use crop rotation and to set plants not grown in infested soil. _cucumber-beetle:_--this is the small, black-and-yellow-striped beetle which attacks cucumbers and other vines and, as it multiplies rapidly and does a great deal of damage before the results show, they must be attended to immediately upon appearance. the vine should be protected with screens until they crowd the frames, which should be put in place before the beetles put in an appearance. if the beetles are still in evidence when the vines get so large that the screens must be removed, keep sprayed with bordeaux mixture. plaster, or fine ashes, sifted on the vines will also keep them off to some extent, by keeping the leaves covered. _cucumber-wilt:_--this condition accompanies the presence of the striped beetle, although supposed not to be directly caused by it. the only remedy is to get rid of the beetles as above, and to collect and burn every wilted leaf or plant. _cucumber-blight_ or _mildew_ is similar to that which attacks muskmelons, the leaves turning yellow, dying in spots and finally drying up altogether. where there is reason to fear an attack of this disease, or upon the first appearance, spray thoroughly with bordeaux, - - , and repeat every ten days or so. the spraying seems to be more effective on cucumbers than on melons. _cut-worm:_--the cut-worm is perhaps the most annoying of all garden pests. others do more damage, but none is so exasperating. he works at night, attacks the strongest, healthiest plants, and is content simply to cut them off, seldom, apparently, eating much or carrying away any of the severed leaves or stems, although occasionally i have found such bits, especially small onion tops, dragged off and partly into the soil. in small gardens the quickest and best remedy is hand-picking. as the worms work at night they may be found with a lantern; or very early in the morning. in daytime by digging about in the soil wherever a cut is found, and by careful search, they can almost invariably be turned out. as a preventive, and a supplement to hand-picking, a poisoned bait should be used. this is made by mixing bran with water until a "mash" is made, to which is added a dusting of paris green or arsenate of lead, sprayed on thickly and thoroughly worked through the mass. this is distributed in small amounts--a tablespoonful or so to a place along the row or near each hill or plant--just as they are coming up or set out. still another method, where only a few plants are put out, is to protect each by a collar of tin or tar paper. _flea-beetle:_--this small, black or striped hard-shelled mite attacks potatoes and young cabbage, radish and turnip plants. it is controlled by spraying with kerosene emulsion or bordeaux. _potato-beetle:_--the striped colorado beetle, which invariably finds the potato patch, no matter how small or isolated. paris green, dry or sprayed, is the standard remedy. arsenate of lead is now largely used. on small plots hand-picking of old bugs and destruction of eggs (which are laid on under side of leaves) is quick and sure. _potato-blight:_--both early and late forms of blight are prevented by bordeaux, - - , sprayed every two weeks. begin early-- when plants are about six inches high. _potato-scab:_--plant on new ground; soak the seed in solution prepared as directed under no. , which see; allow no treated tubers to touch bags, boxes, bins or soil where untreated ones have been kept. _root-maggot:_--this is a small white grub, often causing serious injury to radishes, onions and the cabbage group. liming the soil and rotation are the best preventives. destroy all infested plants, being sure to get the maggots when pulling them up. the remaining plants should be treated with a gill of strong caustic lime water, or solution of muriate of potash poured about the root of each plant, first removing an inch or so of earth. in place of these solutions carbolic acid emulsion is sometimes used; or eight to ten drops of bisulphide of carbon are dropped into a hole made near the roots with the dibber and then covered in. extra stimulation, as directed for _club-root_, will help carry the plants through. _squash-bug:_--this is the large, black, flat "stink-bug," so destructive of squash and the other running vines. protection with frames, or hand-picking, are the best home garden remedies. the old bugs may be trapped under boards and by early vines. the young bugs, or "sap-sucking nymphs," are the ones that do the real damage. heavy tobacco dusting, or kerosene emulsion will kill them. _white-fly:_--this is the most troublesome under glass, where it is controlled by fumigation, but occasionally is troublesome on plants and tomato and cucumber vines. the young are scab-like insects and do the real damage. spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap. _white-grub_ or _muck-worm:_--when lawns are infested the sod must be taken up, the grubs destroyed and new sward made. when the roots of single plants are attacked, dig out, destroy the grubs and, if the plant is not too much injured, reset. the remedies given in the table above are prepared as follows: mechanical remedies .--_covered boxes:_--these are usually made of half-inch stuff, about eight inches high and covered with mosquito netting, wire or "protecting cloth"--the latter having the extra advantage of holding warmth over night. .--_collars_ are made of old cans with the bottoms removed, cardboard or tarred paper, large enough to go over the plant and an inch or so into the ground. .--_cards_ are cut and fitted close around the stem and for an inch or so upon the ground around it, to prevent maggots going down the stem to the root. not much used. destructive remedies .--_hand-picking_ is usually very effective, and if performed as follows, not very disagreeable: fasten a small tin can securely to a wooden handle and fill one-third full of water and kerosene; make a small wooden paddle, with one straight edge and a rather sharp point; by using this in the right hand and the pan in the left, the bugs may be quickly knocked off. be sure to destroy all eggs when hand-picking is used. .--_kerosene emulsion_ is used in varying strengths; for method of preparing, see chapter xvii. and .--for use of whale-oil soap and miscible oils, see chapter xvii. .--_tobacco dust:_--this article varies greatly. most sorts are next to worthless, but a few of the brands especially prepared for this work (and sold usually at $ per hundred pounds, which will last two ordinary home gardens a whole season) are very convenient to use, and effective. apply with a duster, like that described in implements. .--_carbolic acid emulsion:_-- pint crude acid, lb. soap and gal. water. dissolve the soap in hot water, add balance of water and pump into an emulsion, as described for kerosene emulsion. .--_corrosive sublimate_ is used to destroy scab on potatoes for seed by dissolving oz. in gals, of water. the same result is obtained by soaking for thirty minutes in a solution of commercial formalin, at the rate of gill to gals. of water. .--_bordeaux mixture:_--see chapter xvii. poisonous remedies .--_paris green:_--this is the standard remedy for eating-bugs and worms. with a modern dusting machine it can be put on dry, early in the morning when the dew is still on. sometimes it is mixed with plaster. for tender plants easily burned by the pure powder, and where dusting is not convenient, it is mixed with water at the rate of lb. to to gals. and used as a spray. in mixing, make a paste of equal quantities of the powder and quicklime, and then mix thoroughly in the water. it must be kept stirred up when using. .--_arsenate of lead:_--this has two advantages over paris green: it will not burn the foliage and it will stay on several times as long. use from to lbs. in gals. of water; mix well and strain before putting in sprayer. see also chapter xvii. .--_hellebore:_--a dry, white powder, used in place of nos. or on vegetables or fruit that is soon to be eaten. for dusting, use lb. hellebore to of plaster or flour. for watering or spraying, at rate of lb. to gals. of water. precautions so much for what we can do in actual hand-to-hand, or rather hand-to- mouth, conflict with the enemy. very few remedies have ever proved entirely successful, especially on crops covering any considerable area. it will be far better, far easier and far more effective to use the following means of precaution against plant pest ravages: first, aim to have soil, food and plants that will produce a rapid, robust growth without check. such plants are seldom attacked by any plant disease, and the foliage does not seem to be so tempting to eating- insects; besides which, of course, the plants are much better able to withstand their attack if they do come. second, give clean, frequent culture and keep the soil busy. do not have old weeds and refuse lying around for insects and eggs to be sheltered by. burn all leaves, stems and other refuse from plants that have been diseased. do not let the ground lie idle, but by continuous cropping keep the bugs, caterpillars and eggs constantly rooted out and exposed to their natural enemies. third, practice crop rotation. this is of special importance where any root disease is developed. fourth, watch closely and constantly for the first appearance of trouble. the old adages "eternal vigilance is the price of peace," and "a stitch in time saves nine," are nowhere more applicable than to this matter. and last, and of extreme importance, be prepared to act _at once_. do not give the enemy an hour's rest after his presence is discovered. in almost every case it is only by having time to multiply, that damage amounting to anything will be done. if you will keep on hand, ready for instant use, a good hand-sprayer and a modern powder gun, a few covered boxes, tobacco dust, arsenate of lead and materials for kerosene emulsion and bordeaux mixture, and are not afraid to resort to hand-picking when necessary, you will be able to cope with all the plant enemies you are likely to encounter. the slight expense necessary--considering that the two implements mentioned will last for years with a little care--will pay as handsome a dividend as any garden investment you can make. chapter xiv harvesting and storing it is a very common thing to allow the garden vegetables not used to rot on the ground, or in it. there is a great deal of unnecessary waste in this respect, for a great many of the things so neglected may just as well be carried into winter, and will pay a very handsome dividend for the slight trouble of gathering and storing them. a good frost-proof, cool cellar is the best and most convenient place in which to store the surplus product of the home garden. but, lacking this, a room partitioned off in the furnace cellar and well ventilated, or a small empty room, preferably on the north side of the house, that can be kept below forty degrees most of the time, will serve excellently. or, some of the most bulky vegetables, such as cabbage and the root crops, may be stored in a prepared pit made in the garden itself. as it is essential that such a pit be properly constructed, i shall describe one with sufficient detail to enable the home gardener readily to construct it. select a spot where water will not stand. put the vegetables in a triangular-shaped pile, the base three or four feet wide, and as long as required. separate the different vegetables in this pile by stakes about two feet higher than the top of the pile, and label them. then cover with a layer of clean straw or bog hay, and over this four inches of soil, dug up three feet back from the edges of the pile. this work must be done late in the fall, as nearly as one can judge just before lasting freezing begins, and preferably on a cold morning when the ground is just beginning to freeze; the object being to freeze the partly earth covering at once, so that it will not be washed or blown off. the vegetables must be perfectly dry when stored; dig them a week or so previous and keep them in an airy shed. as soon as this first layer of earth is partly frozen, but before it freezes through, put on another thick layer of straw or hay and cover with twelve inches of earth, keeping the pile as steep as possible; a slightly clayey soil, that may be beaten down firmly into shape with a spade, being best. the pile should be made where it will be sheltered from the sun as much as possible, such as on the north side of a building. the disadvantage of the plan is, of course, that the vegetables cannot be got at until the pile is opened up, in early spring, or late if desired. its two advantages are that the vegetables stored will be kept in better condition than in any cellar, and that cellar or house room will be saved. for storing small quantities of the roots, such as carrots or beets, they are usually packed in boxes or barrels and covered in with clean sand. where an upstairs room has to be used, swamp or sphagnum moss may replace the sand. it makes an ideal packing medium, as it is much lighter and cleaner than the sand. in many localities it may be had for the gathering; in others one may get it from a florist. in storing vegetables of any kind, and by whatever method, see to it that: ( ) they are always clean, dry and sound. the smallest spot or bruise is a danger center, which may spread destruction to the lot. ( ) that the temperature, whatever required--in most cases - degrees being best--is kept as even as possible. ( ) that the storage place is kept clean, dry (by ventilation when needed) and sweet (by use of whitewash and lime). ( ) that no rats or other rodents are playing havoc with your treasures while you never suspect it. so many of the vegetables can be kept, for either part or all of the winter, that i shall take them up in order, with brief directions. many, such as green beans, rhubarb, tomatoes, etc., which cannot be kept in the ordinary ways, may be easily and cheaply canned, and where one has a good cellar, it will certainly pay to get a canning outfit and make use of this method. _beans:_--almost all the string and snap beans, when dried in the pods, are excellent for cooking. and any pods which have not been gathered in the green state should be picked, _as soon as dry_ (as wet weather is likely to mould or sprout them), and stored in a dry place, or spread on a bench in the sun. they will keep, either shelled or in the dry pods, for winter. _beets:_--in october, before the first hard frosts, take up and store in a cool cellar, in clean, perfectly dry sand, or in pits outside (see cabbage); do not cut off the long tap roots, nor the tops close enough to cause any "bleeding." _brussels sprouts:_--these are improved by freezing, and may be used from the open garden until december. if wanted later, store them with cabbage, or hang up the stalks in bunches in a cold cellar. _cabbage:_--if only a few heads are to be stored, a cool cellar will do. even if where they will be slightly frozen, they will not be injured, so long as they do not freeze and thaw repeatedly. they should not be taken in until there is danger of severe freezing, as they will keep better, and a little frost improves the flavor. for storing small quantities outdoors, dig a trench, a foot or so deep, in a well drained spot, wide enough to admit two heads side by side. pull up the cabbages, without removing either stems or outer leaves, and store side by side, head down, in the bottom of the trench. now cover over lightly with straw, meadow hay, or any refuse which will keep the dirt from freezing to the cabbages, and then cover over the whole with earth, to the depth of several inches, but allowing the top of the roots to remain exposed, which will facilitate digging them up as required. do not bury the cabbage until as late as possible before severe freezing, as a spell of warm weather would rot it. _carrots:_--treat in the same way as beets. they will not be hurt by a slight freezing of the tops, before being dug, but care must be taken not to let the roots become touched by frost. _celery:_--that which is to be used early is blanched outside, by banking, as described in chapter xi, and as celery will stand a little freezing, will be used directly from the garden. for the portion to be kept over winter, provide boxes about a foot wide, and nearly as deep as the celery is high. cover the bottoms of these boxes with two or three inches of sand, and wet thoroughly. upon this stand the celery upright, and packed close together. in taking up the celery for storing in this way, the roots and whatever earth adheres to them are kept on, not cut, as it is bought in the stores. the boxes are then stored in a cellar, or other dark, dry, cold place where the temperature will not go more than five degrees below freezing. the celery will be ready for use after christmas. if a long succession is wanted, store from the open two or three different times, say at the end of october, first part of november and the latter part of november. _cucumbers, melons, egg-plant:_--while there is no way of storing these for any great length of time without recourse to artificial cold, they may be had for some time by storing just before the first frosts in a cool, dark cellar, care being taken in handling the fruits to give them no bruises. _onions:_--if the onions got a good early start in the spring, the tops will begin to die down by the middle of august. as soon as the tops have turned yellow and withered they should be pulled, on the first clear dry day, and laid in windrows (three or four rows in one), but not heaped up. they should be turned over frequently, by hand or with a wooden rake, and removed to a shed or barn floor as soon as dry, where the tops can be cut off. keep them spread out as much as possible, and give them open ventilation until danger of frost. then store in a dry place and keep as cool as possible without freezing. a few barrels, with holes knocked in the sides, will do well for a small quantity. _parsley:_--take up a few plants and keep in a flower-pot or small box, in the kitchen window. _parsnips:_--these will stay in the ground without injury all winter, but part of the crop may be taken up late in the fall and stored with beets, carrots and turnips, to use while the ground is frozen. _potatoes:_--when the vines have died down and the skin of the new potatoes has become somewhat hardened, they can be dug and stored in a cool, dry cellar at once. be sure to give plenty of ventilation until danger of frost. keep from the light, as this has the effect of making the potatoes bitter. if there is any sign of rot among the tubers, do not dig them up until it has stopped. _squash and pumpkins:_--the proper conditions for storing for winter will be indicated by the drying and shrinking of the stem. _cut_ them from the vines, being careful never to break off the stem, turn over, rub off the dirt and leave the under side exposed to a few days' sunlight. then carry in a spring wagon, or spring wheelbarrow, covered with old bags or hay to keep from any bruises. store in the dryest part of the cellar, and if possible where the temperature will not go below forty degrees. leave them on the vines in the field as late as possible, while escaping frosts. _tomatoes:_--just before the first frosts are likely to begin, pick all of the best of the unripened fruits. place part of these on clean straw in a coldframe, giving protection, where they will gradually ripen up. place others, that are fully developed but not ripe, in straw in the cellar. in this way fresh tomatoes may frequently be had as late as christmas. _turnip:_--these roots, if desired, can be stored as are beets or carrots. it is hard to retain our interest in a thing when most of its usefulness has gone by. it is for that reason, i suppose, that one sees so many forsaken and weed-grown gardens every autumn, where in the spring everything was neat and clean. but there are two very excellent reasons why the vegetable garden should not be so abandoned--to say nothing of appearances! the first is that many vegetables continue to grow until the heavy frosts come; and the second, that the careless gardener who thus forsakes his post is sowing no end of trouble for himself for the coming year. for weeds left to themselves, even late in the fall, grow in the cool moist weather with astonishing rapidity, and, almost before one realizes it, transform the well kept garden into a ragged wilderness, where the intruders have taken such a strong foothold that they cannot be pulled up without tearing everything else with them. so we let them go--and, left to themselves, they accomplish their purpose in life, and leave upon the ground an evenly distributed supply of plump ripe seeds, which next spring will cause the perennial exclamation, "mercy, john, where did all these weeds come from?" and john replies, "i don't know; we kept the garden clean last summer. i think there must be weed seeds in the fertilizer." do not let up on your fight with weeds, for every good vegetable that is left over can be put to some use. here and there in the garden will be a strip that has gone by, and as it is now too late to plant, we just let it go. yet now is the time we should be preparing all such spots for withstanding next summer's drouth! you may remember how strongly was emphasized the necessity for having abundant humus (decayed vegetable matter) in the soil--how it acts like a sponge to retain moisture and keep things growing through the long, dry spells which we seem to be sure of getting every summer. so take thought for next year. buy a bushel of rye, and as fast as a spot in your garden can be cleaned up, harrow, dig or rake it over, and sow the rye on broadcast. just enough loose surface dirt to cover it and let it sprout, is all it asks. if the weather is dry, and you can get a small roller, roll it in to ensure better germination. it will come up quickly; it will keep out the weeds which otherwise would be taking possession of the ground; it will grow until the ground is frozen solid and begin again with the first warm spring day; it will keep your garden from washing out in heavy rains, and capture and save from being washed away and wasted a good deal of left-over plant food; it will serve as just so much real manure for your garden; it will improve the mechanical condition of the soil, and it will add the important element of humus to it. in addition to these things, you will have an attractive and luxuriant garden spot, instead of an unsightly bare one. and in clearing off these patches for rye, beware of waste. if you have hens, or by chance a pig, they will relish old heads of lettuce, old pea-vines, still green after the last picking, and the stumps and outer leaves of cabbage. even if you have not this means of utilizing your garden's by- products, do not let them go to waste. put everything into a square pile--old sods, weeds, vegetable tops, refuse, dirt, leaves, lawn sweepings--anything that will rot. tread this pile down thoroughly; give it a soaking once in a while if within reach of the hose, and two or three turnings with a fork. next spring when you are looking for every available pound of manure with which to enrich your garden, this compost heap will stand you in good stead. burn _now_ your old pea-brush, tomato poles and everything that is not worth keeping over for next year. do not leave these things lying around to harbor and protect eggs and insects and weed seeds. if any bean-poles, stakes, trellises or supports seem in good enough condition to serve another year, put them under cover now; and see that all your tools are picked up and put in one place, where you can find them and overhaul them next february. as soon as your surplus pole beans have dried in their pods, take up poles and all and store in a dry place. the beans may be taken off later at your leisure. be careful to cut down and burn (or put in the compost heap) all weeds around your fences, and the edges of your garden, _before_ they ripen seed. if the suggestions given are followed, the vegetable garden may be stretched far into the winter. but do not rest at that. begin to plan _now_ for your next year's garden. put a pile of dirt where it will not be frozen, or dried out, when you want to use it next february for your early seeds. if you have no hotbed, fix the frames and get the sashes for one now, so it will be ready to hand when the ground is frozen solid and covered with snow next spring. if you have made garden mistakes this year, be planning now to rectify them next--without progress there is no fun in the game. let next spring find you with your plans all made, your materials all on hand and a fixed resolution to have the best garden you have ever had. part three--fruits and berries chapter xv. the varieties of pome and stone fruits many a home gardener who has succeeded well with vegetables is, for some reason or other, still fearsome about trying his hand at growing his own fruit. this is all a mistake; the initial expense is very slight (fruit trees will cost but twenty-five to forty cents each, and the berry bushes only about four cents each), and the same amount of care that is demanded by vegetables, if given to fruit, will produce apples, peaches, pears and berries far superior to any that can be bought, especially in flavor. i know a doctor in new york, a specialist, who has attained prominence in his profession, and who makes a large income; he tells me that there is nothing in the city that hurts him so much as to have to pay out a nickel whenever he wants an apple. his boyhood home was on a pennsylvania farm, where apples were as free as water, and he cannot get over the idea of their being one of nature's gracious gifts, any more than he can overcome his hankering for that crisp, juicy, uncloying flavor of a good apple, which is not quite equaled by the taste of any other fruit. and yet it is not the saving in expense, although that is considerable, that makes the strongest argument for growing one's own fruit. there are three other reasons, each of more importance. first is quality. the commercial grower cannot afford to grow the very finest fruit. many of the best varieties are not large enough yielders to be available for his use, and he cannot, on a large scale, so prune and care for his trees that the individual fruits receive the greatest possible amount of sunshine and thinning out--the personal care that is required for the very best quality. second, there is the beauty and the value that well kept fruit trees add to a place, no matter how small it is. an apple tree in full bloom is one of the most beautiful pictures that nature ever paints; and if, through any train of circumstances, it ever becomes advisable to sell or rent the home, its desirability is greatly enhanced by the few trees necessary to furnish the loveliness of showering blossoms in spring, welcome shade in summer and an abundance of delicious fruits through autumn and winter. then there is the fun of doing it--of planting and caring for a few young trees, which will reward your labors, in a cumulative way, for many years to come. but enough of reasons. if the call of the soil is in your veins, if your fingers (and your brain) in the springtime itch to have a part in earth's ever-wonderful renascence, if your lips part at the thought of the white, firm, toothsome flesh of a ripened-on-the-tree red apple-- then you must have a home orchard without delay. and it is not a difficult task. apples, pears and the stone fruits, fortunately, are not very particular about their soils. they take kindly to anything between a sandy soil so loose as to be almost shifting, and heavy clay. even these soils can be made available, but of course not without more work. and you need little room to grow all the fruit your family can possibly eat. time was, when to speak of an apple tree brought to mind one of those old, moss-barked giants that served as a carriage shed and a summer dining-room, decorated with scythes and rope swings, requiring the services of a forty-foot ladder and a long-handled picker to gather the fruit. that day is gone. in its stead have come the low-headed standard and the dwarf forms. the new types came as new institutions usually do, under protest. the wise said they would never be practical--the trees would not get large enough and teams could not be driven under them. but the facts remained that the low trees are more easily and thoroughly cared for; that they do not take up so much room; that they are less exposed to high winds, and such fruit as does fall is not injured; that the low limbs shelter the roots and conserve moisture; and, above all, that picking can be accomplished much more easily and with less injury to fine, well ripened fruit. the low-headed tree has come to stay. if your space will allow, the low-headed standards will give you better satisfaction than the dwarfs. they are longer-lived, they are healthier, and they do not require nearly so much intensive culture. on the other hand, the dwarfs may be used where there is little or no room for the standards. if there is no other space available, they may be put in the vegetable or flower garden, and incidentally they are then sure of receiving some of that special care which they need in the way of fertilization and cultivation. as i have said, any average soil will grow good fruit. a gravelly loam, with a gravel subsoil, is the ideal. do not think from this, however, that all you have to do is buy a few trees from a nursery agent, stick them in the ground and from your negligence reap the rewards that follow only intelligent industry. the soil is but the raw material which work and care alone can transform, through the medium of the growing tree, into the desired result of a cellar well stored each autumn with fruit. fruit trees have one big advantage over vegetables--the ground can be prepared for them while they are growing. if the soil will grow a crop of clover it is already in good shape to furnish the trees with food at once. if not, manure or fertilizers may be applied, and clover or other green crops turned under during the first two or three years of the trees' growth, as will be described later. the first thing to consider, when you have decided to plant, is the location you will give your trees. plan to have pears, plums, cherries and peaches, as well as apples. for any of these the soil, of whatever nature, must be well drained. if not naturally, then tile or other artificial drainage must be provided. for only a few trees it would probably answer the purpose to dig out large holes and fill in a foot or eighteen inches at the bottom with small stone, covered with gravel or screened coal-cinders. my own land has a gravelly subsoil and i have not had to drain. then with the apples, and especially with the peaches, a too-sheltered slope to the south is likely to start the flower buds prematurely in spring, only to result in total crop loss from late frosts. the diagram on the next page suggests an arrangement which may be adapted to individual needs. one may see from it that the apples are placed to the north, where they will to some extent shelter the rest of the grounds; the peaches where they will not be coddled; the pears, which may be had upon quince stock, where they will not shade the vegetable garden; the cherries, which are the most ornamental, where they may lend a decorative effect. and now, having decided that we can--and will--grow good fruit, and having in mind suggestions that will enable us to go out to-morrow morning and, with an armful of stakes, mark out the locations, the next consideration should be the all-important question of what varieties are most successfully grown on the small place. [illustration: a suggested arrangement of fruit trees on the small place.] [ed. unable to recreate in text format.] the following selections are made with the home fruit garden, not the commercial orchard, in mind. while they are all "tried and true" sorts, succeeding generally in the northeast, new england and western fruit sections, remember that fruits, as a rule, though not so particular as vegetables about soil, seem much more so about locality. i would suggest, therefore, submitting your list, before buying, to your state experiment station. you are taxed for its support; get some direct result from it. there they will be glad to advise you, and are in the best position to help you get started properly. above all, do not buy from the traveling nursery agent, with his grip full of wonderful lithographs of new and unheard-of novelties. get the catalogue of several reliable nurseries, take standard varieties about which you know, and buy direct. several years ago i had the opportunity to go carefully over one of the largest fruit nurseries in the country. every care and precaution was taken to grow fine, healthy, young trees. the president told me that they sold thousands every year to smaller concerns, to be resold again through field and local agents. yet they do an enormous retail business themselves, and of course their own customers get the best trees. the following are listed, as nearly as i can judge, in the order of their popularity, but as many of the best are not valuable commercially, they are little known. whenever you find a particularly good apple or pear, try to trace it, and add it to your list. apples without any question, the apple is far and away the most valuable fruit, both because of its greater scope of usefulness and its longer season--the last of the winter's russets are still juicy and firm when the first early harvests and red astrachans are tempting the "young idea" to experiment with colic. plant but a small proportion of early varieties, for the late ones are better. out of a dozen trees, i would put in one early, three fall, and the rest winter sorts. among the summer apples are several deserving special mention: yellow transparent is the earliest. it is an old favorite and one of the most easily grown of all apples. its color is indicated by the name, and it is a fair eating-apple and a very good cooker. red astrachan, another first early, is not quite so good for cooking, but is a delicious eating-apple of good size. an apple of more recent introduction and extremely hardy (hailing first from russia), and already replacing the above sorts, is livland (livland raspberry). the tree is of good form, very vigorous and healthy. the fruit is ready almost as soon as yellow transparent, and is of much better quality for eating. in appearance it is exceptionally handsome, being of good size, regular form and having those beautiful red shades found almost exclusively in the later apples. the flesh is quality is fully up to its appearance. the white, crisp-breaking flesh, most aromatic, deliciously sub-acid, makes it ideal for eating. a neighbor of mine sold $ worth of fruit from twenty trees to one dealer. for such a splendid apple mcintosh is remarkably hardy and vigorous, succeeding over a very wide territory, and climate severe enough to kill many of the other newer varieties. the fameuse (widely known as the snow) is an excellent variety for northern sections. it resembles the mcintosh, which some claim to be derived from it. fall pippin, pound sweet and twenty ounce, are other popular late autumns. in the winter section, baldwin, which is too well known to need describing, is the leading commercial variety in many apple districts, and it is a good variety for home growing on account of its hardiness and good cooking and keeping qualities; but for the home orchard, it is far surpassed in quality by several others. in northern sections, down to the corn line, northern spy is a great favorite. it is a large, roundish apple, with thin, tender, glossy skin, light to deep carmine over light yellow, and an excellent keeper. in sections to which it is adapted it is a particularly vigorous, compact, upright grower. jonathan is another splendid sort, with a wider range of conditions favorable for growth. it is, however, not a strong-growing tree and is somewhat uncertain in maturing its fruit, which is a bright, clear red of distinctive flavor. it likes a soil with more clay than do most apples. in the middle west and middle south, grimes (golden) has made a great local reputation in many sections, although in others it has not done well at all. the spitzenberg (esopus) is very near the top of the list of all late eating-apples, being at its prime about december. it is another handsome yellow-covered red apple, with flesh slightly yellowish, but very good to the taste. the tree, unfortunately, is not a robust grower, being especially weak in its earlier stages, but with good cultivation it will not fail to reward the grower for any extra care it may have required. these, and the other notable varieties, which there is not room here to describe, make up the following list, from which the planter should select according to locality: _earliest or summer:_--early harvest, yellow transparent, red astrachan, benoni (new), chenango, sweet bough, williams' favorite, early strawberry, livland raspberry. _early autumn:_--alexander, duchess, porter, gravenstein, mcintosh red. _late autumn:_--jefferies, fameuse (snow), maiden's blush, wealthy, fall pippin, pound sweet, twenty ounce, cox orange, hubbardston. _winter:_--baldwin, rhode island greening, northwestern greening, jonathan, northern spy, yellow, swaar, delicious, wagener, king, esopus, spitzenberg, yellow bellflower, winter banana, seek-no-further, talman sweet, roxbury russett, king david, stayman's winesap, wolf river. pears pears are more particular than apples in the matter of being adapted to sections and soils. submit your list to your state experiment station before ordering trees. many of the standard sorts may be had where a low-growing, spreading tree is desired (for instance, quince-stock pears might be used to change places with the plums). varieties suitable for this method are listed below. they are given approximately in the order of the ripening: wilder: early august, medium in size, light yellow, excellent quality. does not rot at the core, as so many early pears are liable to do. margaret: oblong, greenish, yellow to dull red. clapp favorite: very large, yellow pear. a great bearer and good keeper--where the children cannot get at it. howell: a little later than the foregoing; large, bright yellow, strong-growing tree and big bearer. duchesse d'angouleme: large greenish yellow, sometimes reaching huge size; will average better than three-quarters of a pound. the quality, despite its size, is splendid. seckel: small in size, but renowned for exquisite flavor--being probably the most universally admired of all. beurre superfine: october, medium size, excellent quality. bartlett: the best known of all pears, and a universal favorite. succeeds in nearly all sections. anjou: one of the best keepers, and very productive. one of the best in flavor, rich and vinous. for trees of the standard type the following are worthy of note: congress (souvenir du c.): a very large summer sort. handsome. belle lucrative: september to october. winter nelis: medium size, but of excellent quality and the longest keeper. kieffer: very popular for its productiveness, strength of growth and exceptional quality of fruit for canning and preserving. large fruit, if kept thinned. should have a place in every home garden. josephine de malines: not a great yielder but of the very highest quality, being of the finest texture and tempting aroma. peaches success with peaches also will depend largely upon getting varieties adapted to climate. the white-fleshed type is the hardiest and best for eating; and the free-stones are for most purposes, especially in the home garden, more desirable than the "clings." greensboro is the best early variety. crawford is a universal favorite and goes well over a wide range of soil and climate. champion is one of the best quality peaches and exceptionally hardy. elberta, ray, and hague are other excellent sorts. mayflower is the earliest sort yet introduced. plums the available plums are of three classes--the natives, europeans and japans; the natives are the longest-lived, hardier in tree and blossom, and heavier bearers. the best early is milton; brilliant red, yellow and juicy flesh. wildgoose and whitaker are good seconds. mrs. cleveland is a later and larger sort, of finer quality. three late-ripening plums of the finest quality, but not such prolific yielders, are wayland, benson and reed, and where there is room for only a few trees, these will be best. they will need one tree of newman or prairie flower with them to assure setting of the fruit. of the europeans, use reine claude (the best), bradshaw or shropshire. damson is also good. the japanese varieties should go on high ground and be thinned, especially during their first years. my first experience with japanese plums convinced me that i had solved the plum problem; they bore loads of fruit, and were free from disease. that was five years ago. last spring the last one was cut and burned. had they been planted at the top of a small hill, instead of at the bottom, as they were, and restricted in their bearing, i know from later experience that they would still be producing fruit. the most satisfactory varieties of the japanese type are abundance and red june. burbank is also highly recommended, cherries cherries have one advantage over the other fruits--they give quicker returns. but, as far as my experience goes, they are not as long-lived. the sour type is hardier, at least north of new jersey, than the sweet. it will probably pay to try a few of the new and highly recommended varieties. of the established sorts early richmond is a good early, to be followed by montmorency and english morello. windsor is a good sweet cherry, as are also black tartarian, sox, wood and yellow spanish. all the varieties mentioned above are proved sorts. but the lists are being added to constantly, and where there is a novelty strongly recommended by a reliable nurseryman it will often pay to try it out--on a very small scale at first. chapter xvi planting: cultivation: filler crops as the pedigree and the quality of the stock you plant will have a great deal to do with the success or failure of your adventure in orcharding, even on a very small scale, it is important to get the best trees you can, anywhere, at any price. but do not jump to the conclusion that the most costly trees will be the best. from reliable nurserymen, selling direct by mail, you can get good trees at very reasonable prices. as a general thing you will succeed best if you have nothing to do with the perennial "tree agent." he may represent a good firm; you may get your trees on time; he may have a novelty as good as the standard sorts; but you are taking three very great chances in assuming so. but, leaving these questions aside, there is no particular reason why you should help pay his traveling expenses and the printing bills for his lithographs ("made from actual photographs" or "painted from nature," of course!) when you can get the best trees to be had, direct from the soil in which they are grown, at the lowest prices, by ordering through the mail. or, better still, if the nursery is not too far away, take half a day off and select them in person. if you want to help the agent along present him with the amount of his commission, but get your trees direct from some large reliable nursery. well grown nursery stock will stand much abuse, but it will not be at all improved by it. do not let yours stand around in the sun and wind, waiting until you get a chance to set it out. as soon as you get it home from the express office, unpack it and "heel it in," in moist, but not wet, ground; if under a shed, so much the better. dig out a narrow trench and pack it in as thick as it will go, at an angle of forty-five degrees to the natural position when growing. so stored, it will keep a long time in cold weather, only be careful that no rats, mice, or rabbits reach it. do not, however, depend upon this knowledge to the extent of letting all your preparations for planting go until your stock is on hand. be ready to set it the day it arrives, if possible. planting planting can be done in either spring or fall. as a general rule, north of philadelphia and st. louis, spring planting will be best; south of that, fall planting. where there is apt to be severe freezing, "heaving," caused by the alternate freezing and thawing; injury to the newly set roots from too severe cold; and, in some western sections, "sun-scald" of the bark, are three injuries which may result. if trees are planted in the fall in cold sections, a low mound of earth, six to twelve inches high, should be left during the winter about each, and leveled down in the spring. if set in the spring, where hot, dry weather is apt to follow, they should be thoroughly mulched with litter, straw or coarse manure, to preserve moisture--care being taken, however, against field mice and other rodents. the trees may either be set in their permanent positions as soon as bought, or grown in "nursery rows" by the purchaser for one or two years after being purchased. in the former case, it will be the best policy to get the strongest, straightest two-year stock you can find, even if they cost ten or fifteen cents apiece more than the "mediums." the former method is the usual one, but the latter has so many advantages that i give it the emphasis of a separate paragraph, and urge every prospective planter to consider it carefully. in the first place, then, you get your trees a little cheaper. if you purchase for nursery row planting, six-foot to seven-foot two-year-old apple trees, of the standard sorts, should cost you about thirty cents each; one-year "buds," six feet and branched, five to ten cents less. this gain, however, is not an important one--there are four others, each of which makes it worth while to give the method a trial. first, the trees being all together, and in a convenient place, the chances are a hundred to one that you will give them better attention in the way of spraying, pruning and cultivating--all extremely important in the first year's growth. second, with the year gained for extra preparation of the soil where they are to be placed permanently, you can make conditions just right for them to take hold at once and thrive as they could not do otherwise. third, the shock of transplanting will be much less than when they are shipped from a distance--they will have made an additional growth of dense, short roots and they will have become acclimated. fourth, you will not have wasted space and time with any backward black sheep among the lot, as these should be discarded at the second planting. and then there is one further reason, psychological perhaps, but none the less important; you will watch these little trees, which are largely the result of your own labor and care, when set in their permanent positions, much more carefully than you would those direct from the nursery. i know, both from experience and observation, how many thrifty young trees in the home orchard are done to an untimely death by children, careless workmen, and other animals. so if you can put a twelve-month curb on your impatience, get one-year trees and set them out in a straight row right in your vegetable garden where they will take up very little room. keep them cultivated just as thoroughly as the rest of your growing things. melons, or beans, or almost any low-growing vegetable can be grown close beside them. if you want your garden to pay for your whole lot of fruit trees this season dig up a hole about three feet in diameter wherever a tree is to "go permanently." cut the sod up fine and work in four or five good forkfuls of well rotted manure, and on these places, when it is warm enough, plant a hill of lima pole-beans-the new sort named giant-podded pole lima is the best i have yet seen. place a stout pole, eight to ten feet high, firmly in each hole. good lima beans are always in demand, and bring high prices. let us suppose that your trees are at hand, either direct from the nursery or growing in the garden. you have selected, if possible, a moist, gravelly loam on a slope or slight elevation, where it is naturally and perfectly drained. good soil drainage is imperative. coarse gravel in the bottom of the planting hole will help out temporarily. if the land is in clover sod, it will have the ideal preparation, especially if you can grow a patch of potatoes or corn on it one year, while your trees are getting further growth. in such land the holes will not have to be prepared. if, however, you are not fortunate enough to be able to devote such a space to fruit trees, and in order to have them at all must place them along your wall or scattered through the grounds, you can still give them an excellent start by enriching the soil in spots beforehand, as suggested above in growing lima beans. in the event of finding even this last way inapplicable to your land, the following method will make success certain: dig out holes three to six feet in diameter (if the soil is very hard, the larger dimension), and twelve to eighteen inches deep. mix thoroughly with the excavated soil a good barrowful of the oldest, finest manure you can get, combined with about one-fourth or one-fifth its weight of south carolina rock (or acid phosphate, if you cannot get the rock). it is a good plan to compost the manure and rock in advance, or use the rock as an absorbent in the stable. fill in the hole again, leaving room in the center to set the tree without bending or cramping any roots. where any of these are injured or bruised, cut them off clean at the injured spot with a sharp knife. shorten any that are long and straggling about one-third to one-half their length. properly grown stock should not be in any such condition. remember that a well planted tree will give more fruit in the first ten years than three trees carelessly put in. get the tree so that it will be one to three inches deeper in the soil than when growing in the nursery. work the soil in firmly about the roots with the fingers or a blunt wooden "tamper"; do not be afraid to use your feet. when the roots are well covered, firm the tree in by putting all your weight upon the soil around it. see that it is planted straight, and if the "whip," or small trunk, is not straight stake it, and tie it with rye straw, raffia or strips of old cloth-never string or wire. if the soil is very dry, water the root copiously while planting until the soil is about half filled in, never on the surface, as that is likely to cause a crust to form and keep out the air so necessary to healthy growth. prune back the "leader" of the tree-the top above the first lateral branches, about one-half. peach trees should be cut back more severely. further information in regard to pruning, and the different needs of the various fruits in regard to this important matter, will be given in the next chapter. setting standard apple trees, fully grown, will require thirty to forty-five feet of space between them each way. it takes, however, ten or twelve years after the trees are set before all of this space is needed. a system of "fillers," or inter-planting, has come into use as a result of this, which will give at least one hundred per cent, more fruit for the first ten years. small-growing standards, standard varieties on dwarf stock, and also peaches, are used for this purpose in commercial orchards. but the principle may be applied with equally good results to the home orchard, or even to the planting of a few scattered trees. the standard dwarfs give good satisfaction as permanent fillers. where space is very limited, or the fruit must go into the garden, they may be used in place of the standard sorts altogether. the dwarf trees are, as a rule, not so long-lived as the standards, and to do their best, need more care in fertilizing and manuring; but the fruit is just as good; just as much, or more, can be grown on the same area; and the trees come into bearing two to three years sooner. they cost less to begin with and are also easier to care for, in spraying and pruning and in picking the fruit. cultivation the home orchard, to give the very finest quality of fruit, must be given careful and thorough cultivation. in the case of scattered trees, where it is not practicable to use a horse, this can be given by working a space four to six feet wide about each tree. every spring the soil should be loosened up, with the cultivator or fork, as the case may be, and kept stirred during the early part of the summer. unless the soil is rich, a fertilizer, high in potash and not too high in nitrogen, should be given in the spring. manure and phosphate rock, as suggested above, is as good as any. in case the foliage is not a deep healthy green, apply a few handfuls of nitrate of soda, working it into the soil just before a rain, around each tree. about august st the cultivation should be discontinued, and some "cover crop" sown. buckwheat and crimson clover is a good combination; as the former makes a rapid growth it will form, if rolled down just as the apples are ripening, a soft cushion upon which the windfalls may drop without injury, and will furnish enough protection to the crimson clover to carry it through most winters, even in cold climates. in addition to the filler crops, where the ground is to be cultivated by horse, potatoes may be grown between the rows of trees; or fine hills of melons or squash may be grown around scattered trees, thus, incidentally, saving a great deal of space in the vegetable garden. or why not grow a few extra fancy strawberries in the well cultivated spots about these trees? neither they nor the trees want the ground too rich, especially in nitrogen, and conditions suiting the one would be just right for the others. it may seem to the beginner that fruit-growing, with all these things to keep in mind, is a difficult task. but it is not. i think i am perfectly safe in saying that the rewards from nothing else he can plant and care for are as certain, and surely none are more satisfactory. if you cannot persuade yourself to try fruit on any larger plan, at least order half a dozen dwarf trees (they will cost about twenty cents apiece, and can be had by mail). they will prove about the best paying investment you ever made. chapter xvii pruning, spraying, harvesting the day has gone, probably forever, when setting out fruit trees and giving them occasional cultivation, "plowing up the orchard" once in several years, would produce fruit. apples and pears and peaches have occupied no preferred position against the general invasion of the realm of horticulture by insect and fungous enemies. the fruits have, indeed, suffered more than most plants. nevertheless there is this encouraging fact: that, though the fruits may have been severely attacked, the means we now have of fighting fruit-tree enemies, if thoroughly used, as a rule are more certain of accomplishing their purpose, and keeping the enemies completely at bay, than are similar weapons in any other line of horticultural work. with fruit trees, as with vegetables and flowers, the most important precaution to be taken against insects and disease is to _have them in a healthy, thriving, growing condition_. it is a part of nature's law of the survival of the fittest that any backward or weakling plant or tree seems to fall first prey to the ravages of destructive forces. for these reasons the double necessity of maintaining at all times good fertilization and thorough cultivation will be seen. in addition to these two factors, careful attention in the matter of pruning is essential in keeping the trees in a healthy, robust condition. as explained in a previous chapter, the trees should be started right by pruning the first season to the open-head or vase shape, which furnishes the maximum of light and air to all parts of the tree. three or four main branches should form the basis of the head, care being taken not to have them start from directly opposite points on the trunk, thus forming a crotch and leaving the tree liable to splitting from winds or excessive crops. if the tree is once started right, further pruning will give little trouble. cut out limbs which cross, or are likely to rub against each other, or that are too close together; and also any that are broken, decayed, or injured in any way. for trees thus given proper attention from the start, a short jackknife will be the only pruning instrument required. the case of the old orchard is more difficult. cutting out too many of the old, large limbs at one time is sure to give a severe shock to the vitality of the tree. a better plan is, first, to cut off _close_ all suckers and all small new-growth limbs, except a few of the most promising, which may be left to be developed into large limbs; and then as these new limbs grow on, gradually to cut out, using a fine-tooth saw and painting the exposed surfaces, the surplus old wood. apples will need more pruning than the other fruits. pears and cherries need the least; cutting back the ends of limbs enough to keep the trees in good form, with the removal of an occasional branch for the purpose of letting in light and air, is all the pruning they will require. of course trees growing on rich ground, and well cultivated, will require more cutting back than those growing under poorer conditions. a further purpose of pruning is to effect indirectly a thinning of the fruit, so that what is grown will be larger and more valuable, and also that the trees may not become exhausted by a few exceptionally heavy crops. on trees that have been neglected and growing slowly the bark sometimes becomes hard and set. in such cases it will prove beneficial to scrape the bark and give a wash applied with an old broom. whitewash is good for this purpose, but soda or lye answers the same purpose and is less disagreeably conspicuous. slitting the bark of trunks and the largest limbs is sometimes resorted to, care being taken to cut through the bark only; but such practice is objectionable because it leaves ready access to some forms of fungous disease and to borers. where extra fine specimens of fruit are desired, thinning is practiced. it helps also to prevent the tree from being overtaxed by excessive crops. but where pruning is thoroughly done this trouble is usually avoided. peaches and japan plums are especially benefited by thinning, as they have a great tendency to overbear. the spread of fruit diseases, especially rot in the fruit itself, is also to some extent checked. of fruit-tree enemies there are some large sorts which may do great damage in short order--rabbits and field mice. they may be kept away by mechanical protection, such as wire, or by heaping the earth up to a height of twelve inches about the tree trunk. or they may be caught with poisoned baits, such as boiled grain in which a little rough on rats or similar poison has been mixed. the former method for the small home garden is little trouble, safer to fido and tabby, and the most reliable in effect. insects and scale diseases are not so easily managed; and that brings us to the question of spraying and of sprays. for large orchards the spray must, of course, be applied with powerful and expensive machinery. for the small fruit garden a much simpler and very moderate priced apparatus may be acquired. the most practical of these is the brass-tank compressed-air sprayer, with extension rod and mist-spray nozzle. or one of the knapsack sprayers may be used. either of these will be of great assistance not only with the fruit trees, but everywhere in the garden. with care they will last a good many years. whatever type you get, be sure to get a brass machine; as cheaper ones, made of other metal, quickly corrode from contact with the strong poisons used. apple enemies the insects most commonly attacking the apple are the codlin-moth, tent-caterpillar, canker-worm and borer. the codlin-moth lays its eggs on the fruit about the time of the falling of the blossoms, and the larvae when hatched eat into the young fruit and cause the ordinary wormy apples and pears. owing to these facts, it is too late to reach the trouble by spraying after the calyx closes on the growing fruit. keep close watch and spray immediately upon the fall of the blossoms, and repeat the spraying a week or so (not more than two) later. for spray use paris green at the rate of lb., or arsenate of lead (paste or powder, less of the latter: see accompanying directions) at the rate of lbs. to gallons of water, being careful to have a thorough mixture. during july, tie strips of burlap or old bags around the trunks, and every week or so destroy all caterpillars caught in these traps. the tent-caterpillar may be destroyed while in the egg state, as these are plainly visible around the smaller twigs in circular, brownish masses. (see illustration.) upon hatching, also, the nests are obtrusively visible and may be wiped out with a swab of old bag, or burned with a kerosene torch. be sure to apply this treatment before the caterpillar begins to leave the nest. the treatment recommended for codlin-moths is also effective for the tent-caterpillar. the canker-worm is another leaf-feeding enemy, and can be taken care of by the paris green or arsenate spray. the railroad-worm, a small white maggot which eats a small path in all directions through the ripening fruit, cannot be reached by spraying, as he starts life inside the fruit; but where good clean tillage is practiced and no fallen fruit is left to lie and decay under the trees, he is not apt to give much trouble. the borer's presence is indicated by the dead, withered appearance of the bark, beneath which he is at work, and also by small amounts of sawdust where he entered. dig him out with a sharp pocket-knife, or kill him inside with a piece of wire. the most troublesome disease of the apple, especially in wet seasons, is the apple-scab, which disfigures the fruit, both in size and in appearance, as it causes blotches and distortions. spray with bordeaux mixture, - - , or - - (see formulas below) three times: just before the blossoms open, just as they fall, and ten days to two weeks after they fall. the second spraying is considered the most important. the san josé scale is of course really an insect, though in appearance it seems a disease. it is much more injurious than the untrained fruit grower would suppose, because indirectly so. it is very tiny, being round in outline, with a raised center, and only the size of a small pinhead. where it has once obtained a good hold it multiplies very rapidly, makes a scaly formation or crust on the branches, and causes small red-edged spots on the fruit (see illustration). for trees once infested, spray thoroughly both in fall, after the leaves drop, and again in spring, _before_ growth begins. use lime-sulphur wash, or miscible oil, one part to ten of water, thoroughly mixed. cherry enemies sour cherries are more easily grown than the sweet varieties, and are less subject to the attacks of fruit enemies. sweet cherries are troubled by the curculio, or fruit-worm, which attacks also peaches and plums. cherries and plums may be sprayed, when most of the blossoms are off, with a strong arsenate of lead solution, to lbs. to gals. water. in addition to this treatment, where the worms have once got a start, the beetles may be destroyed by spreading a sheet around and beneath the tree, and every day or so shaking or jarring them off into it, as described below. peach enemies do not spray peaches. for the curculio, within a few days after the flowers are off, take a large sheet of some cheap material to use as a catcher. for large orchards there is a contrivance of this sort, mounted on a wheelbarrow frame, but for the home orchard a couple of sheets laid upon the ground, or one with a slit from one side to the center, will answer. if four short, sharp-pointed stakes are fastened to the corners, and three or four stout hooks and eyes are placed to reunite the slit after the sheet is placed about the tree, the work can be more thoroughly done, especially on uneven ground. after the sheet is placed, with a stout club or mallet, padded with a heavy sack or something similar to prevent injury to the bark, give a few sharp blows, well up from the ground. this work should be done on a cloudy day, or early in the morning--the colder the better--as the beetles are then inactive. if a considerable number of beetles are caught the operation should be repeated every two or three days. continue until the beetles disappear. peaches are troubled also by borers, in this case indicated by masses of gum, usually about the crown. dig out or kill with a wire, as in the case of the apple-borer. look over the trees for borers every spring, or better, every spring and fall. another peach enemy is the "yellows," indicated by premature ripening of the fruit and the formation of stunted leaf tufts, of a light yellow color. this disease is contagious and has frequently worked havoc in whole sections. owing to the work of the agricultural department and the various state organizations it is now held in check. the only remedy is to cut and burn the trees and replant, in the same places if desired, as, the disease does not seem to be carried by the soil. pear enemies pears are sometimes affected with a scab similar to the apple-scab, and this is combated by the same treatment--three sprayings with bordeaux. a blight which causes the leaves suddenly to turn black and die and also kills some small branches and produces sores or wounds on large branches and trunk, offers another difficulty. cut out and burn all affected branches and scrape out all sores. disinfect all sores with corrosive sublimate solution-- to --or with a torch, and paint over at once. plum enemies plums have many enemies but fortunately they can all be effectively checked. first is the curculio, to be treated as described above. for leaf-blight--spotting and dropping off of the leaves about midsummer--spray with bordeaux within a week or so after the falling of the blossoms. this treatment will also help to prevent fruit-rot. in addition to the spraying, however, thin out the fruit so that it does not hang thickly enough for the plums to come in contact with each other. in a well kept and well sprayed orchard black-knot is not at all likely to appear. it is very manifest wherever it starts, causing ugly, black, distorted knarls, at first on the smaller limbs. remove and burn immediately, and keep a sharp watch for more. as this disease is supposed to be carried by the wind, see to it that no careless neighbor is supplying you with the germs. as will have been seen from the above, spraying poisons are of two kinds: those that work by contact, which must be used for most sucking insects, and germs and fungous diseases; and those that poison internally, used for leaf-eating insects. of the former sort, bordeaux mixture is the standard, although within the last few years it has been to a considerable extent replaced by lime-sulphur mixtures, which are described below. bordeaux is made in various forms. that usually used is the - - , or lbs. copper sulphate, lbs. unslaked lime, gals. water. to save the trouble of making up the mixture each time it is needed make a stock solution as follows: dissolve the copper sulphate in water at the rate of lb. to gal. this should be done the day before, or at least several hours before, the bordeaux is wanted for use. suspend the sulphate crystals in a cloth or old bag just below the surface of the water. then slake the lime in a tub or tight box, adding the water a little at a time, until the whole attains the consistency of thick milk. when necessary, add water to this mixture if it is kept too long; never let it dry out. when ready to spray, pour the stock copper sulphate solution into the tank in the proportion of gals. to every of spray required. add water to amount required. then add stock lime solution, first diluting about one-half with water and straining. the amount of lime stock solution to be used is determined as follows: at the druggist's get an ounce of yellow prussiate of potash dissolved in a pint of water, with a quill in the cork of the bottle so that it may be dropped out. (it is poison.) when adding the stock lime solution as directed above, continue until the prussiate testing solution when dropped into the bordeaux mixture will no longer turn brown; then add a little more lime to be on the safe side. all this sounds like a formidable task, but it is quite simple when you really get at it. remember that all you need is a few pounds each of quicklime and copper sulphate, an ounce of prussiate of potash and a couple of old kegs or large pails, in which to keep the stock solutions, lime-sulphur mixtures can be bought, or mixed by the home orchardist. they have the advantages over bordeaux that they do not discolor the foliage or affect the appearance of the fruit. use according to directions, usually about part to of water. these may be used at the same times and for the same purposes as bordeaux. lime-sulphur wash is used largely in commercial orcharding, but it is a nasty mess to prepare and must be used in late fall or winter. for the home orchard one of the miscible oils now advertised will be found more satisfactory. while they cost more, there is no time or expense for preparation, as they mix with cold water and are immediately ready for use. they are easier to apply, more comfortable to handle, and will not so quickly rot out pumps and spraying apparatus. like the sulphur wash, use only during late fall and winter. kerosene emulsion is made by dissolving ivory, soft, whale-oil, or tar soap in hot water and adding (away from the stove, please!) kerosene (or crude oil); / lb. soap, gal. water, gals, kerosene. immediately place in a pail and churn or pump until a thick, lathery cream results. this is the stock solution: for use, dilute with five to fifteen times as much water, according to purpose applied for--on dormant fruit trees, to times; on foliage, or even . of the poisons for eating-insects, arsenate of lead is the best for use in the fruit orchard, because it will not burn the foliage as paris green is apt to do, and because it stays on longer. it can be used in bordeaux and lime-sulphur mixtures, thus killing two bugs with one spray. it comes usually in the form of a paste--though there is now a brand in powder form (which i have not yet tried). this should be worked up with the fingers (it is not poison to touch) or a small wooden paddle, until thoroughly mixed, in a small quantity of water and then strained into the sprayer. use, of the paste forms, from one- fourth to one lb. in gals, clear water. paris green is the old standard. with a modern duster it may be blown on pure without burning, if carefully done. applied thus it should be put on during a still morning, before the dew goes. it is safer to use as a spray, first making a paste with a small quantity of water, and then adding balance of water. keep constantly stirred while spraying. if lime is added, weight for weight with the green, the chances of burning will be greatly reduced. for orchard work, lb. to gals. water is the usual strength. the accompanying table will enable the home orchardist to find quickly the trouble with, and remedy for, any of his fruit trees. the quality of fruit will depend very largely upon the care exercised in picking and storing. picking, carelessly done, while it may not at the time show any visible bad results, will result in poor keeping and rot. if the tissue cells are broken, as many will be by rough handling, they will be ready to cause rotten spots under the first favorable conditions, and then the rot will spread. most of the fruits of the home garden, which do not have to undergo shipping, will be of better quality where they ripen fully on the tree. pears, however, are often ripened in the dark and after picking, especially the winter sorts. apples and pears for winter use should be kept, if possible, in a cold, dark place, where there is no artificial heat, and where the air will be moist, but never wet, and where the thermometer will not fall below thirty-two degrees. upon exceptionally cold nights the temperature may be kept up by using an oil stove or letting in heat from the furnace cellar, if that is adjacent. in such a place, store the fruit loosely, on ventilated shelves, not more than six or eight inches deep. if they must be kept in a heated place, pack in tight boxes or barrels, being careful to put away only perfect fruit, or pack in sand or leaves. otherwise they will lose much in quality by shriveling, due to lack of moisture in the atmosphere. with care they may be had in prime quality until late in the following spring. fruit | pest | remedy | times to apply | | | and when ------+--------------+-------------------------------+---------------- apple | apple-scab | bordeaux - - , or summer | .--b b o--a b | | lime-sulphur spray | f--f d. | | | | apple-maggot | pick up and destroy all | (see key below.) | or | fallen fruits | | railroad worm| dig out or kill with wire; | | borer | search for in fall and spring| | | | | codlin moth | arsenate of lead, in ; | | | or paris green, in . | .--a b f-f | | burlap bands on truck | d. | | for traps during july | | | | | cankerworm | same as above | | | | | tent- | same as above, also wipe out | | caterpillar | out or burn nests | | | | | blister-mite | lime-sulphur wash; kerosene | late fall or | | emulsion (dilute times) | early spring. | | or miscible oil ( in gal.)| | | | | bud-moth | arsenate of lead or paris | .--when leaves | | green | appear--b b o. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- cherry| leaf blight | bordeaux - - | .--b b c--a | | | calyx closes--f | | | d--f d. | | | | curculio | arsenate of lead, in . | .--a b f. | | curculio catcher (see plum) | times a week | | | | black-knot | cut out and burn at once | | | (see plum) | | | | | fruit-rot | pick before fully ripe. | | | spread out in cool airy room | ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- peach | borer | dig out or kill with wire | | yellows | pull out and burn | | | tree--replant | | | | | curculio | do not spray. catch on sheets | | | (see plum) | | | | | brown-rot | summer lime-sulphur; open | | | pruning; pick rotten fruit | .--when fruit | | | is half | | | grown--f | | | d--f d. | | | | leaf-curl | bordeaux - - ; lime-sulphur | --b buds swell, | | wash | fall or early | | | spring. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- pear | blight | cut out diseased branches; | | | clean out sores; disinfect | | | with corrosive sublimate | | | in ; paint over | | | | | scab | bordeaux - - , or summer | .--b b o--a b | | sulphur (see apple) | o--f d. | | | | blister-mite | | ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- plum | leaf-blight | bordeaux or summer sulphur | .--after fruits | | | set. | fruit-rot | same; also thin fruits so as | | black-knot | not to touch (see cherry) | | curculio | also have neighboring trees | | | cleaned up | | | jar down on sheets stretched | | | beneath trees and destroy | a b f--cool | | | mornings- | | | times a week. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- any | san josé | lime-sulphur wash, kerosene | late fall or | scale | emulsion, times diluted; | early spring. | | miscible oil, in gals | | | | | oyster-shell | kerosene emulsion | may or june, | scale | | when young | | | whitish lice | | | appear. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- a-after. b-before. d-days. f-follow up in. b-blossoms. o-open. f-fall. do not let yourself be discouraged from growing your own fruit by the necessity for taking good care of your trees. after all, you do not have to plant them every year, as you do vegetables, and they yield a splendid return on the small investment required. do not fail to set out at least a few this year with the full assurance that your satisfaction is guaranteed by the facts in the case. chapter xviii berries and small fruits besides the tree-fruits discussed in the preceding chapters, there is another class which should be represented in every home garden--the berries and small fruits. these have the advantage of occupying much less room than the former do and are therefore available where the others are not. the methods of giving berries proper cultivation are not so generally known as the methods used with vegetables. otherwise there is no reason why a few of each should not be included in every garden of average size. their requirements are not exacting: the amount of skill, or rather of attention, required to care for them is not more than that required by the ordinary vegetables. in fact, once they are well established they will demand less time than the annual vegetables. of these small fruits the most popular and useful are: the strawberry, the blackberry, dewberry and raspberry, the currant, gooseberry and grape. the strawberry is the most important, and most amateurs attempt its culture--many, however, with indifferent success. this is due, partly at least, to the fact that many methods are advocated by successful growers, and that the beginner is not likely to pick out _one_ and stick to it; and further, that he is led to pay more attention to how many layers he will have, and at what distance he will set the plants, than to proper selection and preparation of soil and other vital matters. the soil should be well drained and rich--a good garden soil being suitable. the strawberries should not follow sod or corn. if yard manure is used it should be old and well rotted, so as to be as free as possible from weed seeds. potash, in some form (see fertilizers) should be added. the bed should be thoroughly prepared, so that the plants, which need careful transplanting, may take hold at once. a good sunny exposure is preferable, and a spot where no water will collect is essential. the plants are grown from "layers." they are taken in two ways: ( ) by rooting the runners in the soil; and ( ) by layering in pots. in the former method they are either allowed to root themselves, or, which gives decidedly better results, by selecting vines from strong plants and pushing them lightly down into the soil where the new crown is to be formed. in the second method, two-inch or three-inch pots are used, filling these with soil from the bed and plunging, or burying, them level with the surface, just below where the crown is to be formed, and holding the vine in place with a small stone, which serves the additional purpose of marking where the pot is. in either case these layers are made after the fruiting season. setting the plants in using the soil-rooted layers, it is generally more satisfactory to set them out in spring, as soon as the ground can be worked, although they are sometimes set in early fall--august or september--when the ground is in very good condition, so that a good growth can at once be made. care should be used in transplanting. have the bed fresh; keep the plants out of the soil as short a time as possible; set the plants in straight, and firm the soil; set just down to the crown--do not cover it. if the soil is dry, or the season late, cut off all old leaves before planting; also shorten back the roots about one-third and be sure not to crowd them when setting, for which purpose a trowel, not a dibble, should be used if the condition of the ground makes the use of any implement necessary. if so dry that water must be used, apply it in the bottom of the hole. if very hot and dry, shade for a day or two. methods of growing i describe the three systems most valuable for the home garden: ( ) the hill, ( ) the matted row, and ( ) the pot-layered. ( ) in the hill system the plants are put in single rows, or in beds of three or four rows, the plants one foot apart and the rows, or beds, two or three feet apart. in either case each plant is kept separate, and all runners are pinched off as fast as they form, the idea being to throw all the strength into one strong crown. ( ) in the matted row system the plants are set in single rows, and the runners set in the bed at five or six inches each side of the plants, and then trained lengthways of the row, this making it a foot or so wide. the runners used to make these secondary crowns must be the first ones sent out by the plants; they should be severed from the parent plants as soon as well rooted. all other runners must be taken off as they form. to keep the beds for a good second crop, where the space between the rows has been kept cultivated and clean, cut out the old plants as soon as the first crop of berries is gathered, leaving the new ones--layered the year before-- about one foot apart. ( ) the pot-layering system, especially for a small number of plants, i consider the best. it will be seen that by the above systems the ground is occupied three years, to get two crops, and the strawberry season is a short one at best. by this third system the strawberry is made practically an annual, and the finest of berries are produced. the new plants are layered in pots, as described above. the layers are taken immediately after the fruit is gathered; or better still, because earlier, a few plants are picked out especially to make runners. in either case, fork up the soil about the plants to be layered, and in about fifteen days they will be ready to have the pots placed under them. the main point is to have pot plants ready to go into the new bed as soon as possible after the middle of july. these are set out as in the hill system, and all runners kept pinched off, so that a large crown has been formed by the time the ground freezes, and a full crop of the very best berries will be assured for the following spring. the pot-layering is repeated each year, and the old plants thrown out, no attempt being made to get a second crop. it will be observed that ground is occupied by the strawberries only the latter half of the one season and the beginning of the next, leaving ample time for a crop of early lettuce, cabbage or peas before the plants are set, say in , and for late cabbage or celery after the bed is thrown out, in . thus the ground is made to yield three crops in two years--a very important point where garden space is limited. cultivation whatever system is used--and each has its advocates--the strawberry bed must be kept clean, and attention given to removing the surplus runners. cultivate frequently enough to keep a dust mulch between the rows, as advocated for garden crops. at first, after setting, the cultivation may be as deep as three or four inches, but as the roots develop and fill the ground it should be restricted to two inches at most. where a horse is used a planet jr. twelve-tooth cultivator will be just the thing. mulching after the ground freezes, and before severe cold sets in (about the st to the th of december) the bed should be given its winter mulch. bog hay, which may be obtained cheaply from some nearby farmer, is about the best material. clean straw will do. cover the entire bed, one or two inches over the plants, and two or three between the rows. if necessary, hold in place with old boards. in spring, but not before the plants begin to grow, over each plant the mulch is pushed aside to let it through. besides giving winter protection, the mulch acts as a clean even support for the berries and keeps the roots cool and moist. insects and disease for white-grub and cut-worm see pages elsewhere in the text. for rust, which frequently injures the leaves so seriously as to cause practical loss of crop, choose hardy varieties and change bed frequently. spraying with bordeaux, - - , four or five times during first season plants are set, and second season just before and just after blossoming, will prevent it. in making up your strawberry list remember that some varieties have imperfect, or pistillate blossoms, and that when such varieties are used a row of some perfect-flowering (bi- sexual) sort must be set every nine to twelve feet. varieties new strawberries are being introduced constantly; also, they vary greatly in their adaptation to locality. therefore it is difficult to advise as to what varieties to plant. the following, however, have proved satisfactory over wide areas, and may be depended upon to give satisfaction. early crop:--michel's early, haverland, climax; mid- season crop:--bubach no. , brandywine, marshall, nic. ohmer, wm. belt, glen mary, sharplesss; late crop:--the gandy, sample, lester lovett. the blackberry, dewberry and raspberry are all treated in much the same way. the soil should be well drained, but if a little clayey, so much the better. they are planned preferably in early spring, and set from three or four to six or seven feet apart, according to the variety. they should be put in firmly. set the plants in about as deep as they have been growing, and cut the canes back to six or eight inches. if fruit is wanted the same season as bushes are set, get a few extra plants--they cost but a few cents--and cut back to two feet or so. plants fruited the first season are not likely to do well the following year. two plants may be set in a place and one fruited. if this one is exhausted, then little will be lost. give clean cultivation frequently enough to maintain a soil mulch, as it is very necessary to retain all the moisture possible. cultivation, though frequent, should be very shallow as soon as the plants get a good start. in very hot seasons, if the ground is clean, a summer mulch of old hay, leaves or rough manure will be good for the same purpose. in growing, a good stout stake is used for each plant, to which the canes are tied with some soft material. or, a stout wire is strung the length of the row and the canes fastened to this--a better way, however, being to string two wires, one on either side of the row. another very important matter is that of pruning. the plants if left to themselves will throw up altogether too much wood. this must be cut out to four or five of the new canes and all the canes that have borne fruit should be cut and burned each season as soon as through fruiting. the canes, for instance, that grow in will be those to fruit in , after which they should be immediately removed. the new canes, if they are to be self-supporting, as sometimes grown, should be cut back when three or four feet high. it is best, however, to give support. in the case of those varieties which make fruiting side-shoots, as most of the black raspberries (blackcaps) do, the canes should be cut back at two to three feet, and it is well also to cut back these side shoots one-third to one-half, early in the spring. in cold sections (new york or north of it) it is safest to give winter protection by "laying down" the canes and giving them a mulch of rough material. having them near the ground is in itself a great protection, as they will not be exposed to sun and wind and will sometimes be covered with snow. for mulching, the canes are bent over nearly at the soil and a shovelful of earth thrown on the tips to hold them down; the entire canes may then be covered with soil or rough manure, but do not put it on until freezing weather is at hand. if a mulch is used, it must be taken off before growth starts in the spring. the blackberry the large-growing sorts are set as much as six by eight feet apart, though with careful staking and pruning they may be comfortably handled in less space. the smaller sorts need about four by six. when growth starts, thin out to four or five canes and pinch these off at about three feet; or, if they are to be put on wires or trellis, they may be cut when tied up the following spring. cultivate, mulch and prune as suggested above. blackberries will do well on a soil a little dry for raspberries and they do not need it quite so rich, as in this case the canes do not ripen up sufficiently by fall, which is essential for good crops. if growing rank they should be pinched back in late august. when tying up in the spring, the canes should be cut back to four or five feet and the laterals to not more than eighteen inches. blackberry enemies do not do extensive injury, as a rule, in well- cared-for beds. the most serious are: ( ) the rust or blight, for which there is no cure but carefully pulling and burning the plants as fast as infested; ( ) the blackberry-bush borer, for which burn infested canes; and ( ) the recently introduced bramble flea-louse, which resembles the green plant-louse or aphis except that it is a brisk jumper, like the flea-beetle. the leaves twist and curl up in summer and do not drop off in the fall. on cold early mornings, or wet weather, while the insects are sluggish, cut all infested shoots, collecting them in a tight box, and burn. blackberry varieties as with the other small fruits, so many varieties are being introduced that it is difficult to give a list of the best for home use. any selections from the following, however, will prove satisfactory, as they are tried-and-true:--early king, early harvest, wilson junior, kittatinny, rathburn, snyder, erie. the dewberry this is really a trailing blackberry and needs the same culture, except that the canes are naturally slender and trailing and therefore, for garden culture, must have support. they may be staked up, or a barrel hoop, supported by two stakes, makes a good support. in ripening, the dewberry is ten to fourteen days earlier than the blackberry, and for that reason a few plants should be included in the berry patch. premo is the earliest sort, and lucretia the standard. raspberry the black and the red types are distinct in flavor, and both should be grown. the blackcaps need more room, about three by six or seven feet; for the reds three by five feet will be sufficient. the blackcaps, and a few of the reds, like cuthbert, throw out fruiting side branches, and should have the main canes cut back at about two and a half feet to encourage the growth of these laterals, which, in the following spring, should be cut back to about one-third their length. the soil for raspberries should be clayey if possible, and moist, but not wet. raspberry enemies the orange rust, which attacks the blackberry also, is a serious trouble. pull up and burn all infested plants at once, as no good remedy has as yet been found. the cut-worm, especially in newly set beds, may sometimes prove destructive of the sprouting young canes. the raspberry-borer is the larva of a small, flattish, red-necked beetle, which bores to the center of the canes during summer growth, and kills them. cut and burn. raspberry varieties of the blackcaps, gregg, mccormick, munger, cumberland, columbian, palmer (very early), and eureka (late), are all good sorts. reds: cuthbert, cardinal (new), turner, reliance, the king (extra early), loudon (late). yellow: golden queen. currants the currant and gooseberry are very similar in their cultural requirements. a deep, rich and moist soil is the best--approaching a clayey loam. there need be no fear of giving too much manure, but it should be well rotted. plenty of room, plenty of air, plenty of moisture, secured where necessary by a soil or other mulch in hot dry weather, are essential to the production of the best fruit. the currant will stand probably as much abuse as any plant the home gardener will have to deal with. stuck in a corner, smothered in sod, crowded with old wood, stripped by the currant-worm, it still struggles along from year to year, ever hopefully trying to produce a meager crop of poor fruit. but these are not the sort you want. although it is so tough, no fruit will respond to good care more quickly. to have it do well, give it room, four or five feet each way between bushes. manure it liberally; give it clean cultivation, and as the season gets hot and dry, mulch the soil, if you would be certain of a full-sized, full-flavored crop. two bushes, well cared for, will yield more than a dozen half-neglected ones. anywhere north of new york a full crop every year may be made almost certain. pruning currants besides careful cultivation, to insure the best of fruit it is necessary to give some thought to the matter of pruning. the most convenient and the most satisfactory way is to keep it in the bush form. set the plants singly, three or four feet apart, and so cut the new growth, which is generously produced, as to retain a uniform bush shape, preferably rather open in the center. the fruit is produced on wood two or more years old. therefore cut out branches either when very small, or not until four or five years later, after it has borne two or three crops of fruit. therefore, in pruning currants, take out ( ) superfluous young growth; ( ) old hard wood (as new wood will produce better fruit); and ( ) all weak, broken, dead or diseased shoots; ( ) during summer, if the tips of the young growths kept for fruiting are pinched off, they will ripen up much better-- meaning better fruit when they bear; ( ) to maintain a good form, the whole plant may be cut back (never more than one-third) in the fall. in special situations it may be advisable to train the currant to one or a few main stems, as against a wall; this can be done, but it is less convenient. also it brings greater danger from the currant-borer. the black currant, used almost entirely for culinary or preserving purposes, is entirely different from the red and white ones. they are much larger and should be put five to six feet apart. some of the fruit is borne on one-year-old wood, so the shoots should not be cut back. moreover, old wood bears as good fruit as the new growth, and need not be cut out, unless the plant is getting crowded, for several years. as the wood is much heavier and stronger than the other currants, it is advisable gradually to develop the black currants into the tree form. enemies of the currant the worst of these is the common currant-worm. when he appears, which will be indicated by holes eaten in the lower leaves early in spring, generally before the plants bloom, spray at once with paris green. if a second brood appears, spray with white hellebore (if this is not all washed off by the rain, wipe from the fruit when gathered). for the borer, cut and burn every infested shoot. examine the bushes in late fall, and those in which the borers are at work will usually have a wilted appearance and be of a brownish color. varieties of currants red dutch, while older and smaller than some of the newer varieties, is hardier and not so likely to be hurt by the borer. london market, fay's prolific, perfection (new), and prince albert, are good sorts. white grape is a good white. naples, and lee's prolific are good black sorts. the gooseberry this is given practically the same treatment as the currant. it is even more important that it should be given the coolest, airiest, location possible, and the most moist soil. even a partially shaded situation will do, but in such situations extra care must be taken to guard against the mildew--which is mentioned below. summer mulching is, of course, of special benefit. in pruning the gooseberry, it is best to cut out to a very few, or even to a single stem. keep the head open, to allow free circulation of air. the extent of pruning will make a great difference in the size of the fruit; if fruit of the largest size is wanted, prune very close. all branches drooping to the ground should be removed. keep the branches, as much as possible, from touching each other. gooseberry enemies the currant-worm attacks the gooseberry also, and is effectively handled by the arsenate of lead, paris green or hellebore spraying, mentioned above. the great trouble in growing gooseberries successfully is the powdery mildew--a dirty, whitish fungous growth covering both fruit and leaves. it is especially destructive of the foreign varieties, the culture of which, until the advent of the potassium sulfide spray, was being practically abandoned. use oz. of potassium sulfide (liver of sulphur) to gals. water, and mix just before using. spray thoroughly three or four times a month, from the time the blossoms are opening until fruit is ripe. gooseberry varieties of the native gooseberries--which are the hardiest, downing and houghton's seedling are most used. industry is an english variety, doing well here. golden prolific, champion, and columbus, are other good foreign sorts, but only when the mildew is successfully fought off. the grape no garden is so small that there cannot be found in it room for three or four grape-vines; no fruit is more certain, and few more delicious. if it is convenient, a situation fully exposed to the sun, and sloping slightly, will be preferable. but any good soil, provided only it is rich and thoroughly drained, will produce good results. if a few vines are to be set against walls, or in other out-of-the-way places, prepare the ground for them by excavating a good-sized hole, putting in a foot of coal cinders or other drainage material, and refilling with good heavy loam, enriched with old, well rotted manure and half a peck of wood ashes. for culture in the garden, such special preparation will not be necessary--although, if the soil is not in good shape, it will be advisable slightly to enrich the hills. one or two-year roots will be the most satisfactory to buy. they may be set in either fall or spring--the latter time, for new york or north, being generally preferable. when planting, the cane should be cut back to three or four eyes, and the roots should also be shortened back-- usually about one-third. be sure to make the hole large enough, when setting, to let the roots spread naturally, and work the soil in well around them with the fingers. set them in firmly, by pressing down hard with the ball of the foot after firming by hand. they are set about six feet apart. grape pruning as stated above, the vine is cut back, when planting, to three or four eyes. the subsequent pruning--and the reader must at once distinguish between pruning, and training, or the way in which the vines are placed--will determine more than anything else the success of the undertaking. grapes depend more upon proper pruning than any other fruit or vegetable in the garden. two principles must be kept track of in this work. first principle: _the annual crop is borne only on canes of the same year's growth, springing from wood of the previous season's growth_. second principle: _the vine, if left to itself, will set three or four times the number of bunches it can properly mature_. as a result of these facts, the following system of pruning has been developed and must be followed for sure and full-sized crops. ( ) at time of planting, cut back to three or four eyes, and after these sprout leave only one (or two) of them, which should be staked up. ( ) following winter (december to march), leave only one cane and cut this back to three or four eyes. ( ) second growing season, save only two canes, even if several sprout, and train these to stake or trellis. these two vines, or arms, branching from the main stem, form the foundation for the one-year canes that bear the fruit. however, to prevent the vine's setting too much fruit (see second principle above) these arms must be cut back in order to limit the number of fruit-bearing canes that will spring from them, therefore: ( ) second winter pruning, cut back these arms to eight or ten buds-- and we have prepared for the first crop of fruit, about forty bunches, as the fruiting cane from each bud will bear two bunches on the average. however these main arms will not bear fruiting-canes another year (see first principle above) and therefore: ( ) at the third winter pruning, (a) of the canes that bore fruit, only the three or four nearest the main stem or trunk are left; (b) these are cut back to eight or ten buds each, and (c) everything else is ruthlessly cut away. each succeeding year the same system is continued, care being taken to rub off, each may, buds or sprouts starting on the main trunk or arms. the wood, in addition to being cut back, must be well ripened; and the wood does not ripen until after the fruit. it therefore sometimes becomes necessary to cut out some of the bunches in order to hasten the ripening of the rest. at the same time the application of some potash fertilizer will be helpful. if the bunches do not ripen up quickly and pretty nearly together, the vine is overloaded and being damaged for the following year. the matter of pruning being mastered, the question of training is one of individual choice. poles, trellises, arbors, walls--almost anything may be used. the most convenient system, however, and the one i would strongly recommend for practical home gardening for results, is known as the (modified) kniffen system. it is simplicity itself. a stout wire is stretched five or six feet above the ground; to this the single main trunks of the vine run up, and along it are stretched the two or three arms from which the fruiting-canes hang down. they occupy the least possible space, so that garden crops may be grown practically on the same ground. i have never seen it tried, but where garden space is limited i should think that the asparagus bed and the kniffen grape- arbor just described could be combined to great advantage by placing the vines, in spaces left for them, directly in the asparagus row. of course the ground would have to be manured for two crops. a - - fertilizer is right for the grapes. if using stable manure, apply also ashes or some other potash fertilizer. if the old-fashioned arbor is used, the best way is to run the main trunk up over it and cut the laterals back each year to two or three eyes. the most serious grape trouble which the home gardener is likely to encounter is the black-rot where only a few grapes are grown the simplest way of overcoming this disease is to get a few dozen cheap manila store-bags and fasten one, with a couple of ten-penny nails, over each bunch. cut the mouth of the bag at sides and edges, cover the bunch, fold the flaps formed over the cane, and fasten. they are put on after the bunches are well formed and hasten the ripening of the fruit, as well as protecting it. on a larger scale, spraying will have to be resorted to. use bordeaux, - - , from third leaf's appearance to middle of july; balance of season with ammoniacal copper carbonate. the spray should be applied in particular just before every rain-- especially on the season's growth. besides the spraying, all trimmed- off wood, old leaves and twigs, withered bunches and grapes, or "mummies," and refuse of every description, should be carefully raked up in the spring and burned or buried. also give clean culture and keep the main stems clean. the grape completes the list of the small fruits worth while to the average home gardener. if you have not already experimented with them, do not let your garden go longer without them. they are all easily obtained (none costing more than a few cents each), and a very limited number will keep the family table well supplied with healthy delicacies, which otherwise, in their best varieties and condition, could not be had at all. the various operations of setting out, pruning and spraying will soon become as familiar as those in the vegetable garden. there is no reason why every home garden should not have its few rows of small fruits, yielding their delicious harvests in abundance. chapter xix a calendar of operations one of the greatest difficulties in gardening is to get things started ahead at the proper time, and yet upon the thoroughness with which this is done the success of the garden must depend, in large measure. the reader may remember that in a previous chapter (chapter iv) the importance of accurately planning the work ahead was emphasized. i mentioned there the check list used to make sure that everything would be carried out, or started ahead at the proper time--as with the sowing of seeds. the following garden operations, given month by month, will serve not only as a timely reminder of things to be done, but as the basis for such a check list. the importance of the _preparations_ in all matters of gardening, is of course obvious. january probably one of the good resolutions made with the new year was a better garden for the coming summer. the psychologists claim that the only hope for resolutions is to nail them down at the start with an _action_--that seems to have more effect in making an actual impression on the brain. so start the good work along by sending at once for several of the leading seed catalogues. _planting plan_. make out a list of what you are going to want this year, and then make your planting plan. see chapter iv. _seeds_. order your seed. _do it now_ while the seedsman's stock is full; while he is not rushed; while there is ample time to rectify mistakes if any occur. _manures_. altogether too few amateur gardeners realize the great importance of procuring early every pound of manures, of any kind, to be had. it often may be had cheaply at this time of year, and by composting, adding phosphate rock, and several turnings, if you have any place under cover where it can be collected, you can double its value before spring. _frames_. even at this season of the year do not fail to air the frames well on warm days. practically no water will be needed, but if the soil does dry out sufficiently to need it, apply early on a bright morning. _onions_. it will not be too early, this month, to sow onions for spring transplanting outside. get a packet each of prizetaker, ailsa craig, mammoth silver-skin, or gigantic gibraltar. _lettuce_. sow lettuce for spring crop under glass or in frames. _fruit_. this is a good month to prune grapes, currants, gooseberries and peach trees, to avoid the rush that will come later. february _hotbeds_. a little early for making them until after the th, but get all your material ready--manure, selected and stacked; lumber ready for any new ones; sash all in good repair. _starting seeds_. first part of the month, earliest planting of cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce should be made; and two to four weeks later for main early crop. at this time also, beets and earliest celery. _tools_. overhaul them all now; order repairs. get new catalogues and study new improvements and kinds you do not possess. _poles and brush_. whether you use the old-fashioned sort (now harder to obtain than they used to be) or make your "poles" and use wire trellis for peas, attend to it now. _fruit_. finish up last month's work, if not all done. also examine plum and cherry trees for black-knot. march _hotbeds_. if not made last of february, should be made at once. some of the seed sown last month will be ready for transplanting and going into the frames; also lettuce sown in january. radish and carrot (forcing varieties) may be sown in alternating rows. give much more air; water on bright mornings; be careful not to have them caught by suddenly cold nights after a bright warm day. _seed-sowing under glass_. last sowing of early cabbage and early summer cabbages (like succession), lettuce, rhubarb (for seedling plants), cauliflower, radish, spinach, turnip, and early tomatoes; towards last of month, late tomatoes and first of peppers, and egg- plant. sweet peas often find a place in the vegetable garden; start a few early, to set out later; they will do better than if started outside. start tomatoes for growing in frames. for early potatoes sprout in sand. _planting, outside_. if an early spring, and the ground is sufficiently dry, sow onions, lettuce, beet, radish, (sweet peas), smooth peas, early carrot, cabbage, leek, celery (main crop), and turnip. set out new beds of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale (be sure to try a few plants of the latter). manure and fork up old beds of above. _fruit_. prune now, apple, plum and pear trees. and this is the last chance for lime-sulphur and miscible-oil sprays. april now the rush is on! plan your work, and _work your plan_. but do not yield to the temptation to plant more than you can look out for later on. remember it is much easier to sow seeds than to pull out weeds. _the frames_. air! water! and do not let the green plant-lice or the white-fly get a ghost of a chance to start. almost every day the glass should be lifted entirely off. care must be taken never to let the soil or flats become dried out; toward the end of the month, if it is bright and warm, begin watering towards evening instead of in early morning, as you should have been doing through the winter. if proper attention is given to ventilation and moisture, there will not be much danger from the green plant-louse (aphis) and white-fly, but at the first sign of one fight them to a finish. use kerosene emulsion, tobacco dust, tobacco preparations, or aphine. _seed sowing_. under glass: tomato, egg-plant and peppers. on sod: corn, cucumbers, melons, early squash, lima beans. _planting, outside_. onions, lettuce, beet, etc., if not put in last month; also parsnip, salsify, parsley, wrinkled peas, endive. toward the end of this month (or first part of next) second plantings of these. set out plants of early cabbage (and the cabbage group) lettuce, onion sets, sprouted potatoes, beets, etc. _in the garden_. cultivate between rows of sowed crops; weed out by hand just as soon as they are up enough to be seen; watch for cut- worms and root-maggots. _fruit_. thin out all old blackberry canes, dewberry and raspberry canes (if this was not done, as it should have been, directly after the fruiting season last summer). be ready for first spraying of early- blossoming trees. set out new strawberry beds, small fruits and fruit trees. may _keep ahead of the weeds_. this is the month when those warm, south, driving rains often keep the ground too wet to work for days at a time, and weeds grow by leaps and bounds. woe betide the gardener whose rows of sprouting onions, beets, carrots, etc., once become green with wild turnip and other rapid-growing intruders. clean cultivation and slight hilling of plants set out are also essential. _the frames_. these will not need so much attention now, but care must be taken to guard tender plants, such as tomatoes, egg-plant and peppers, against sudden late frosts. the sash may be left off most of the time. water copiously and often. _planting, outside_. first part of the month: early beans, early corn, okra and late potatoes may be put in; and first tomatoes set out --even if a few are lost--they are readily replaced. finish setting out cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower, beets, etc., from frames. latter part of month, if warm: corn, cucumbers, some of sods from frames and early squash as traps where late crop is to be planted or set. _fruit_. be on time with first sprayings of late-blossoming fruits--apples, etc. rub off from grape vines the shoots that are not wanted. june _frequent, shallow cultivation!_ firm seeds in dry soil. plant wax beans, lima beans, pole beams, melons, corn, etc., and successive crops of lettuce, radish, etc. top-dress growing crops that need special manure (such as nitrate of soda on onions). prune tomatoes, and cut out some foliage for extra early tomatoes. toward end of month set celery and late cabbage. also sow beans, beets, corn, etc., for early fall crops. spray where necessary. allow asparagus to grow to tops. _fruit._ attend to spraying fruit trees and currants and gooseberries. make pot-layers of strawberries for july setting. july maintain frequent, shallow cultivation. set out late cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, leeks and celery. sow beans, beets, corn, etc., for late fall crops. irrigate where needed. _fruit_. pinch back new canes of blackberry, dewberry and raspberry. rub off second crop of buds on grapes. thin out if too many bunches; also on plums, peaches and other fruit too thick, or touching. pot-layered strawberries may be set out. august keep the garden clean from late weeds--especially purslane, the hot- weather weed pest, which should be always _removed_ from the garden and burned or rotted down. sow spinach, rutabaga turnip, bush beans and peas for last fall crop. during first part of month, late celery may still be put out. sow lettuce for early fall crop, in frames. first lot of endive should be tied up for blanching. _fruit_. strawberries may be set, and pot-layered plants, if wanted to bear a full crop the following season, should be put in by the thin out and bag grapes. september _frames_. set in lettuce started in august. sow radishes and successive crop of lettuce. cooler weather begins to tell on late- planted crops. give cabbage, cauliflower, etc., deeper cultivation. "handle" celery wanted for early use. harvest and store onions. get squash under cover before frost. from the th to th sow spinach, onions, borecole for wintering over. sow down thickly to rye all plots as fast as cleared of summer crops; or plow heavy land in ridges. attend to draining. _fruit_. trees may be set. procure barrels for storing fruit in winter. at harvest time it is often impossible to get them at any price. october get ready for winter. blanch rest of endive. bank celery, to be used before christmas, where it is. gather tomatoes, melons, etc., to keep as long as possible. keep especially clean and well cultivated all crops to be wintered over. late in the month store cabbage and cauliflower; also beets, carrots, and other root crops. get boxes, barrels, bins, sand or sphagnum moss ready beforehand, to save time in packing. clean the garden; store poles, etc., worth keeping over; burn everything else that will not rot; and compost everything that will. _fruit_. harvest apples, etc. pick winter pears just before hard frosts, and store in dry dark place. november _frames_. make deep hotbeds for winter lettuce and radishes. construct frames for use next spring. see that vegetables in cellar, bins, and sheds are safe from freezing. trench or store celery for spring use. take in balance of all root crops if any remain in the ground, except, of course, parsnip and salsify for spring use. put rough manure on asparagus and rhubarb beds. get mulch ready for spinach, etc., to be wintered over, if they occupy exposed locations. _fruit_. obtain marsh or salt hay for mulching strawberries. cut out old wood of cane-fruits--blackberries, etc., if not done after gathering fruit. look over fruit trees for borers. december cover celery stored last month, if trenched out-of-doors. use only light, loose material at first, gradually covering for winter. put mulch on spinach, etc. _fruit_. mulch strawberries. prune grape-vines; make first application of winter sprays for fruit trees. and then set about procuring manures of all kinds from every available source. remember that anything _which will rot_ will add to the value of your manure pile. muck, lime, old plastering, sods, weeds (earth and all), street, stable and yard sweepings--all these and numerous others will increase your garden successes of next year. chapter xx conclusion it is with a feeling in which there is something of fear that i close these pages--fear that many of those little things which become second nature to the grower of plants and seem unimportant, but which sometimes are just the things that the beginner wants to know about, may have been inadvertently left out. in every operation described, however, i have tried to mention all necessary details. i would urge the reader, nevertheless, to study as thoroughly as possible all the garden problems with which he will find himself confronted and to this end recommend that he read several of the many garden books which are now to be had. it must be to his advantage to see even the same subjects presented again from other points of view. the more familiar he can make himself, both in theory and in practice, with all the multitude of operations which modern gardening involves, the greater success will he attain. personally, the further i have gone into the growing of things--and that has now become my business as well as my pleasure--the more absorbingly interesting i find it. each season, each crop, offers its own problems and a reward for the correct solution of them. it is a work which, even to the beginner, presents the opportunity of deducting new conclusions, trying new experiments, making new discoveries. it is a work which offers pleasant and healthy recreation to the many whose days must be, for the most part, spent in office or shop; and it gives very substantial help in the world-old problem of making both ends meet. let the garden beginner be not disappointed if he does not succeed, for the first season or two, or possibly three, with everything he plants. there is usually a preventable reason for the failure, and studious observation will reveal it. with the modern success in the application of insecticides and fungicides, and the extension of the practice of irrigation, the subject of gardening begins to be reduced to a scientific and (what is more to the point) a sure basis. we are getting control of the uncertain factors. all this affects first, perhaps, the person who grows for profit, but with our present wide circulation of every new idea and discovery in such matters, it must reach soon to every remote home garden patch which is cared for by a wide-awake gardener. such a person, from the fact that he or she is reading a new garden book, i take the reader to be. i hope this volume, condensed though it is, has added to your fund of practical garden information; that it will help to grow that proverbial second blade of grass. i have only to add, as i turn again to the problems waiting for me in field and under glass, that i wish you all success in your work--the making of better gardens in america. cascadia gardening series gardening without irrigation: or without much, anyway steve solomon contents chapter predictably rainless summers water-wise gardening science helping plants to need less irrigation water-wise gardening year-round how to grow it with less irrigation: a-z my own garden plan the backyard introduction starting a new gardening era first, you should know why a maritime northwest raised-bed gardener named steve solomon became worried about his dependence on irrigation. i'm from michigan. i moved to lorane, oregon, in april and homesteaded on acres in what i thought at the time was a cool, showery green valley of liquid sunshine and rainbows. i intended to put in a big garden and grow as much of my own food as possible. two months later, in june, just as my garden began needing water, my so-called -gallon-per-minute well began to falter, yielding less and less with each passing week. by august it delivered about gallons per minute. fortunately, i wasn't faced with a completely dry well or one that had shrunk to below gallon per minute, as i soon discovered many of my neighbors were cursed with. three gallons per minute won't supply a fan nozzle or even a common impulse sprinkler, but i could still sustain my big raised-bed garden by watering all night, five or six nights a week, with a single, - / gallon-per-minute sprinkler that i moved from place to place. i had repeatedly read that gardening in raised beds was the most productive vegetable growing method, required the least work, and was the most water-efficient system ever known. so, without adequate irrigation, i would have concluded that food self-sufficiency on my homestead was not possible. in late september of that first year, i could still run that single sprinkler. what a relief not to have invested every last cent in land that couldn't feed us. for many succeeding years at lorane, i raised lots of organically grown food on densely planted raised beds, but the realities of being a country gardener continued to remind me of how tenuous my irrigation supply actually was. we country folks have to be self-reliant: i am my own sanitation department, i maintain my own -foot-long driveway, the septic system puts me in the sewage business. a long, long response time to my call means i'm my own self-defense force. and i'm my own water department. without regular and heavy watering during high summer, dense stands of vegetables become stunted in a matter of days. pump failure has brought my raised-bed garden close to that several times. before my frantic efforts got the water flowing again, i could feel the stressed-out garden screaming like a hungry baby. as i came to understand our climate, i began to wonder about _complete_ food self-sufficiency. how did the early pioneers irrigate their vegetables? there probably aren't more than a thousand homestead sites in the entire maritime northwest with gravity water. hand pumping into hand-carried buckets is impractical and extremely tedious. wind-powered pumps are expensive and have severe limits. the combination of dependably rainless summers, the realities of self-sufficient living, and my homestead's poor well turned out to be an opportunity. for i continued wondering about gardens and water, and discovered a method for growing a lush, productive vegetable garden on deep soil with little or no irrigation, in a climate that reliably provides to virtually dry weeks every summer. gardening with less irrigation being a garden writer, i was on the receiving end of quite a bit of local lore. i had heard of someone growing unirrigated carrots on sandy soil in southern oregon by sowing early and spacing the roots foot apart in rows feet apart. the carrots were reputed to grow to enormous sizes, and the overall yield in pounds per square foot occupied by the crop was not as low as one might think. i read that native americans in the southwest grew remarkable desert gardens with little or no water. and that native south americans in the highlands of peru and bolivia grow food crops in a land with to inches of rainfall. so i had to wonder what our own pioneers did. in , we moved miles south, to a much better homestead with more acreage and an abundant well. ironically, only then did i grow my first summertime vegetable without irrigation. being a low-key survivalist at heart, i was working at growing my own seeds. the main danger to attaining good germination is in repeatedly moistening developing seed. so, in early march , i moved six winter-surviving savoy cabbage plants far beyond the irrigated soil of my raised-bed vegetable garden. i transplanted them feet apart because blooming brassicas make huge sprays of flower stalks. i did not plan to water these plants at all, since cabbage seed forms during may and dries down during june as the soil naturally dries out. that is just what happened. except that one plant did something a little unusual, though not unheard of. instead of completely going into bloom and then dying after setting a massive load of seed, this plant also threw a vegetative bud that grew a whole new cabbage among the seed stalks. with increasing excitement i watched this head grow steadily larger through the hottest and driest summer i had ever experienced. realizing i was witnessing revelation, i gave the plant absolutely no water, though i did hoe out the weeds around it after i cut the seed stalks. i harvested the unexpected lesson at the end of september. the cabbage weighed in at or pounds and was sweet and tender. up to that time, all my gardening had been on thoroughly and uniformly watered raised beds. now i saw that elbow room might be the key to gardening with little or no irrigating, so i began looking for more information about dry gardening and soil/water physics. in spring , i tilled four widely separated, unirrigated experimental rows in which i tested an assortment of vegetable species spaced far apart in the row. out of curiosity i decided to use absolutely no water at all, not even to sprinkle the seeds to get them germinating. i sowed a bit of kale, savoy cabbage, purple sprouting broccoli, carrots, beets, parsnips, parsley, endive, dry beans, potatoes, french sorrel, and a couple of field cornstalks. i also tested one compact bush (determinate) and one sprawling (indeterminate) tomato plant. many of these vegetables grew surprisingly well. i ate unwatered tomatoes july through september; kale, cabbages, parsley, and root crops fed us during the winter. the purple sprouting broccoli bloomed abundantly the next march. in terms of quality, all the harvest was acceptable. the root vegetables were far larger but only a little bit tougher and quite a bit sweeter than usual. the potatoes yielded less than i'd been used to and had thicker than usual skin, but also had a better flavor and kept well through the winter. the following year i grew two parallel gardens. one, my "insurance garden," was thoroughly irrigated, guaranteeing we would have plenty to eat. another experimental garden of equal size was entirely unirrigated. there i tested larger plots of species that i hoped could grow through a rainless summer. by july, growth on some species had slowed to a crawl and they looked a little gnarly. wondering if a hidden cause of what appeared to be moisture stress might actually be nutrient deficiencies, i tried spraying liquid fertilizer directly on these gnarly leaves, a practice called foliar feeding. it helped greatly because, i reasoned, most fertility is located in the topsoil, and when it gets dry the plants draw on subsoil moisture, so surface nutrients, though still present in the dry soil, become unobtainable. that being so, i reasoned that some of these species might do even better if they had just a little fertilized water. so i improvised a simple drip system and metered out or gallons of liquid fertilizer to some of the plants in late july and four gallons more in august. to some species, extra fertilized water (what i call "fertigation") hardly made any difference at all. but unirrigated winter squash vines, which were small and scraggly and yielded about pounds of food, grew more lushly when given a few -gallon, fertilizer-fortified assists and yielded pounds. thirty-five pounds of squash for extra gallons of water and a bit of extra nutrition is a pretty good exchange in my book. the next year i integrated all this new information into just one garden. water-loving species like lettuce and celery were grown through the summer on a large, thoroughly irrigated raised bed. the rest of the garden was given no irrigation at all or minimally metered-out fertigations. some unirrigated crops were foliar fed weekly. everything worked in ! and i found still other species that i could grow surprisingly well on surprisingly small amounts of water[--]or none at all. so, the next year, , i set up a sprinkler system to water the intensive raised bed and used the overspray to support species that grew better with some moisture supplementation; i continued using my improvised drip system to help still others, while keeping a large section of the garden entirely unwatered. and at the end of that summer i wrote this book. what follows is not mere theory, not something i read about or saw others do. these techniques are tested and workable. the next-to-last chapter of this book contains a complete plan of my garden with explanations and discussion of the reasoning behind it. in _water-wise vegetables_ i assume that my readers already are growing food (probably on raised beds), already know how to adjust their gardening to this region's climate, and know how to garden with irrigation. if you don't have this background i suggest you read my other garden book, _growing vegetables west of the cascades,_ (sasquatch books, ). steve solomon chapter predictably rainless summers in the eastern united states, summertime rainfall can support gardens without irrigation but is just irregular enough to be worrisome. west of the cascades we go into the summer growing season certain we must water regularly. my own many-times-revised book _growing vegetables west of the cascades_ correctly emphasized that moisture-stressed vegetables suffer greatly. because i had not yet noticed how plant spacing affects soil moisture loss, in that book i stated a half-truth as law: soil moisture loss averages - / inches per week during summer. this figure is generally true for raised-bed gardens west of the cascades, so i recommended adding / inches of water each week and even more during really hot weather. summertime rainfall west of the cascades (in inches)* location april may june july aug. sept. oct. eureka, ca . . . . . . . medford, or . . . . . . . eugene, or . . . . . . . portland, or . . . . . . . astoria, or . . . . . . . olympia, wa . . . . . . . seattle, wa . . . . . . . bellingham, wa . . . . . . . vancouver, bc . . . . . . . victoria, bc . . . . . . . *source: van der leeden et al., _the water encyclopedia,_ nd ed., (chelsea, mich.: lewis publishers, ). defined scientifically, drought is not lack of rain. it is a dry soil condition in which plant growth slows or stops and plant survival may be threatened. the earth loses water when wind blows, when sun shines, when air temperature is high, and when humidity is low. of all these factors, air temperature most affects soil moisture loss. daily maximum temperature (f)* july/august average eureka, ca medford, or eugene, or astoria, or olympia, wa seattle, wa bellingham, wa vancouver, bc victoria, bc *source: the water encyclopedia. the kind of vegetation growing on a particular plot and its density have even more to do with soil moisture loss than temperature or humidity or wind speed. and, surprising as it might seem, bare soil may not lose much moisture at all. i now know it is next to impossible to anticipate moisture loss from soil without first specifying the vegetation there. evaporation from a large body of water, however, is mainly determined by weather, so reservoir evaporation measurements serve as a rough gauge of anticipated soil moisture loss. evaporation from reservoirs (inches per month)* location april may june july aug. sept. oct. seattle, wa . . . . . . . baker, or . . . . . . . sacramento, ca . . . . . . . *source: _the water encyclopedia_ from may through september during a normal year, a reservoir near seattle loses about inches of water by evaporation. the next chart shows how much water farmers expect to use to support conventional agriculture in various parts of the west. comparing this data for seattle with the estimates based on reservoir evaporation shows pretty good agreement. i include data for umatilla and yakima to show that much larger quantities of irrigation water are needed in really hot, arid places like baker or sacramento. estimated irrigation requirements: during entire growing season (in inches)* location duration amount umatilla/yakama valley april-october willamette valley may-september puget sound may-september upper rogue/upper umpqua valley march-september lower rogue/lower coquille valley may-september nw california april-october *source: _the water encyclopedia_ in our region, gardens lose far more water than they get from rainfall during the summer growing season. at first glance, it seems impossible to garden without irrigation west of the cascades. but there is water already present in the soil when the gardening season begins. by creatively using and conserving this moisture, some maritime northwest gardeners can go through an entire summer without irrigating very much, and with some crops, irrigating not at all. chapter water-wise gardening science plants are water like all other carbon-based life forms on earth, plants conduct their chemical processes in a water solution. every substance that plants transport is dissolved in water. when insoluble starches and oils are required for plant energy, enzymes change them back into water-soluble sugars for movement to other locations. even cellulose and lignin, insoluble structural materials that plants cannot convert back into soluble materials, are made from molecules that once were in solution. water is so essential that when a plant can no longer absorb as much water as it is losing, it wilts in self-defense. the drooping leaves transpire (evaporate) less moisture because the sun glances off them. some weeds can wilt temporarily and resume vigorous growth as soon as their water balance is restored. but most vegetable species aren't as tough-moisture stressed vegetables may survive, but once stressed, the quality of their yield usually drops markedly. yet in deep, open soil west of the cascades, most vegetable species may be grown quite successfully with very little or no supplementary irrigation and without mulching, because they're capable of being supplied entirely by water already stored in the soil. soil's water-holding capacity soil is capable of holding on to quite a bit of water, mostly by adhesion. for example, i'm sure that at one time or another you have picked up a wet stone from a river or by the sea. a thin film of water clings to its surface. this is adhesion. the more surface area there is, the greater the amount of moisture that can be held by adhesion. if we crushed that stone into dust, we would greatly increase the amount of water that could adhere to the original material. clay particles, it should be noted, are so small that clay's ability to hold water is not as great as its mathematically computed surface area would indicate. surface area of one gram of soil particles particle type diameter of number of particles particles surface area in mm per gm in sq. cm. very coarse sand . - . coarse sand . - . medium sand . - . , fine sand . - . , very fine sand . - . , silt . - . , , clay below . , , , , , source: foth, henry d., _fundamentals of soil science,_ th ed. (new york: john wylie & sons, ). this direct relationship between particle size, surface area, and water-holding capacity is so essential to understanding plant growth that the surface areas presented by various sizes of soil particles have been calculated. soils are not composed of a single size of particle. if the mix is primarily sand, we call it a sandy soil. if the mix is primarily clay, we call it a clay soil. if the soil is a relatively equal mix of all three, containing no more than percent clay, we call it a loam. available moisture (inches of water per foot of soil) soil texture average amount very coarse sand . coarse sand . sandy . sandy loam . loam . clay loam . silty clay . clay . source: _fundamentals of soil science_. adhering water films can vary greatly in thickness. but if the water molecules adhering to a soil particle become too thick, the force of adhesion becomes too weak to resist the force of gravity, and some water flows deeper into the soil. when water films are relatively thick the soil feels wet and plant roots can easily absorb moisture. "field capacity" is the term describing soil particles holding all the water they can against the force of gravity. at the other extreme, the thinner the water films become, the more tightly they adhere and the drier the earth feels. at some degree of desiccation, roots are no longer forceful enough to draw on soil moisture as fast as the plants are transpiring. this condition is called the "wilting point." the term "available moisture" refers to the difference between field capacity and the amount of moisture left after the plants have died. clayey soil can provide plants with three times as much available water as sand, six times as much as a very coarse sandy soil. it might seem logical to conclude that a clayey garden would be the most drought resistant. but there's more to it. for some crops, deep sandy loams can provide just about as much usable moisture as clays. sandy soils usually allow more extensive root development, so a plant with a naturally aggressive and deep root system may be able to occupy a much larger volume of sandy loam, ultimately coming up with more moisture than it could obtain from a heavy, airless clay. and sandy loams often have a clayey, moisture-rich subsoil. _because of this interplay of factors, how much available water your own unique garden soil is actually capable of providing and how much you will have to supplement it with irrigation can only be discovered by trial._ how soil loses water suppose we tilled a plot about april and then measured soil moisture loss until october. because plants growing around the edge might extend roots into our test plot and extract moisture, we'll make our tilled area feet by feet and make all our measurements in the center. and let's locate this imaginary plot in full sun on flat, uniform soil. and let's plant absolutely nothing in this bare earth. and all season let's rigorously hoe out every weed while it is still very tiny. let's also suppose it's been a typical maritime northwest rainy winter, so on april the soil is at field capacity, holding all the moisture it can. from early april until well into september the hot sun will beat down on this bare plot. our summer rains generally come in insignificant installments and do not penetrate deeply; all of the rain quickly evaporates from the surface few inches without recharging deeper layers. most readers would reason that a soil moisture measurement taken inches down on september , should show very little water left. one foot down seems like it should be just as dry, and in fact, most gardeners would expect that there would be very little water found in the soil until we got down quite a few feet if there were several feet of soil. but that is not what happens! the hot sun does dry out the surface inches, but if we dig down inches or so there will be almost as much water present in september as there was in april. bare earth does not lose much water at all. _once a thin surface layer is completely desiccated, be it loose or compacted, virtually no further loss of moisture can occur._ the only soils that continue to dry out when bare are certain kinds of very heavy clays that form deep cracks. these ever-deepening openings allow atmospheric air to freely evaporate additional moisture. but if the cracks are filled with dust by surface cultivation, even this soil type ceases to lose water. soil functions as our bank account, holding available water in storage. in our climate soil is inevitably charged to capacity by winter rains, and then all summer growing plants make heavy withdrawals. but hot sun and wind working directly on soil don't remove much water; that is caused by hot sun and wind working on plant leaves, making them transpire moisture drawn from the earth through their root systems. plants desiccate soil to the ultimate depth and lateral extent of their rooting ability, and then some. the size of vegetable root systems is greater than most gardeners would think. the amount of moisture potentially available to sustain vegetable growth is also greater than most gardeners think. rain and irrigation are not the only ways to replace soil moisture. if the soil body is deep, water will gradually come up from below the root zone by capillarity. capillarity works by the very same force of adhesion that makes moisture stick to a soil particle. a column of water in a vertical tube (like a thin straw) adheres to the tube's inner surfaces. this adhesion tends to lift the edges of the column of water. as the tube's diameter becomes smaller the amount of lift becomes greater. soil particles form interconnected pores that allow an inefficient capillary flow, recharging dry soil above. however, the drier soil becomes, the less effective capillary flow becomes. _that is why a thoroughly desiccated surface layer only a few inches thick acts as a powerful mulch._ industrial farming and modern gardening tend to discount the replacement of surface moisture by capillarity, considering this flow an insignificant factor compared with the moisture needs of crops. but conventional agriculture focuses on maximized yields through high plant densities. capillarity is too slow to support dense crop stands where numerous root systems are competing, but when a single plant can, without any competition, occupy a large enough area, moisture replacement by capillarity becomes significant. how plants obtain water most gardeners know that plants acquire water and minerals through their root systems, and leave it at that. but the process is not quite that simple. the actively growing, tender root tips and almost microscopic root hairs close to the tip absorb most of the plant's moisture as they occupy new territory. as the root continues to extend, parts behind the tip cease to be effective because, as soil particles in direct contact with these tips and hairs dry out, the older roots thicken and develop a bark, while most of the absorbent hairs slough off. this rotation from being actively foraging tissue to becoming more passive conductive and supportive tissue is probably a survival adaptation, because the slow capillary movement of soil moisture fails to replace what the plant used as fast as the plant might like. the plant is far better off to aggressively seek new water in unoccupied soil than to wait for the soil its roots already occupy to be recharged. a simple bit of old research magnificently illustrated the significance of this. a scientist named dittmer observed in that a single potted ryegrass plant allocated only cubic foot of soil to grow in made about miles of new roots and root hairs every day. (ryegrasses are known to make more roots than most plants.) i calculate that a cubic foot of silty soil offers about , square feet of surface area to plant roots. if miles of microscopic root tips and hairs (roughly , lineal feet) draws water only from a few millimeters of surrounding soil, then that single rye plant should be able to continue ramifying into a cubic foot of silty soil and find enough water for quite a few days before wilting. these arithmetical estimates agree with my observations in the garden, and with my experiences raising transplants in pots. lowered plant density: the key to water-wise gardening i always think my latest try at writing a near-perfect garden book is quite a bit better than the last. _growing vegetables west of the cascades_, recommended somewhat wider spacings on raised beds than i did in because i'd repeatedly noticed that once a leaf canopy forms, plant growth slows markedly. adding a little more fertilizer helps after plants "bump," but still the rate of growth never equals that of younger plants. for years i assumed crowded plants stopped producing as much because competition developed for light. but now i see that unseen competition for root room also slows them down. even if moisture is regularly recharged by irrigation, and although nutrients are replaced, once a bit of earth has been occupied by the roots of one plant it is not so readily available to the roots of another. so allocating more elbow room allows vegetables to get larger and yield longer and allows the gardener to reduce the frequency of irrigations. though hot, baking sun and wind can desiccate the few inches of surface soil, withdrawals of moisture from greater depths are made by growing plants transpiring moisture through their leaf surfaces. the amount of water a growing crop will transpire is determined first by the nature of the species itself, then by the amount of leaf exposed to sun, air temperature, humidity, and wind. in these respects, the crop is like an automobile radiator. with cars, the more metal surfaces, the colder the ambient air, and the higher the wind speed, the better the radiator can cool; in the garden, the more leaf surfaces, the faster, warmer, and drier the wind, and the brighter the sunlight, the more water is lost through transpiration. dealing with a surprise water shortage suppose you are growing a conventional, irrigated garden and something unanticipated interrupts your ability to water. perhaps you are homesteading and your well begins to dry up. perhaps you're a backyard gardener and the municipality temporarily restricts usage. what to do? first, if at all possible before the restrictions take effect, water very heavily and long to ensure there is maximum subsoil moisture. then eliminate all newly started interplantings and ruthlessly hoe out at least percent of the remaining immature plants and about half of those about two weeks away from harvest. for example, suppose you've got a a -foot-wide intensive bed holding seven rows of broccoli on inch centers, or about plants. remove at least every other row and every other plant in the three or four remaining rows. try to bring plant density down to those described in chapter , "how to grow it: a-z" then shallowly hoe the soil every day or two to encourage the surface inches to dry out and form a dust mulch. you water-wise person--you're already dry gardening--now start fertigating. how long available soil water will sustain a crop is determined by how many plants are drawing on the reserve, how extensively their root systems develop, and how many leaves are transpiring the moisture. if there are no plants, most of the water will stay unused in the barren soil through the entire growing season. if a crop canopy is established midway through the growing season, the rate of water loss will approximate that listed in the table in chapter "estimated irrigation requirement." if by very close planting the crop canopy is established as early as possible and maintained by successive interplantings, as is recommended by most advocates of raised-bed gardening, water losses will greatly exceed this rate. many vegetable species become mildly stressed when soil moisture has dropped about half the way from capacity to the wilting point. on very closely planted beds a crop can get in serious trouble without irrigation in a matter of days. but if that same crop were planted less densely, it might grow a few weeks without irrigation. and if that crop were planted even farther apart so that no crop canopy ever developed and a considerable amount of bare, dry earth were showing, this apparent waste of growing space would result in an even slower rate of soil moisture depletion. on deep, open soil the crop might yield a respectable amount without needing any irrigation at all. west of the cascades we expect a rainless summer; the surprise comes that rare rainy year when the soil stays moist and we gather bucketfuls of chanterelle mushrooms in early october. though the majority of maritime northwest gardeners do not enjoy deep, open, moisture-retentive soils, all except those with the shallowest soil can increase their use of the free moisture nature provides and lengthen the time between irrigations. the next chapter discusses making the most of whatever soil depth you have. most of our region's gardens can yield abundantly without any rain at all if only we reduce competition for available soil moisture, judiciously fertigate some vegetable species, and practice a few other water-wise tricks. _would lowering plant density as much as this book suggests equally lower the yield of the plot? surprisingly, the amount harvested does not drop proportionately. in most cases having a plant density one-eighth of that recommended by intensive gardening advocates will result in a yield about half as great as on closely planted raised beds._ internet readers: in the print copy of this book are color pictures of my own "irrigationless" garden. looking at them about here in the book would add reality to these ideas. chapter helping plants to need less irrigation dry though the maritime northwest summer is, we enter the growing season with our full depth of soil at field capacity. except on clayey soils in extraordinarily frosty, high-elevation locations, we usually can till and plant before the soil has had a chance to lose much moisture. there are a number of things we can do to make soil moisture more available to our summer vegetables. the most obvious step is thorough weeding. next, we can keep the surface fluffed up with a rotary tiller or hoe during april and may, to break its capillary connection with deeper soil and accelerate the formation of a dry dust mulch. usually, weeding forces us to do this anyway. also, if it should rain during summer, we can hoe or rotary till a day or two later and again help a new dust mulch to develop. building bigger root systems without irrigation, most of the plant's water supply is obtained by expansion into new earth that hasn't been desiccated by other competing roots. eliminating any obstacles to rapid growth of root systems is the key to success. so, keep in mind a few facts about how roots grow and prosper. the air supply in soil limits or allows root growth. unlike the leaves, roots do not perform photosynthesis, breaking down carbon dioxide gas into atmospheric oxygen and carbon. yet root cells must breathe oxygen. this is obtained from the air held in spaces between soil particles. many other soil-dwelling life forms from bacteria to moles compete for this same oxygen. consequently, soil oxygen levels are lower than in the atmosphere. a slow exchange of gases does occur between soil air and free atmosphere, but deeper in the soil there will inevitably be less oxygen. different plant species have varying degrees of root tolerance for lack of oxygen, but they all stop growing at some depth. moisture reserves below the roots' maximum depth become relatively inaccessible. soil compaction reduces the overall supply and exchange of soil air. compacted soil also acts as a mechanical barrier to root system expansion. when gardening with unlimited irrigation or where rain falls frequently, it is quite possible to have satisfactory growth when only the surface or inches of soil facilitates root development. when gardening with limited water, china's the limit, because if soil conditions permit, many vegetable species are capable of reaching , , and eight feet down to find moisture and nutrition. evaluating potential rooting ability one of the most instructive things a water-wise gardener can do is to rent or borrow a hand-operated fence post auger and bore a -foot-deep hole. it can be even more educational to buy a short section of ordinary water pipe to extend the auger's reach another or feet down. in soil free of stones, using an auger is more instructive than using a conventional posthole digger or shoveling out a small pit, because where soil is loose, the hole deepens rapidly. where any layer is even slightly compacted, one turns and turns the bit without much effect. augers also lift the materials more or less as they are stratified. if your soil is somewhat stony (like much upland soil north of centralia left by the vashon glacier), the more usual fence-post digger or common shovel works better. if you find more than feet of soil, the site holds a dry-gardening potential that increases with the additional depth. some soils along the floodplains of rivers or in broad valleys like the willamette or skagit can be over feet deep, and hold far more water than the deepest roots could draw or capillary flow could raise during an entire growing season. gently sloping land can often carry to feet of open, usable soil. however, soils on steep hillsides become increasingly thin and fragile with increasing slope. whether an urban, suburban, or rural gardener, you should make no assumptions about the depth and openness of the soil at your disposal. dig a test hole. if you find less than unfortunate feet of open earth before hitting an impermeable obstacle such as rock or gravel, not much water storage can occur and the only use this book will hold for you is to guide your move to a more likely gardening location or encourage the house hunter to seek further. of course, you can still garden quite successfully on thin soil in the conventional, irrigated manner. _growing vegetables west of the cascades_ will be an excellent guide for this type of situation. eliminating plowpan deep though the soil may be, any restriction of root expansion greatly limits the ability of plants to aggressively find water. a compacted subsoil or even a thin compressed layer such as plowpan may function as such a barrier. though moisture will still rise slowly by capillarity and recharge soil above plowpan, plants obtain much more water by rooting into unoccupied, damp soil. soils close to rivers or on floodplains may appear loose and infinitely deep but may hide subsoil streaks of droughty gravel that effectively stops root growth. some of these conditions are correctable and some are not. plowpan is very commonly encountered by homesteaders on farm soils and may be found in suburbia too, but fortunately it is the easiest obstacle to remedy. traditionally, american croplands have been tilled with the moldboard plow. as this implement first cuts and then flips a -or -inch-deep slice of soil over, the sole--the part supporting the plow's weight--presses heavily on the earth about inches below the surface. with each subsequent plowing the plow sole rides at the same -inch depth and an even more compacted layer develops. once formed plowpan prevents the crop from rooting into the subsoil. since winter rains leach nutrients from the topsoil and deposit them in the subsoil, plowpan prevents access to these nutrients and effectively impoverishes the field. so wise farmers periodically use a subsoil plow to fracture the pan. plowpan can seem as firm as a rammed-earth house; once established, it can last a long, long time. my own garden land is part of what was once an old wheat farm, one of the first homesteads of the oregon territory. from about through the s, the field produced small grains. after wheat became unprofitable, probably because of changing market conditions and soil exhaustion, the field became an unplowed pasture. then in the s it grew daffodil bulbs, occasioning more plowing. all through the ' s my soil again rested under grass. in , when i began using the land, there was still a -inch-thick, very hard layer starting about inches down. below inches the open earth is soft as butter as far as i've ever dug. on a garden-sized plot, plowpan or compacted subsoil is easily opened with a spading fork or a very sharp common shovel. after normal rotary tilling, either tool can fairly easily be wiggled inches into the earth and small bites of plowpan loosened. once this laborious chore is accomplished the first time, deep tillage will be far easier. in fact, it becomes so easy that i've been looking for a custom-made fork with longer tines. curing clayey soils in humid climates like ours, sandy soils may seem very open and friable on the surface but frequently hold some unpleasant subsoil surprises. over geologic time spans, mineral grains are slowly destroyed by weak soil acids and clay is formed from the breakdown products. then heavy winter rainfall transports these minuscule clay particles deeper into the earth, where they concentrate. it is not unusual to find a sandy topsoil underlaid with a dense, cement-like, clayey sand subsoil extending down several feet. if very impervious, a thick, dense deposition like this may be called hardpan. the spading fork cannot cure this condition as simply as it can eliminate thin plowpan. here is one situation where, if i had a neighbor with a large tractor and subsoil plow, i'd hire him to fracture my land or feet deep. painstakingly double or even triple digging will also loosen this layer. another possible strategy for a smaller garden would be to rent a gasoline-powered posthole auger, spread manure or compost an inch or two thick, and then bore numerous, almost adjoining holes feet deep all over the garden. clayey subsoil can supply surprisingly larger amounts of moisture than the granular sandy surface might imply, but only if the earth is opened deeply and becomes more accessible to root growth. fortunately, once root development increases at greater depths, the organic matter content and accessibility of this clayey layer can be maintained through intelligent green manuring, postponing for years the need to subsoil again. green manuring is discussed in detail shortly. other sites may have gooey, very fine clay topsoils, almost inevitably with gooey, very fine clay subsoils as well. though incorporation of extraordinarily large quantities of organic matter can turn the top few inches into something that behaves a little like loam, it is quite impractical to work in humus to a depth of or feet. root development will still be limited to the surface layer. very fine clays don't make likely dry gardens. not all clay soils are "fine clay soils," totally compacted and airless. for example, on the gentler slopes of the geologic old cascades, those -million-year-old black basalts that form the cascades foothills and appear in other places throughout the maritime northwest, a deep, friable, red clay soil called (in oregon) jori often forms. jori clays can be to feet deep and are sufficiently porous and well drained to have been used for highly productive orchard crops. water-wise gardeners can do wonders with joris and other similar soils, though clays never grow the best root crops. spotting a likely site observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to garden without much irrigation. where himalaya or evergreen blackberries grow feet tall and produce small, dull-tasting fruit, there is not much available soil moisture. where they grow feet tall and the berries are sweet and good sized, there is deep, open soil. when the berry vines are or more feet tall and the fruits are especially huge, usually there is both deep, loose soil and a higher than usual amount of fertility. other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture reserves. for years i wondered at the short leaders and sad appearance of douglas fir in the vicinity of yelm, washington. were they due to extreme soil infertility? then i learned that conifer trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility. i obtained a soil survey of thurston county and discovered that much of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil. eureka! the soil conservation service (scs), a u.s. government agency, has probably put a soil auger into your very land or a plot close by. its tests have been correlated and mapped; the soils underlying the maritime northwest have been named and categorized by texture, depth, and ability to provide available moisture. the maps are precise and detailed enough to approximately locate a city or suburban lot. in , when i was in the market for a new homestead, i first went to my county scs office, mapped out locations where the soil was suitable, and then went hunting. most counties have their own office. using humus to increase soil moisture maintaining topsoil humus content in the to percent range is vital to plant health, vital to growing more nutritious food, and essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability and cooperation known as good tilth. humus is a spongy substance capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay. there are also new synthetic, long-lasting soil amendments that hold and release even more moisture than humus. garden books frequently recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter to increase a soil's water-holding capacity in the top few inches. humus can improve many aspects of soil but will not reduce a garden's overall need for irrigation, because it is simply not practical to maintain sufficient humus deeply enough. rotary tilling only blends amendments into the top or inches of soil. rigorous double digging by actually trenching out inches and then spading up the next foot theoretically allows one to mix in significant amounts of organic matter to nearly inches. but plants can use water from far deeper than that. let's realistically consider how much soil moisture reserves might be increased by double digging and incorporating large quantities of organic matter. a healthy topsoil organic matter level in our climate is about percent. this rapidly declines to less than . percent in the subsoil. suppose inches-thick layers of compost were spread and, by double digging, the organic matter content of a very sandy soil were amended to percent down to feet. if that soil contained little clay, its water-holding ability in the top feet could be doubled. referring to the chart "available moisture" in chapter , we see that sandy soil can release up to inch of water per foot. by dint of massive amendment we might add inch of available moisture per foot of soil to the reserve. that's extra inches of water, enough to increase the time an ordinary garden can last between heavy irrigations by a week or days. if the soil in question were a silty clay, it would naturally make / inches available per foot. a massive humus amendment would increase that to / inches in the top foot or two, relatively not as much benefit as in sandy soil. and i seriously doubt that many gardeners would be willing to thoroughly double dig to an honest inches. trying to maintain organic matter levels above percent is an almost self-defeating process. the higher the humus level gets, the more rapidly organic matter tends to decay. finding or making enough well-finished compost to cover the garden several inches deep (what it takes to lift humus levels to percent) is enough of a job. double digging just as much more into the second foot is even more effort. but having to repeat that chore every year or two becomes downright discouraging. no, either your soil naturally holds enough moisture to permit dry gardening, or it doesn't. keeping the subsoil open with green manuring when roots decay, fresh organic matter and large, long-lasting passageways can be left deep in the soil, allowing easier air movement and facilitating entry of other roots. but no cover crop that i am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other resistant physical obstacles. such a barrier forces all plants to root almost exclusively in the topsoil. however, once the subsoil has been mechanically fractured the first time, and if recompaction is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery, green manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil. to accomplish this, correct green manure species selection is essential. lawn grasses tend to be shallow rooting, while most regionally adapted pasture grasses can reach down about feet at best. however, orchard grass (called coltsfoot in english farming books) will grow down or more feet while leaving a massive amount of decaying organic matter in the subsoil after the sod is tilled in. sweet clover, a biennial legume that sprouts one spring then winters over to bloom the next summer, may go down feet. red clover, a perennial species, may thickly invade the top feet. other useful subsoil busters include densely sown umbelliferae such as carrots, parsley, and parsnip. the chicory family also makes very large and penetrating taproots. though seed for wild chicory is hard to obtain, cheap varieties of endive (a semicivilized relative) are easily available. and several pounds of your own excellent parsley or parsnip seed can be easily produced by letting about row feet of overwintering roots form seed. orchard grass and red clover can be had quite inexpensively at many farm supply stores. sweet clover is not currently grown by our region's farmers and so can only be found by mail from johnny's selected seeds (see chapter for their address). poppy seed used for cooking will often sprout. sown densely in october, it forms a thick carpet of frilly spring greens underlaid with countless massive taproots that decompose very rapidly if the plants are tilled in in april before flower stalks begin to appear. beware if using poppies as a green manure crop: be sure to till them in early to avoid trouble with the dea or other authorities. for country gardeners, the best rotations include several years of perennial grass-legume-herb mixtures to maintain the openness of the subsoil followed by a few years of vegetables and then back (see newman turner's book in more reading). i plan my own garden this way. in october, after a few inches of rain has softened the earth, i spread pounds of agricultural lime per , square feet and break the thick pasture sod covering next year's garden plot by shallow rotary tilling. early the next spring i broadcast a concoction i call "complete organic fertilizer" (see _growing vegetables west of the cascades_ or the _territorial seed company catalog_), till again after the soil dries down a bit, and then use a spading fork to open the subsoil before making a seedbed. the first time around, i had to break the century-old plowpan--forking compacted earth a foot deep is a lot of work. in subsequent rotations it is much much easier. for a couple of years, vegetables will grow vigorously on this new ground supported only with a complete organic fertilizer. but vegetable gardening makes humus levels decline rapidly. so every few years i start a new garden on another plot and replant the old garden to green manures. i never remove vegetation during the long rebuilding under green manures, but merely mow it once or twice a year and allow the organic matter content of the soil to redevelop. if there ever were a place where chemical fertilizers might be appropriate around a garden, it would be to affordably enhance the growth of biomass during green manuring. were i a serious city vegetable gardener, i'd consider growing vegetables in the front yard for a few years and then switching to the back yard. having lots of space, as i do now, i keep three or four garden plots available, one in vegetables and the others restoring their organic matter content under grass. mulching gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is recommended by ruth stout (see the listing for her book in more reading) and her disciples as a surefire way to drought-proof gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage, weeding, and fertilizing. i have attempted the method in both southern california and western oregon--with disastrous results in both locations. what follows in this section is addressed to gardeners who have already read glowing reports about mulching. permanent mulching with vegetation actually does not reduce summertime moisture loss any better than mulching with dry soil, sometimes called "dust mulching." true, while the surface layer stays moist, water will steadily be wicked up by capillarity and be evaporated from the soil's surface. if frequent light sprinkling keeps the surface perpetually moist, subsoil moisture loss can occur all summer, so unmulched soil could eventually become desiccated many feet deep. however, capillary movement only happens when soil is damp. once even a thin layer of soil has become quite dry it almost completely prevents any further movement. west of the cascades, this happens all by itself in late spring. one hot, sunny day follows another, and soon the earth's surface seems parched. unfortunately, by the time a dusty layer forms, quite a bit of soil water may have risen from the depths and been lost. the gardener can significantly reduce spring moisture loss by frequently hoeing weeds until the top inch or two of earth is dry and powdery. this effort will probably be necessary in any case, because weeds will germinate prolifically until the surface layer is sufficiently desiccated. on the off chance it should rain hard during summer, it is very wise to again hoe a few times to rapidly restore the dust mulch. if hand cultivation seems very hard work, i suggest you learn to sharpen your hoe. a mulch of dry hay, grass clippings, leaves, and the like will also retard rapid surface evaporation. gardeners think mulching prevents moisture loss better than bare earth because under mulch the soil stays damp right to the surface. however, dig down to inches under a dust mulch and the earth is just as damp as under hay. and, soil moisture studies have proved that overall moisture loss using vegetation mulch slightly exceeds loss under a dust mulch. west of the cascades, the question of which method is superior is a bit complex, with pros and cons on both sides. without a long winter freeze to set populations back, permanent thick mulch quickly breeds so many slugs, earwhigs, and sowbugs that it cannot be maintained for more than one year before vegetable gardening becomes very difficult. laying down a fairly thin mulch in june after the soil has warmed up well, raking up what remains of the mulch early the next spring, and composting it prevents destructive insect population levels from developing while simultaneously reducing surface compaction by winter rains and beneficially enhancing the survival and multiplication of earthworms. but a thin mulch also enhances the summer germination of weed seeds without being thick enough to suppress their emergence. and any mulch, even a thin one, makes hoeing virtually impossible, while hand weeding through mulch is tedious. mulch has some unqualified pluses in hotter climates. most of the organic matter in soil and consequently most of the available nitrogen is found in the surface few inches. levels of other mineral nutrients are usually two or three times as high in the topsoil as well. however, if the surface few inches of soil becomes completely desiccated, no root activity will occur there and the plants are forced to feed deeper, in soil far less fertile. keeping the topsoil damp does greatly improve the growth of some shallow-feeding species such as lettuce and radishes. but with our climate's cool nights, most vegetables need the soil as warm as possible, and the cooling effect of mulch can be as much a hindrance as a help. i've tried mulching quite a few species while dry gardening and found little or no improvement in plant growth with most of them. probably, the enhancement of nutrition compensates for the harm from lowering soil temperature. fertigation is better all around. windbreaks plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines, when temperatures are high, and when the wind blows; it is just like drying laundry. windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by increasing temperature. many other garden books discuss windbreaks, and i conclude that i have a better use for the small amount of words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data; binda colebrook's [i]winter gardening in the maritime northwest[i] (sasquatch books, ) is especially good on this topic. fertilizing, fertigating and foliar spraying in our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich, while fertilizers, manures, and potent composts mainly improve the topsoil. but the water-wise gardener must get nutrition down deep, where the soil stays damp through the summer. if plants with enough remaining elbow room stop growing in summer and begin to appear gnarly, it is just as likely due to lack of nutrition as lack of water. several things can be done to limit or prevent midsummer stunting. first, before sowing or transplanting large species like tomato, squash or big brassicas, dig out a small pit about inches deep and below that blend in a handful or two of organic fertilizer. then fill the hole back in. this double-digging process places concentrated fertility mixed to inches below the seeds or seedlings. foliar feeding is another water-wise technique that keeps plants growing through the summer. soluble nutrients sprayed on plant leaves are rapidly taken into the vascular system. unfortunately, dilute nutrient solutions that won't burn leaves only provoke a strong growth response for to days. optimally, foliar nutrition must be applied weekly or even more frequently. to efficiently spray a garden larger than a few hundred square feet, i suggest buying an industrial-grade, -gallon backpack sprayer with a side-handle pump. approximate cost as of this writing was $ . the store that sells it (probably a farm supply store) will also support you with a complete assortment of inexpensive nozzles that can vary the rate of emission and the spray pattern. high-quality equipment like this outlasts many, many cheaper and smaller sprayers designed for the consumer market, and replacement parts are also available. keep in mind that consumer merchandise is designed to be consumed; stuff made for farming is built to last. increasing soil fertility saves water does crop growth equal water use? most people would say this statement seems likely to be true. actually, faster-growing crops use much less soil moisture than slower-growing ones. as early as it was determined that less water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is fertilized than when it is not fertilized. one experiment required , pounds of water to grow pound of dry matter on infertile soil, but only pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter on rich land. perhaps the single most important thing a water-wise gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil, especially the subsoil. _poor plant nutrition increases the water cost of every pound of dry matter produced._ using foliar fertilizers requires a little caution and forethought. spinach, beet, and chard leaves seem particularly sensitive to foliars (and even to organic insecticides) and may be damaged by even half-strength applications. and the cabbage family coats its leaf surfaces with a waxy, moisture-retentive sealant that makes sprays bead up and run off rather than stick and be absorbed. mixing foliar feed solutions with a little spreader/sticker, safer's soap, or, if bugs are also a problem, with a liquid organic insecticide like red arrow (a pyrethrum-rotenone mix), eliminates surface tension and allows the fertilizer to have an effect on brassicas. sadly, in terms of nutrient balance, the poorest foliar sprays are organic. that's because it is nearly impossible to get significant quantities of phosphorus or calcium into solution using any combination of fish emulsion and seaweed or liquid kelp. the most useful possible organic foliar is / to tablespoon each of fish emulsion and liquid seaweed concentrate per gallon of water. foliar spraying and fertigation are two occasions when i am comfortable supplementing my organic fertilizers with water-soluble chemical fertilizers. the best and most expensive brand is rapid-gro. less costly concoctions such as peters - - or the other "grows," don't provide as complete trace mineral support or use as many sources of nutrition. one thing fertilizer makers find expensive to accomplish is concocting a mixture of soluble nutrients that also contains calcium, a vital plant food. if you dissolve calcium nitrate into a solution containing other soluble plant nutrients, many of them will precipitate out because few calcium compounds are soluble. even rapid-gro doesn't attempt to supply calcium. recently i've discovered better-quality hydroponic nutrient solutions that do use chemicals that provide soluble calcium. these also make excellent foliar sprays. brands of hydroponic nutrient solutions seem to appear and vanish rapidly. i've had great luck with dyna-gro - - . all these chemicals are mixed at about tablespoon per gallon. vegetables that: like foliars asparagus carrots melons squash beans cauliflower peas tomatoes broccoli brussels sprouts cucumbers cabbage eggplant radishes kale rutabagas potatoes don't like foliars beets leeks onions spinach chard lettuce peppers like fertigation brussels sprouts kale savoy cabbage cucumbers melons squash eggplant peppers tomatoes fertigation every two to four weeks is the best technique for maximizing yield while minimizing water use. i usually make my first fertigation late in june and continue periodically through early september. i use six or seven plastic -gallon "drip system" buckets, (see below) set one by each plant, and fill them all with a hose each time i work in the garden. doing or plants each time i'm in the garden, it takes no special effort to rotate through them all more or less every three weeks. to make a drip bucket, drill a / -inch hole through the side of a -to- -gallon plastic bucket about / -inch up from the bottom, or in the bottom at the edge. the empty bucket is placed so that the fertilized water drains out close to the stem of a plant. it is then filled with liquid fertilizer solution. it takes to minutes for gallons to pass through a small opening, and because of the slow flow rate, water penetrates deeply into the subsoil without wetting much of the surface. each fertigation makes the plant grow very rapidly for two to three weeks, more i suspect as a result of improved nutrition than from added moisture. exactly how and when to fertigate each species is explained in chapter . organic gardeners may fertigate with combinations of fish emulsion and seaweed at the same dilution used for foliar spraying, or with compost/manure tea. determining the correct strength to make compost tea is a matter of trial and error. i usually rely on weak rapid-gro mixed at half the recommended dilution. the strength of the fertilizer you need depends on how much and deeply you placed nutrition in the subsoil. chapter water-wise gardening year-round early spring: the easiest unwatered garden west of the cascades, most crops started in february and march require no special handling when irrigation is scarce. these include peas, early lettuce, radishes, kohlrabi, early broccoli, and so forth. however, some of these vegetables are harvested as late as june, so to reduce their need for irrigation, space them wider than usual. spring vegetables also will exhaust most of the moisture from the soil before maturing, making succession planting impossible without first irrigating heavily. early spring plantings are best allocated one of two places in the garden plan: either in that part of the garden that will be fully irrigated all summer or in a part of a big garden that can affordably remain bare during the summer and be used in october for receiving transplants of overwintering crops. the garden plan and discussion in chapter illustrate these ideas in detail. later in spring: sprouting seeds without watering for the first years that i experimented with dry gardening i went overboard and attempted to grow food as though i had no running water at all. the greatest difficulty caused by this self-imposed handicap was sowing small-seeded species after the season warmed up. sprouting what we in the seed business call "big seed"--corn, beans, peas, squash, cucumber, and melon--is relatively easy without irrigation because these crops are planted deeply, where soil moisture still resides long after the surface has dried out. and even if it is so late in the season that the surface has become very dry, a wide, shallow ditch made with a shovel will expose moist soil several inches down. a furrow can be cut in the bottom of that damp "valley" and big seeds germinated with little or no watering. tillage breaks capillary connections until the fluffy soil resettles. this interruption is useful for preventing moisture loss in summer, but the same phenomenon makes the surface dry out in a flash. in recently tilled earth, successfully sprouting small seeds in warm weather is dicey without frequent watering. with a bit of forethought, the water-wise gardener can easily reestablish capillarity below sprouting seeds so that moisture held deeper in the soil rises to replace that lost from surface layers, reducing or eliminating the need for watering. the principle here can be easily demonstrated. in fact, there probably isn't any gardener who has not seen the phenomenon at work without realizing it. every gardener has tilled the soil, gone out the next morning, and noticed that his or her compacted footprints were moist while the rest of the earth was dry and fluffy. foot pressure restored capillarity, and during the night, fresh moisture replaced what had evaporated. this simple technique helps start everything except carrots and parsnips (which must have completely loose soil to develop correctly). all the gardener must do is intentionally compress the soil below the seeds and then cover the seeds with a mulch of loose, dry soil. sprouting seeds then rest atop damp soil exactly they lie on a damp blotter in a germination laboratory's covered petri dish. this dampness will not disappear before the sprouting seedling has propelled a root several inches farther down and is putting a leaf into the sunlight. i've used several techniques to reestablish capillarity after tilling. there's a wise old plastic push planter in my garage that first compacts the tilled earth with its front wheel, cuts a furrow, drops the seed, and then with its drag chain pulls loose soil over the furrow. i've also pulled one wheel of a garden cart or pushed a lightly loaded wheelbarrow down the row to press down a wheel track, sprinkled seed on that compacted furrow, and then pulled loose soil over it. handmade footprints sometimes i sow large brassicas and cucurbits in clumps above a fertilized, double-dug spot. first, in a space about inches square, i deeply dig in complete organic fertilizer. then with my fist i punch down a depression in the center of the fluffed-up mound. sometimes my fist goes in so easily that i have to replace a little more soil and punch it down some more. the purpose is not to make rammed earth or cement, but only to reestablish capillarity by having firm soil under a shallow, fist-sized depression. then a pinch of seed is sprinkled atop this depression and covered with fine earth. even if several hot sunny days follow i get good germination without watering. this same technique works excellently on hills of squash, melon and cucumber as well, though these large-seeded species must be planted quite a bit deeper. summer: how to fluid drill seeds soaking seeds before sowing is another water-wise technique, especially useful later in the season. at bedtime, place the seeds in a half-pint mason jar, cover with a square of plastic window screen held on with a strong rubber band, soak the seeds overnight, and then drain them first thing in the morning. gently rinse the seeds with cool water two or three times daily until the root tips begin to emerge. as soon as this sign appears, the seed must be sown, because the newly emerging roots become increasingly subject to breaking off as they develop and soon form tangled masses. presprouted seeds may be gently blended into some crumbly, moist soil and this mixture gently sprinkled into a furrow and covered. if the sprouts are particularly delicate or, as with carrots, you want a very uniform stand, disperse the seeds in a starch gelatin and imitate what commercial vegetable growers call fluid drilling. heat one pint of water to the boiling point. dissolve in to tablespoons of ordinary cornstarch. place the mixture in the refrigerator to cool. soon the liquid will become a soupy gel. gently mix this cool starch gel with the sprouting seeds, making sure the seeds are uniformly blended. pour the mixture into a -quart plastic zipper bag and, scissors in hand, go out to the garden. after a furrow--with capillarity restored--has been prepared, cut a small hole in one lower corner of the plastic bag. the hole size should be under / inch in diameter. walk quickly down the row, dribbling a mixture of gel and seeds into the furrow. then cover. you may have to experiment a few times with cooled gel minus seeds until you divine the proper hole size, walking speed and amount of gel needed per length of furrow. not only will presprouted seeds come up days sooner, and not only will the root be penetrating moist soil long before the shoot emerges, but the stand of seedlings will be very uniformly spaced and easier to thin. after fluid drilling a few times you'll realize that one needs quite a bit less seed per length of row than you previously thought. establishing the fall and winter garden west of the cascades, germinating fall and winter crops in the heat of summer is always difficult. even when the entire garden is well watered, midsummer sowings require daily attention and frequent sprinkling; however, once they have germinated, keeping little seedlings growing in an irrigated garden usually requires no more water than the rest of the garden gets. but once hot weather comes, establishing small seeds in the dry garden seems next to impossible without regular watering. should a lucky, perfectly timed, and unusually heavy summer rainfall sprout your seeds, they still would not grow well because the next few inches of soil would at best be only slightly moist. a related problem many backyard gardeners have with establishing the winter and overwintered garden is finding enough space for both the summer and winter crops. the nursery bed solves both these problems. instead of trying to irrigate the entire area that will eventually be occupied by a winter or overwintered crop at maturity, the seedlings are first grown in irrigated nurseries for transplanting in autumn after the rains come back. were i desperately short of water i'd locate my nursery where it got only morning sun and sow a week or days earlier to compensate for the slower growth. vegetables to start in a nursery bed variety sowing date transplanting date fall/winter lettuce mid-august early october leeks early april july overwintered onions early-mid august december/january spring cabbage mid-late august november/december spring cauliflower mid-august october/november st winter scallions mid-july mid-october seedlings in pots and trays are hard to keep moist and require daily tending. fortunately, growing transplants in little pots is not necessary because in autumn, when they'll be set out, humidity is high, temperatures are cool, the sun is weak, and transpiration losses are minimal, so seedling transplants will tolerate considerable root loss. my nursery is sown in rows about inches apart across a raised bed and thinned gradually to prevent crowding, because crowded seedlings are hard to dig out without damage. when the prediction of a few days of cloudy weather encourages transplanting, the seedlings are lifted with a large, sharp knife. if the fall rains are late and/or the crowded seedlings are getting leggy, a relatively small amount of irrigation will moisten the planting areas. another light watering at transplanting time will almost certainly establish the seedlings quite successfully. and, finding room for these crops ceases to be a problem because fall transplants can be set out as a succession crop following hot weather vegetables such as squash, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, potatoes, and beans. vegetables that must be heavily irrigated (these crops are not suitable for dry gardens.) bulb onions (for fall harvest) celeriac celery chinese cabbage lettuce (summer and fall) radishes (summer and fall) scallions (for summer harvest) spinach (summer) chapter how to grow it with less irrigation: a-z first, a word about varieties as recently as the s, most american country folk still did not have running water. with water being hand-pumped and carried in buckets, and precious, their vegetable gardens had to be grown with a minimum of irrigation. in the otherwise well-watered east, one could routinely expect several consecutive weeks every summer without rain. in some drought years a hot, rainless month or longer could go by. so vegetable varieties were bred to grow through dry spells without loss, and traditional american vegetable gardens were designed to help them do so. i began gardening in the early s, just as the raised-bed method was being popularized. the latest books and magazine articles all agreed that raising vegetables in widely separated single rows was a foolish imitation of commercial farming, that commercial vegetables were arranged that way for ease of mechanical cultivation. closely planted raised beds requiring hand cultivation were alleged to be far more productive and far more efficient users of irrigation because water wasn't evaporating from bare soil. i think this is more likely to be the truth: old-fashioned gardens used low plant densities to survive inevitable spells of rainlessness. looked at this way, widely separated vegetables in widely separated rows may be considered the more efficient users of water because they consume soil moisture that nature freely puts there. only after, and if, these reserves are significantly depleted does the gardener have to irrigate. the end result is surprisingly more abundant than a modern gardener educated on intensive, raised-bed propaganda would think. finding varieties still adapted to water-wise gardening is becoming difficult. most american vegetables are now bred for irrigation-dependent california. like raised-bed gardeners, vegetable farmers have discovered that they can make a bigger profit by growing smaller, quick-maturing plants in high-density spacings. most modern vegetables have been bred to suit this method. many new varieties can't forage and have become smaller, more determinate, and faster to mature. actually, the larger, more sprawling heirloom varieties of the past were not a great deal less productive overall, but only a little later to begin yielding. fortunately, enough of the old sorts still exist that a selective and varietally aware home gardener can make do. since i've become water-wiser, i'm interested in finding and conserving heirlooms that once supported large numbers of healthy americans in relative self-sufficiency. my earlier book, being a guide to what passes for ordinary vegetable gardening these days, assumed the availability of plenty of water. the varieties i recommended in [i]growing vegetables west of the cascades[i] were largely modern ones, and the seed companies i praised most highly focused on top-quality commercial varieties. but, looking at gardening through the filter of limited irrigation, other, less modern varieties are often far better adapted and other seed companies sometimes more likely sources. seed company directory* abundant life see foundation: p.o. box , port townsend, wa _(abl)_ johnny's selected seeds: foss hill road, albion, maine _(jss)_ peace seeds: se thompson street, corvallis, or _(pea)_ ronninger's seed potatoes: p.o. box , orting, wa _(rsp)_ stokes seeds inc. box , buffalo, ny _(stk)_ territorial seed company: p.o. box , cottage grove, or _(tsc)_ *throughout the growing directions that follow in this chapter, the reader will be referred to a specific company only for varieties that are not widely available. i have again come to appreciate the older style of vegetable--sprawling, large framed, later maturing, longer yielding, vigorously rooting. however, many of these old-timers have not seen the attentions of a professional plant breeder for many years and throw a fair percentage of bizarre, misshapen, nonproductive plants. these "off types" can be compensated for by growing a somewhat larger garden and allowing for some waste. dr. alan kapuler, who runs peace seeds, has brilliantly pointed out to me why heirloom varieties are likely to be more nutritious. propagated by centuries of isolated homesteaders, heirlooms that survived did so because these superior varieties helped the gardeners' better-nourished babies pass through the gauntlet of childhood illnesses. plant spacing: the key to water-wise gardening reduced plant density is the essence of dry gardening. the recommended spacings in this section are those i have found workable at elkton, oregon. my dry garden is generally laid out in single rows, the row centers feet apart. some larger crops, like potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and cucurbits (squash, cucumbers, and melons) are allocated more elbow room. those few requiring intensive irrigation are grown on a raised bed, tightly spaced. i cannot prescribe what would be the perfect, most efficient spacing for your garden. are your temperatures lower than mine and evaporation less? or is your weather hotter? does your soil hold more, than less than, or just as much available moisture as mine? is it as deep and open and moisture retentive? to help you compare your site with mine, i give you the following data. my homestead is only miles inland and is always several degrees cooler in summer than the willamette valley. washingtonians and british columbians have cooler days and a greater likelihood of significant summertime rain and so may plant a little closer together. inland gardeners farther south or in the willamette valley may want to spread their plants out a little farther. living on acres, i have virtually unlimited space to garden in. the focus of my recent research has been to eliminate irrigation as much as possible while maintaining food quality. those with thinner soil who are going to depend more on fertigation may plant closer, how close depending on the amount of water available. more irrigation will also give higher per-square-foot yields. _whatever your combination of conditions, your results can only be determined by trial._ i'd suggest you become water-wise by testing a range of spacings. when to plant if you've already been growing an irrigated year-round garden, this book's suggested planting dates may surprise you. and as with spacing, sowing dates must also be wisely adjusted to your location. the planting dates in this chapter are what i follow in my own garden. it is impractical to include specific dates for all the microclimatic areas of the maritime northwest and for every vegetable species. readers are asked to make adjustments by understanding their weather relative to mine. gardeners to the north of me and at higher elevations should make their spring sowings a week or two later than the dates i use. in the garden valley of roseburg and south along i- , start spring plantings a week or two earlier. along the southern oregon coast and in northern california, start three or four weeks sooner than i do. fall comes earlier to the north of me and to higher-elevation gardens; end-of-season growth rates there also slow more profoundly than they do at elkton. summers are cooler along the coast; that has the same effect of slowing late-summer growth. items started after midsummer should be given one or two extra growing weeks by coastal, high-elevation, and northern gardeners. gardeners to the south should sow their late crops a week or two later than i do; along the south oregon coast and in northern california, two to four weeks later than i do. arugula (rocket) the tender, peppery little leaves make winter salads much more interesting. _sowing date:_ i delay sowing until late august or early september so my crowded patch of arugula lasts all winter and doesn't make seed until march. pregerminated seeds emerge fast and strong. sprouted in early october, arugula still may reach eating size in midwinter. _spacing:_ thinly seed a row into any vacant niche. the seedlings will be insignificantly small until late summer. _irrigation:_ if the seedlings suffer a bit from moisture stress they'll catch up rapidly when the fall rains begin. _varieties:_ none. beans of all sorts heirloom pole beans once climbed over considerable competition while vigorously struggling for water, nutrition, and light. modern bush varieties tend to have puny root systems. _sowing date:_ mid-april is the usual time on the umpqua, elsewhere, sow after the danger of frost is over and soil stays over [de]f. if the earth is getting dry by this date, soak the seed overnight before sowing and furrow down to moist soil. however, do not cover the seeds more than inches. _spacing:_ twelve to inches apart at final thinning. allow about [f] / to feet on either side of the trellis to avoid root competition from other plants. _irrigation:_ if part of the garden is sprinkler irrigated, space beans a little tighter and locate the bean trellis toward the outer reach of the sprinkler's throw. due to its height, the trellis tends to intercept quite a bit of water and dumps it at the base. you can also use the bucket-drip method and fertigate the beans, giving about gallons per row-feet once or twice during the summer. pole beans can make a meaningful yield without any irrigation; under severe moisture stress they will survive, but bear little. _varieties:_ any of the pole types seem to do fine. runner beans seem to prefer cooler locations but are every bit as drought tolerant as ordinary snap beans. my current favorites are kentucky wonder white seeded, fortrex (tsc, jss), and musica (tsc). the older heirloom dry beans were mostly pole types. they are reasonably productive if allowed to sprawl on the ground without support. their unirrigated seed yield is lower, but the seed is still plump, tastes great, and sprouts well. compared to unirrigated black coco (tsc), which is my most productive and best-tasting bush cultivar, kentucky wonder brown seeded (sometimes called old homestead) (stk, pea, abl) yields about percent more seed and keeps on growing for weeks after coco has quit. do not bother to fertigate untrellised pole beans grown for dry seed. with the threat of september moisture always looming over dry bean plots, we need to encourage vines to quit setting and dry down. peace seeds and abundant life offer long lists of heirloom vining dry bean varieties. serious self-sufficiency buffs seeking to produced their own legume supply should also consider the fava, garbanzo bean, and alaska pea. many favas can be overwintered: sow in october, sprout on fall rains, grow over the winter, and dry down in june with the soil. garbanzos are grown like mildly frost-tolerant peas. alaska peas are the type used for pea soup. they're spring sown and grown like ordinary shelling peas. avoid overhead irrigation while seeds are drying down. beets beets will root far deeper and wider than most people realize--in uncompacted, nonacid soils. double or triple dig the subsoil directly below the seed row. _sowing date:_ early april at elkton, late march farther south, and as late as april in british columbia. beet seed germinates easily in moist, cool soil. a single sowing may be harvested from june through early march the next year. if properly thinned, good varieties remain tender. _spacing:_ a single row will gradually exhaust subsoil moisture from an area feet wide. when the seedlings are to inches tall, thin carefully to about inch apart. when the edible part is radish size, thin to inches apart and eat the thinings, tops and all. when they've grown to golfball size, thin to inches apart, thin again. when they reach the size of large lemons, thin to foot apart. given this much room and deep, open soil, the beets will continue to grow through the entire summer. hill up some soil over the huge roots early in november to protect them from freezing. _irrigation:_ probably not necessary with over feet of deep, open soil. _varieties:_ i've done best with early wonder tall top; when large, it develops a thick, protective skin and retains excellent eating quality. winterkeepers, normally sown in midsummer with irrigation, tend to bolt prematurely when sown in april. broccoli: italian style italian-style broccoli needs abundant moisture to be tender and make large flowers. given enough elbow room, many varieties can endure long periods of moisture stress, but the smaller, woody, slow-developing florets won't be great eating. without any irrigation, spring-sown broccoli may still be enjoyed in early summer and purple sprouting in march/april after overwintering. _sowing date:_without any irrigation at all, mid-march through early april. with fertigation, also mid-april through mid-may. this later sowing will allow cutting through summer. _spacing:_ brocoli tastes better when big plants grow big, sweet heads. allow a -foot-wide row. space early sowings about feet apart in the row; later sowings slated to mature during summer's heat can use feet. on a fist-sized spot compacted to restore capillarity, sow a little pinch of seed atop a well-and deeply fertilized, double-dug patch of earth. thin gradually to the best single plant by the time three or four true leaves have developed. _irrigation:_ after mid-june, to gallons of drip bucket liquid fertilizer every two to three weeks makes an enormous difference. you'll be surprised at the size of the heads and the quality of side shoots. a fertigated may sowing will be exhausted by october. take a chance: a heavy side-dressing of strong compost or complete organic fertilizer when the rains return may trigger a massive spurt of new, larger heads from buds located below the soil's surface. _varieties:_ many hybrids have weak roots. i'd avoid anything that was "held up on a tall stalk" for mechanical harvest or was "compact" or that "didn't have many side-shoots". go for larger size. territorial's hybrid blend yields big heads for over a month followed by abundant side shoots. old, open-pollinated types like italian sprouting calabrese, decicco, or waltham are highly variable, bushy, with rather coarse, large-beaded flowers, second-rate flavor and many, many side shoots. irrigating gardeners who can start new plants every four weeks from may through july may prefer hybrids. dry gardeners who will want to cut side shoots for as long as possible during summer from large, well-established plants may prefer crude, open-pollinated varieties. try both. broccoli: purple sprouting and other overwintering types _spacing:_ grow like broccoli, to feet apart. _sowing date:_ it is easiest to sow in april or early may, minimally fertigate a somewhat gnarly plant through the summer, push it for size in fall and winter, and then harvest it next march. with too early a start in spring, some premature flowering may occur in autumn; still, massive blooming will resume again in spring. overwintering green italian types such as ml (tsc) will flower in fall if sown before late june. these sorts are better started in a nursery bed around august and like overwintered cauliflower, transplanted about feet apart when fall rains return, then, pushed for growth with extra fertilizer in fall and winter. with nearly a whole year to grow before blooming, purple sprouting eventually reaches to feet in height and to feet in diameter, and yields hugely. _irrigation:_ it is not essential to heavily fertigate purple sprouting, though you may g-r-o-w enormous plants for their beauty. quality or quantity of spring harvest won't drop one bit if the plants become a little stunted and gnarly in summer, as long as you fertilize late in september to spur rapid growth during fall and winter. root system vigor in the cabbage family wild cabbage is a weed and grows like one, able to successfully compete for water against grasses and other herbs. remove all competition with a hoe, and allow this weed to totally control all the moisture and nutrients in all the earth its roots can occupy, and it grows hugely and lushly. just for fun, i once g-r-e-w one, with tillage, hoeing, and spring fertilization but no irrigation; it ended up feet tall and feet in diameter. as this highly moldable family is inbred and shaped into more and more exaggerated forms, it weakens and loses the ability to forage. kale retains the most wild aggressiveness, chinese cabbage perhaps the least. here, in approximately correct order, is shown the declining root vigor and general adaptation to moisture stress of cabbage family vegetables. the table shows the most vigorous at the top, declining as it goes down. adapted to dry gardening not vigorous enough kale italian broccoli (some varieties) brussels sprouts (late types) cabbage (regular market types) late savoy cabbage brussels sprouts (early types) giant "field-type" kohlrabi small "market-garden" kohlrabi mid-season savoy cabbage cauliflower (regular, annual) rutabaga turnips and radishes italian broccoli (some varieties) chinese cabbage brussels sprouts _sowing date:_ if the plants are a foot tall before the soil starts drying down, their roots will be over a foot deep; the plants will then grow hugely with a bit of fertigation. at elkton i dry garden brussels sprouts by sowing late april to early may. started this soon, even late-maturing varieties may begin forming sprouts by september. though premature bottom sprouts will "blow up" and become aphid damaged, more, higher-quality sprouts will continue to form farther up the stalk during autumn and winter. _spacing:_ make each spot about feet apart. _irrigation:_ without any added moisture, the plants will become stunted but will survive all summer. side-dressing manure or fertilizer late in september (or sooner if the rains come sooner) will provoke very rapid autumn growth and a surprisingly large yield from plants that looked stress out in august. if increasingly larger amounts of fertigation can be provided every two to three weeks, the lush brussels sprouts plants can become feet in diameter and feet tall by october and yield enormously. _varieties:_ use late european hybrid types. at elkton, where winters are a little milder than in the willamette, lunet (tsc) has the finest eating qualities. were i farther north i'd grow hardier types like stabolite (tsc) or fortress (tsc). early types are not suitable to growing with insufficient irrigation or frequent spraying to fight off aphids. cabbage forget those delicate, green supermarket cabbages unless you have unlimited amounts of water. but easiest-to-grow savoy types will do surprisingly well with surprisingly little support. besides, savoys are the best salad material. _sowing date:_ i suggest three sowing times: the first, a succession of early, midseason, and late savoys made in mid-march for harvest during summer; the second, late and very late varieties started late april to early may for harvest during fall and winter; the last, a nursery bed of overwintered sorts sown late in august. _spacing:_ early-maturing savoy varieties are naturally smaller and may not experience much hot weather before heading up--these may be separated by about inches. the later ones are large plants and should be given feet of space or square feet of growing room. sow and grow them like broccoli. transplant overwintered cabbages from nursery beds late in october, spaced about feet apart; these thrive where the squash grew. _irrigation:_ the more fertigation you can supply, the larger and more luxuriant the plants and the bigger the heads. but even small, somewhat moisture-stressed savoys make very edible heads. in terms of increased yield for water expended, it is well worth it to provide late varieties with a few gallons of fertigation about mid-june, and a bucketful in mid-july and mid-august. _varieties:_ japanese hybrid savoys make tender eating but may not withstand winter. european savoys are hardier, coarser, thicker-leaved, and harder chewing. for the first sowing i suggest a succession of japanese varieties including salarite or savoy princess for earlies; savoy queen, king, or savoy ace for midsummer; and savonarch (tsc) for late august/early september harvests. they're all great varieties. for the second sowing i grow savonarch (tsc) for september[-]november cutting and a very late european hybrid type like wivoy (tsc) for winter. small-framed january king lacks sufficient root vigor. springtime (tsc) and fem (tsc) are the only overwintered cabbages available. carrots dry-gardening carrots requires patiently waiting until the weather stabilizes before tilling and sowing. to avoid even a little bit of soil compaction, i try to sprout the seed without irrigation but always fear that hot weather will frustrate my efforts. so i till and plant too soon. and then heavy rain comes and compacts my perfectly fluffed-up soil. but the looser and finer the earth remains during their first six growing weeks, the more perfectly the roots will develop. _sowing date:_ april at elkton. _spacing:_ allocate feet of width to a single row of carrot seed. when the seedlings are about inches tall, thin to inch apart. then thin every other carrot when the roots are [f] / to [f] / inch in diameter and eat the thinnings. a few weeks later, when the carrots are about / to inch in diameter, make a final thinning to foot apart. _irrigation:_ not necessary. foliar feeding every few weeks will make much larger roots. without any help they should grow to several pounds each. _varieties:_ choosing the right variety is very important. nantes and other delicate, juicy types lack enough fiber to hold together when they get very large. these split prematurely. i've had my best results with danvers types. i'd also try royal chantenay (pea), fakkel mix (tsc), stokes "processor" types, and topweight (abl). be prepared to experiment with variety. the roots will not be quite as tender as heavily watered nantes types but are a lot better than you'd think. huge carrots are excellent in soups and we cheerfully grate them into salads. something about accumulating sunshine all summer makes the roots incredibly sweet. cauliflower ordinary varieties cannot forage for moisture. worse, moisture stress at any time during the growth cycle prevents proper formation of curds. the only important cauliflowers suitable for dry gardening are overwintered types. i call them important because they're easy to grow and they'll feed the family during april and early may, when other garden fare is very scarce. _sowing date:_ to acquire enough size to survive cold weather, overwintered cauliflower must be started on a nursery bed during the difficult heat of early august. except south of yoncalla, delaying sowing until september makes very small seedlings that may not be hardy enough and likely won't yield much in april unless winter is very mild, encouraging unusual growth. _spacing:_ in october, transplant about feet apart in rows to feet apart. _irrigation:_ if you have more water available, fertilize and till up some dusty, dry soil, wet down the row, direct-seed like broccoli (but closer together), and periodically irrigate until fall. if you only moisten a narrow band of soil close to the seedlings it won't take much water. cauliflower grows especially well in the row that held bush peas. _varieties:_ the best are the very pricy armado series sold by territorial. chard this vegetable is basically a beet with succulent leaves and thick stalks instead of edible, sweet roots. it is just as drought tolerant as a beet, and in dry gardening, chard is sown, spaced, and grown just like a beet. but if you want voluminous leaf production during summer, you may want to fertigate it occasionally. _varieties:_ the red chards are not suitable for starting early in the season; they have a strong tendency to bolt prematurely if sown during that part of the year when daylength is increasing. corn broadcast complete organic fertilizer or strong compost shallowly over the corn patch till midwinter, or as early in spring as the earth can be worked without making too many clods. corn will germinate in pretty rough soil. high levels of nutrients in the subsoil are more important than a fine seedbed. _sowing date:_ about the time frost danger ends. being large seed, corn can be set deep, where soil moisture still exists even after conditions have warmed up. germination without irrigation should be no problem. _spacing_: the farther south, the farther apart. entirely without irrigation, i've had fine results spacing individual corn plants feet apart in rows feet apart, or square feet per each plant. were i around puget sound or in b.c. i'd try feet apart in rows inches apart. gary nabhan describes papago gardeners in arizona growing individual cornstalks feet apart. grown on wide spacings, corn tends to tiller (put up multiple stalks, each making one or two ears). for most urban and suburban gardeners, space is too valuable to allocate square feet for producing one or at best three or four ears. _irrigation:_ with normal sprinkler irrigation, corn may be spaced inches apart in rows inches apart, still yielding one or two ears per stalk. _varieties:_ were i a devoted sweetcorn eater without enough irrigation, i'd be buying a few dozen freshly picked ears from the back of a pickup truck parked on a corner during local harvest season. were i a devoted corn grower without any irrigation, i'd be experimenting with various types of field corn instead of sweet corn. were i a self-sufficiency buff trying earnestly to produce all my own cereal, i'd accept that the maritime northwest is a region where survivalists will eat wheat, rye, millet, and other small grains. many varieties of field corn are nearly as sweet as ordinary sweet corn, but grain varieties become starchy and tough within hours of harvest. eaten promptly, "pig" corn is every bit as tasty as jubilee. i've had the best dry-garden results with northstine dent (jss) and garland flint (jss). hookers sweet indian (tsc) has a weak root system. successfully starting cucurbits from seed with cucurbits, germination depends on high-enough soil temperature and not too much moisture. squash are the most chill and moisture tolerant, melons the least. here's a failure-proof and simple technique that ensures you'll plant at exactly the right time. cucumbers, squash, and melons are traditionally sown atop a deeply dug, fertilized spot that usually looks like a little mound after it is worked and is commonly called a hill. about two weeks before the last anticipated frost date in your area, plant five or six squash seeds about inches deep in a clump in the very center of that hill. then, a week later, plant another clump at o'clock. in another week, plant another clump at o'clock, and continue doing this until one of the sowings sprouts. probably the first try won't come up, but the hill will certainly germinate several clumps of seedlings. if weather conditions turn poor, a later-to-sprout group may outgrow those that came up earlier. thin gradually to the best single plant by the time the vines are running. when the first squash seeds appear it is time to begin sowing cucumbers, starting a new batch each week until one emerges. when the cucumbers first germinate, it's time to try melons. approaching cucurbits this way ensures that you'll get the earliest possible germination while being protected against the probability that cold, damp weather will prevent germination or permanently spoil the growth prospects of the earlier seedlings. cucumbers _sowing date:_ about may to at elkton. _spacing:_ most varieties usually run five about feet from the hill. space the hills about to feet apart in all directions. _irrigation:_ like melons. regular and increasing amounts of fertigation will increase the yield several hundred percent. _varieties:_ i've had very good results dry-gardening amira ii (tsc), even without any fertigation at all. it is a middle eastern[-]style variety that makes pickler-size thin-skinned cukes that need no peeling and have terrific flavor. the burpless or japanese sorts don't seem to adapt well to drought. most slicers dry-garden excellently. apple or lemon are similar novelty heirlooms that make very extensive vines with aggressive roots and should be given a foot or two more elbow room. i'd avoid any variety touted as being for pot or patio, compact, or short-vined, because of a likely linkage between its vine structure and root system. eggplant grown without regular sprinkler irrigation, eggplant seems to get larger and yield sooner and more abundantly. i suspect this delicate and fairly drought-resistant tropical species does not like having its soil temperature lowered by frequent watering. _sowing date:_ set out transplants at the usual time, about two weeks after the tomatoes, after all frost danger has passed and after nights have stably warmed up above degree f. _spacing:_ double dig and deeply fertilize the soil under each transplant. separate plants by about feet in rows about feet apart. _irrigation:_ will grow and produce a few fruit without any watering, but a bucket of fertigation every three to four weeks during summer may result in the most luxurious, hugest, and heaviest-bearing eggplants you've ever grown. _varieties:_ i've noticed no special varietal differences in ability to tolerate dryish soil. i've had good yields from the regionally adapted varieties dusky hybrid, short tom, and early one. endive a biennial member of the chicory family, endive quickly puts down a deep taproot and is naturally able to grow through prolonged drought. because endive remains bitter until cold weather, it doesn't matter if it grows slowly through summer, just so long as rapid leaf production resumes in autumn. _sowing date:_ on irrigated raised beds endive is sown around august and heads by mid-october. the problem with dry-gardened endive is that if it is spring sown during days of increasing daylength when germination of shallow-sown small seed is a snap, it will bolt prematurely. the crucial moment seems to be about june . april/may sowings bolt in july/august,: after june , bolting won't happen until the next spring, but germination won't happen without watering. one solution is soaking the seeds overnight, rinsing them frequently until they begin to sprout, and fluid drilling them. _spacing:_ the heads become huge when started in june. sow in rows feet apart and thin gradually until the rosettes are inches in diameter, then thin to inches apart. _irrigation:_ without a drop of moisture the plants, even as tiny seedlings, will grow steadily but slowly all summer, as long as no other crop is invading their root zone. the only time i had trouble was when the endive row was too close to an aggressive row of yellow crookneck squash. about august, the squash roots began invading the endive's territory and the endive got wilty. a light side-dressing of complete organic fertilizer or compost in late september will grow the hugest plants imaginable. _varieties:_ curly types seem more tolerant to rain and frost during winter than broad-leaf batavian varieties. i prefer president (tsc). herbs most perennial and biennial herbs are actually weeds and wild hillside shrubs from mediterranean climates similar to that of southern california. they are adapted to growing on winter rainfall and surviving seven to nine months without rainfall every summer. in our climate, merely giving them a little more elbow room than usually offered, thorough weeding, and side-dressing the herb garden with a little compost in fall is enough coddling. annuals such as dill and cilantro are also very drought tolerant. basil, however, needs considerable moisture. kale depending on the garden for a significant portion of my annual caloric intake has gradually refined my eating habits. years ago i learned to like cabbage salads as much as lettuce. since lettuce freezes out many winters ( - degree f), this adjustment has proved very useful. gradually i began to appreciate kale, too, and now value it as a salad green far more than cabbage. this personal adaptation has proved very pro-survival, because even savoy cabbages do not grow as readily or yield nearly as much as kale. and kale is a tad more cold hardy than even savoy cabbage. you may be surprised to learn that kale produces more complete protein per area occupied per time involved than any legume, including alfalfa. if it is steamed with potatoes and then mashed, the two vegetables complement and flavor each other. our region could probably subsist quite a bit more healthfully than at present on potatoes and kale. the key to enjoying kale as a salad component is varietal choice, preparation, and using the right parts of the plant. read on. _sowing date:_ with irrigation, fast-growing kale is usually started in midsummer for use in fall and winter. but kale is absolutely biennial--started in march or april, it will not bolt until the next spring. the water-wise gardener can conveniently sow kale while cool, moist soil simplifies germination. starting this early also produces a deep root system before the soil dries much, and a much taller, very useful central stalk on oleracea types, while early sown siberian (napa) varieties tend to form multiple rosettes by autumn, also useful at harvest time. _spacing: _grow like broccoli, spaced feet apart. _irrigation:_ without any water, the somewhat stunted plants will survive the summer to begin rapid growth as soon as fall rains resume. with the help of occasional fertigation they grow lushly and are enormous by september. either way, there still will be plenty of kale during fall and winter. _harvest:_ bundles of strong-flavored, tough, large leaves are sold in supermarkets but are the worst-eating part of the plant. if chopped finely enough, big raw leaves can be masticated and tolerated by people with good teeth. however, the tiny leaves are far tenderer and much milder. the more rosettes developed on siberian kales, the more little leaves there are to be picked. by pinching off the central growing tip in october and then gradually stripping off the large shading leaves, _oleracea_ varieties may be encouraged to put out dozens of clusters of small, succulent leaves at each leaf notch along the central stalk. the taller the stalk grown during summer, the more of these little leaves there will be. only home gardeners can afford the time to hand pick small leaves. _varieties:_ i somewhat prefer the flavor of red russian to the ubiquitous green siberian, but red russian is very slightly less cold hardy. westland winter (tsc) and konserva (jss) are tall european oleracea varieties. winterbor f (jss, tsc) is also excellent. the dwarf "scotch" kales, blue or green, sold by many american seed companies are less vigorous types that don't produce nearly as many gourmet little leaves. dwarfs in any species tend to have dwarfed root systems. kohlrabi (giant) spring-sown market kohlrabi are usually harvested before hot weather makes them get woody. irrigation is not required if they're given a little extra elbow room. with ordinary varieties, try thinning to inches apart in rows to feet apart and harvest by thinning alternate plants. given this additional growing room, they may not get woody until midsummer. on my irrigated, intensive bed i always sow some more on august , to have tender bulbs in autumn. kohlrabi was once grown as european fodder crop; slow-growing farmers, varieties grow huge like rutabagas. these field types have been crossed with table types to make "giant" table varieties that really suit dry gardening. what to do with a giant kohlrabi (or any bulb getting overblown)? peel, grate finely, add chopped onion, dress with olive oil and black pepper, toss, and enjoy this old eastern european mainstay. _sowing date:_ sow giant varieties during april, as late as possible while still getting a foot-tall plant before really hot weather. _spacing:_ thin to feet apart in rows feet apart. _irrigation:_ not absolutely necessary on deep soil, but if they get one or two thorough fertigations during summer their size may double. _varieties:_ a few american seed companies, including peace seeds, have a giant kohlrabi of some sort or other. the ones i've tested tend to be woody, are crude, and throw many off-types, a high percentage of weak plants, and/or poorly shaped roots. by the time this book is in print, territorial should list a unique swiss variety called superschmeltz, which is uniformly huge and stays tender into the next year. leeks unwatered spring-sown bulbing onions are impossible. leek is the only allium i know of that may grow steadily but slowly through severe drought; the water-short gardener can depend on leeks for a fall/winter onion supply. _sowing date:_ start a row or several short rows about inches apart on a nursery bed in march or early april at the latest. grow thickly, irrigate during may/june, and fertilize well so the competing seedlings get leggy. _spacing:_ by mid-to late june the seedlings should be slightly spindly, pencil-thick, and scallion size. with a sharp shovel, dig out the nursery row, carefully retaining or inches of soil below the seedlings. with a strong jet of water, blast away the soil and, while doing this, gently separate the tangled roots so that as little damage is done as possible. make sure the roots don't dry out before transplanting. after separation, i temporarily wrap bundled seedlings in wet newspaper. dig out a foot-deep trench the width of an ordinary shovel and carefully place this earth next to the trench. sprinkle in a heavy dose of organic fertilizer or strong compost, and spade that in so the soil is fluffy and fertile feet down. do not immediately refill the trench with the soil that was dug out. with a shovel handle, poke a row of -inch-deep holes along the bottom of the trench. if the nursery bed has grown well there should be about inches of stem on each seedling before the first leaf attaches. if the weather is hot and sunny, snip off about one-third to one-half the leaf area to reduce transplanting shock. drop one leek seedling into each hole up to the point that the first leaf attaches to the stalk, and mud it in with a cup or two of liquid fertilizer. as the leeks grow, gradually refill the trench and even hill up soil around the growing plants. this makes the better-tasting white part of the stem get as long as possible. avoid getting soil into the center of the leek where new leaves emerge, or you'll not get them clean after harvest. spacing of the seedlings depends on the amount of irrigation. if absolutely none at all, set them inches apart in the center of a row feet wide. if unlimited water is available, give them inches of separation. or adjust spacing to the water available. the plants grow slowly through summer, but in autumn growth will accelerate, especially if they are side-dressed at this time. _varieties:_ for dry gardening use the hardier, more vigorous winter leeks. durabel (tsc) has an especially mild, sweet flavor. other useful varieties include giant carentian (abl), alaska (stk), and winter giant (pea). lettuce spring-sown lettuce will go to large sizes, remaining sweet and tender without irrigation if spaced foot apart in a single row with feet of elbow room on each side. lettuce cut after mid-june usually gets bitter without regular, heavy irrigation. i reserve my well-watered raised bed for this summer salad crop. those very short of water can start fall/winter lettuce in a shaded, irrigated nursery bed mid-august through mid-september and transplant it out after the fall rains return. here is one situation in which accelerating growth with cloches or cold frames would be very helpful. water-wise cucurbits the root systems of this family are far more extensive than most people realize. usually a taproot goes down several feet and then, soil conditions permitting, thickly occupies a large area, ultimately reaching down to feet. shallow feeder roots also extend laterally as far as or farther than the vines reach at their greatest extent. dry gardeners can do several things to assist cucurbits. first, make sure there is absolutely no competition in their root zone. this means[i]one plant per hill, with the hills separated in all directions a little farther than the greatest possible extent of the variety's ultimate growth.[i] common garden lore states that squashes droop their leaves in midsummer heat and that this trait cannot be avoided and does no harm. but if they've grown as described above, on deep, open soil, capillarity and surface moisture reserves ensure there usually will be no midday wilting, even if there is no watering. two plants per hill do compete and make each other wilt. second, double dig and fertilize the entire lateral root zone. third, as much as possible, avoid walking where the vines will ultimately reach to avoid compaction. finally, [i]do not transplant them.[i] this breaks the taproot and makes the plant more dependent on lateral roots seeking moisture in the top inches of soil. melons _sowing date:_ as soon as they'll germinate outdoors: at elkton, may to june . thin to a single plant per hill when there are about three true leaves and the vines are beginning to run. _spacing:_ most varieties will grow a vine reaching about feet in diameter. space the hills feet apart in all directions. _irrigation:_ fertigation every two to three weeks will increase the yield by two or three times and may make the melons sweeter. release the water/fertilizer mix close to the center of the vine, where the taproot can use it. _varieties:_ adaptation to our cool climate is critical with melons; use varieties sold by our regional seed companies. yellow doll watermelons (tsc) are very early and seem the most productive under the most droughty conditions. i've had reasonable results from most otherwise regionally adapted cantaloupes and muskmelons. last year a new hybrid variety, passport (tsc), proved several weeks earlier than i'd ever experienced and was extraordinarily prolific and tasty. onions/scallions the usual spring-sown, summer-grown bulb onions and scallions only work with abundant irrigation. but the water-short, water-wise gardener can still supply the kitchen with onions or onion substitutes year-round. leeks take care of november through early april. overwintered bulb onions handle the rest of the year. scallions may also be harvested during winter. _sowing date:_ started too soon, overwintered or short-day bulbing onions (and sweet scallions) will bolt and form seed instead of bulbing. started too late they'll be too small and possibly not hardy enough to survive winter. about august at elkton i sow thickly in a well-watered and very fertile nursery bed. if you have more than one nursery row, separate them about by inches. those who miss this window of opportunity can start transplants in early october and cover with a cloche immediately after germination, to accelerate seedling growth during fall and early winter. start scallions in a nursery just like overwintered onions, but earlier so they're large enough for the table during winter, i sow them about mid-july. _spacing:_ when seedlings are about pencil thick (december/january for overwintering bulb onions), transplant them about or inches apart in a single row with a couple of feet of elbow room on either side. i've found i get the best growth and largest bulbs if they follow potatoes. after the potatoes are dug in early october i immediately fertilize the area heavily and till, preparing the onion bed. klamath basin farmers usually grow a similar rotation: hay, potatoes, onions. transplant scallions in october with the fall rains, about inch apart in rows at least feet apart. _irrigation:_ not necessary. however, side-dressing the transplants will result in much larger bulbs or scallions. scallions will bolt in april; the bulbers go tops-down and begin drying down as the soil naturally dries out. _varieties:_ i prefer the sweet and tender lisbon (tsc) for scallions. for overwintered bulb onions, grow very mild but poorly keeping walla walla sweet (jss), buffalo (tsc), a better keeper, or whatever territorial is selling at present. parsley _sowing date:_ march. parsley seed takes two to three weeks to germinate. _spacing:_ thin to inches apart in a single row feet wide. five plants should overwhelm the average kitchen. _irrigation:_ not necessary unless yield falls off during summer and that is very unlikely. parsley's very deep, foraging root system resembles that of its relative, the carrot. _varieties:_ if you use parsley for greens, variety is not critical, though the gourmet may note slight differences in flavor or amount of leaf curl. another type of parsley is grown for edible roots that taste much like parsnip. these should have their soil prepared as carefully as though growing carrots. peas this early crop matures without irrigation. both pole and bush varieties are planted thickly in single rows about feet apart. i always overlook some pods, which go on to form mature seed. without overhead irrigation, this seed will sprout strongly next year. alaska (soup) peas grow the same way. peppers pepper plants on raised beds spaced the usually recommended to inches apart undergo intense root competition even before their leaves form a canopy. with or without unlimited irrigation, the plants will get much larger and bear more heavily with elbow room. _sowing date:_ set out transplants at the usual time. double dig a few square feet of soil beneath each seedling, and make sure fertilizer gets incorporated all the way down to feet deep. _spacing:_ three feet apart in rows to feet apart. _irrigation:_ without any irrigation only the most vigorous, small-fruited varieties will set anything. for an abundant harvest, fertigate every three or four weeks. for the biggest pepper plants you ever grew, fertigate every two weeks. _varieties:_ the small-fruited types, both hot and sweet, have much more aggressive root systems and generally adapt better to our region's cool weather. i've had best results with cayenne long slim, gypsie, surefire, hot portugal, the "cherries" both sweet and hot, italian sweet, and petite sirah. potatoes humans domesticated potatoes in the cool, arid high plateaus of the andes where annual rainfall averages to inches. the species finds our dry summer quite comfortable. potatoes produce more calories per unit of land than any other temperate crop. irrigated potatoes yield more calories and two to three times as much watery bulk and indigestible fiber as those grown without irrigation, but the same variety dry gardened can contain about percent more protein, far more mineral nutrients, and taste better. _sowing date:_ i make two sowings. the first is a good-luck ritual done religiously on march th--st. patrick's day. rain or shine, in untilled mud or finely worked and deeply fluffed earth, i still plant or seed potatoes of an early variety. this provides for summer. the main sowing waits until frost is unlikely and i can dig the potato rows at least inches deep with a spading fork, working in fertilizer as deeply as possible and ending up with a finely pulverized -inch-wide bed. at elkton, this is usually mid-to late april. there is no rush to plant. potato vines are not frost hardy. if frosted they'll regrow, but being burned back to the ground lowers the final yield. _spacing:_ i presprout my seeds by spreading them out in daylight at room temperature for a few weeks, and then plant one whole, sprouting, medium-size potato every inches down the center of the row. barely cover the seed potato. at maturity there should be [f] / to feet of soil unoccupied with the roots of any other crop on each side of the row. as the vines emerge, gradually scrape soil up over them with a hoe. let the vines grow about inches, then pull up about inches of cover. let another inches grow, then hill up another inches. continue doing this until the vines begin blooming. at that point there should be a mound of loose, fluffy soil about to inches high gradually filling with tubers lushly covered with blooming vines. _irrigation:_ not necessary. in fact, if large water droplets compact the loose soil you scraped up, that may interfere with maximum tuber enlargement. however, after the vines are a foot long or so, foliar feeding every week or days will increase the yield. _varieties:_ the water-wise gardener's main potato problem is too-early maturity, and then premature sprouting in storage. early varieties like yukon gold--even popular midseason ones like yellow finn--don't keep well unless they're planted late enough to brown off in late september. that's no problem if they're irrigated. but planted in late april, earlier varieties will shrivel by august. potatoes only keep well when very cool, dark, and moist--conditions almost impossible to create on the homestead during summer. the best august compromise is to leave mature potatoes undug, but soil temperatures are in the s during august, and by early october, when potatoes should be lifted and put into storage, they'll already be sprouting. sprouting in october is acceptable for the remainders of my st. pat's day sowing that i am keeping over for seed next spring. it is not ok for my main winter storage crop. our climate requires very late, slow-maturing varieties that can be sown early but that don't brown off until september. late types usually yield more, too. most of the seed potato varieties found in garden centers are early or midseason types chosen by farmers for yield without regard to flavor or nutrition. one, nooksack cascadian, is a very late variety grown commercially around bellingham, washington. nooksack is pretty good if you like white, all-purpose potatoes. there are much better homegarden varieties available in ronniger's catalog, all arranged according to maturity. for the ultimate in earlies i suggest red gold. for main harvests i'd try indian pit, carole, german butterball, siberian, or a few experimental row-feet of any other late variety taking your fancy. rutabagas rutabagas have wonderfully aggressive root systems and are capable of growing continuously through long, severe drought. but where i live, the results aren't satisfactory. here's what happens. if i start rutabagas in early april and space them about to feet apart in rows feet apart, by october they're the size of basketballs and look pretty good; unfortunately, i harvest a hollow shell full of cabbage root maggots. root maggots are at their peak in early june. that's why i got interested in dry-gardening giant kohlrabi. in we had about surprising inches of rain late in june, so as a test i sowed rutabagas on july . they germinated without more irrigation, but going into the hot summer as small plants with limited root systems and no irrigation at all they became somewhat stunted. by october the tops were still small and a little gnarly; big roots had not yet formed. then the rains came and the rutabagas began growing rapidly. by november there was a pretty nice crop of medium-size good-eating roots. i suspect that farther north, where evaporation is not so severe and midsummer rains are slightly more common, if a little irrigation were used to start rutabagas about july , a decent unwatered crop might be had most years. and i am certain that if sown at the normal time (july ) and grown with minimal irrigation but well spaced out, they'll produce acceptably. _varieties:_ stokes altasweet (stk, tsc) has the best flavor. sorrel this weed-like, drought-tolerant salad green is little known and underappreciated. in summer the leaves get tough and strong flavored; if other greens are available, sorrel will probably be unpicked. that's ok. during fall, winter, and spring, sorrel's lemony taste and delicate, tender texture balance tougher savoy cabbage and kale and turn those crude vegetables into very acceptable salads. serious salad-eating families might want the production of to row-feet. _sowing date:_ the first year you grow sorrel, sow mid-march to mid-april. the tiny seed must be placed shallowly, and it sprouts much more readily when the soil stays moist. plant a single furrow centered in a row feet wide. _spacing: _as the seedlings grow, thin gradually. when the leaves are about the size of ordinary spinach, individual plants should be about inches apart. _irrigation:_ not necessary in summer--you won't eat it anyway. if production lags in fall, winter, or spring, side-dress the sorrel patch with a little compost or organic fertilizer. _maintenance:_ sorrel is perennial. if an unusually harsh winter freeze kills off the leaves it will probably come back from root crowns in early spring. you'll welcome it after losing the rest of your winter crops. in spring of the second and succeeding years sorrel will make seed. seed making saps the plant's energy, and the seeds may naturalize into an unwanted weed around the garden. so, before any seed forms, cut all the leaves and seed stalks close to the ground; use the trimmings as a convenient mulch along the row. if you move the garden or want to relocate the patch, do not start sorrel again from seed. in any season dig up a few plants, divide the root masses, trim off most of the leaves to reduce transplanting shock, and transplant foot apart. occasional unique plants may be more reluctant to make seed stalks than most others. since seed stalks produce few edible leaves and the leaves on them are very harsh flavored, making seed is an undesirable trait. so i propagate only seed-shy plants by root cuttings. spinach spring spinach is remarkably more drought tolerant than it would appear from its delicate structure and the succulence of its leaves. a bolt-resistant, long-day variety bred for summer harvest sown in late april may still yield pickable leaves in late june or even early july without any watering at all, if thinned to inches apart in rows feet apart. squash, winter and summer _sowing date:_ having warm-enough soil is everything. at elkton i first attempt squash about april . in the willamette, may is usual. farther north, squash may not come up until june . dry gardeners should not transplant squash; the taproot must not be broken. _spacing:_ the amount of room to give each plant depends on the potential of a specific variety's maximum root development. most vining winter squash can completely occupy a -foot-diameter circle. sprawly heirloom summer squash varieties can desiccate an -or -foot-diameter circle. thin each hill to one plant, not two or more as is recommended in the average garden book. there must be no competition for water. _irrigation:_ with winter storage types, an unirrigated vine may yield pounds of squash after occupying a -foot-diameter circle for an entire growing season. however, starting about july , if you support that vine by supplying liquid fertilizer every two to three weeks you may harvest pounds of squash from the same area. the first fertigation may only need gallons. then mid-july give ; about august , ; august , feed gallons. after that date, solar intensity and temperatures decline, growth rate slows, and water use also decreases. on september i'd add about gallons and about more on september if it hadn't yet rained significantly. total water: gallons. total increase in yield: pounds. i'd say that's a good return on water invested. _varieties:_ for winter squash, all the vining winter varieties in the c. maxima or c. pepo family seem acceptably adapted to dry gardening. these include buttercup, hubbard, delicious, sweet meat, delicata, spaghetti, and acorn. i wouldn't trust any of the newer compact bush winter varieties so popular on raised beds. despite their reputation for drought tolerance c. mixta varieties (or cushaw squash) were believed to be strictly hot desert or humid-tropical varieties, unable to mature in our cool climate. however, pepita (pea) is a mixta that is early enough and seems entirely unbothered by a complete lack of irrigation. the enormous vine sets numerous good keepers with mild-tasting, light yellow flesh. obviously, the compact bush summer squash varieties so popular these days are not good candidates for withstanding long periods without irrigation. the old heirlooms like black zucchini (abl) (not black beauty!) and warty yellow crookneck grow enormous, high-yielding plants whose extent nearly rivals that of the largest winter squash. they also grow a dense leaf cover, making the fruit a little harder to find. these are the only american heirlooms still readily available. black zucchini has become very raggedy; anyone growing it should be prepared to plant several vines and accept that at least one-third of them will throw rather off-type fruit. it needs the work of a skilled plant breeder. yellow crookneck is still a fairly "clean" variety offering good uniformity. both have more flavor and are less watery than the modern summer squash varieties. yellow crookneck is especially rich, probably due to its thick, oily skin; most gardeners who once grow the old crookneck never again grow any other kind. another useful drought-tolerant variety is gem, sometimes called rolet (tsc). it grows an extensive winter-squash-like vine yielding grapefruit-size, excellent eating summer squash. both yellow crookneck and black zucchini begin yielding several weeks later than the modern hybrids. however, as the summer goes on they will produce quite a bit more squash than new hybrid types. i now grow five or six fully irrigated early hybrid plants like seneca zucchini too. as soon as my picking bucket is being filled with later-to-yield crooknecks, i pull out the senecas and use the now empty irrigated space for fall crops. tomato there's no point in elaborate methods--trellising, pruning, or training--with dry-gardened tomato vines. their root systems must be allowed to control all the space they can without competition, so allow the vines to sprawl as well. and pruning the leaf area of indeterminates is counterproductive: to grow hugely, the roots need food from a full complement of leaves. _sowing date:_ set out transplants at the usual time. they might also be jump started under cloches two to three weeks before the last frost, to make better use of natural soil moisture. _spacing:_ depends greatly on variety. the root system can occupy as much space as the vines will cover and then some. _irrigation:_ especially on determinate varieties, periodic fertigation will greatly increase yield and size of fruit. the old indeterminate sprawlers will produce through an entire summer without any supplemental moisture, but yield even more in response to irrigation. _variety:_ with or without irrigation or anywhere in between, when growing tomatoes west of the cascades, nothing is more important than choosing the right variety. not only does it have to be early and able to set and ripen fruit when nights are cool, but to grow through months without watering the plant must be highly indeterminate. this makes a built-in conflict: most of the sprawly, huge, old heirloom varieties are rather late to mature. but cherry tomatoes are always far earlier than big slicers. if i had to choose only one variety it would be the old heirloom [large] red cherry. a single plant is capable of covering a - to -foot-diameter circle if fertigated from mid-july through august. the enormous yield of a single fertigated vine is overwhelming. red cherry is a little acid and tart. non-acid, indeterminate cherry types like sweetie, sweet , and sweet millions are also workable but not as aggressive as red cherry. i wouldn't depend on most bush cherry tomato varieties. but our earliest cherry variety of all, osu's gold nugget, must grow a lot more root than top, for, with or without supplemental water, gold nugget sets heavily and ripens enormously until mid-august, when it peters out from overbearing (not from moisture stress). gold nugget quits just about when the later cherry or slicing tomatoes start ripening heavily. other well-adapted early determinates such as oregon spring and santiam may disappoint you. unless fertigated, they'll set and ripen some fruit but may become stunted in midsummer. however, a single indeterminate fantastic hybrid will cover a -to -foot-diameter circle, and grow and ripen tomatoes until frost with only a minimum of water. i think stupice (abl, tsc) and early cascade are also quite workable (and earlier than fantastic in washington). chapter my own garden plan this chapter illustrates and explains my own dry garden. any garden plan is a product of compromises and preferences; mine is not intended to become yours. but, all modesty aside, this plan results from continuous years of serious vegetable gardening and some small degree of regional wisdom. my wife and i are what i dub "vegetablitarians." not vegetarians, or lacto-ovo vegetarians because we're not ideologues and eat meat on rare, usually festive occasions in other peoples' houses. but over percent of our calories are from vegetable, fruit, or cereal sources and the remaining percentage is from fats or dairy foods. the purpose of my garden is to provide at least half the actual calories we eat year-round; most of the rest comes from home-baked bread made with freshly ground whole grains. i put at least one very large bowl of salad on the table every day, winter and summer. i keep us in potatoes nine months a year and produce a year's supply of onions or leeks. to break the dietary monotony of november to april, i grow as wide an assortment of winter vegetables as possible and put most produce departments to shame from june through september, when the summer vegies are "on." the garden plan may seem unusually large, but in accordance with solomon's first law of abundance, there's a great deal of intentional waste. my garden produces two to three times the amount of food needed during the year so moochers, poachers, guests, adult daughters accompanied by partners, husbands, and children, mistakes, poor yields, and failures of individual vegetables are inconsequential. besides, gardening is fun. my garden is laid out in -foot-long rows and one equally long raised bed. each row grows only one or two types of vegetables. the central focus of my water-wise garden is its irrigation system. two lines of low-angle sprinklers, only feet apart, straddle an intensively irrigated raised bed running down the center of the garden. the sprinklers i use are naans, a unique israeli design that emits very little water and throws at a very low angle (available from tsc and some garden centers). their maximum reach is about feet; each sprinkler is about feet from its neighbor. on the garden plan, the sprinklers are indicated by a circle surrounding an "x." readers unfamiliar with sprinkler system design are advised to study the irrigation chapter in growing vegetables west of the cascades. on the far left side of the garden plan is a graphic representation of the uneven application of water put down by this sprinkler system. the -foot-wide raised bed gets lots of water, uniformly distributed. farther away, the amount applied decreases rapidly. about half as much irrigation lands only feet from the edge of the raised bed as on the bed itself. beyond that the amount tapers off to insignificance. during summer's heat the farthest feet is barely moistened on top, but no water effectively penetrates the dry surface. crops are positioned according to their need for or ability to benefit from supplementation. for convenient description i've numbered those rows. the raised bed crops demanding the most water are grown on the raised bed. these include a succession of lettuce plantings designed to fill the summer salad bowl, summer spinach, spring kohlrabi, my celery patch, scallions, chinese cabbages, radishes, and various nursery beds that start overwintered crops for transplanting later. perhaps the bed seems too large just for salad greens. but one entire meal every day consists largely of fresh, raw, high-protein green leaves; during summer, looseleaf or semiheading lettuce is our salad item of choice. and our individual salad bowls are larger than most families of six might consider adequate to serve all of them together. if water were severely rationed i could irrigate the raised bed with hose and nozzle and dry garden the rest, but as it is, rows , , , and do get significant but lesser amounts from the sprinklers. most of the rows hold a single plant family needing similar fertilization and handling or, for convenience, that are sown at the same time. row the row's center is about feet from the edge of the raised bed. in march i sow my very first salad greens down half this row--mostly assorted leaf lettuce plus some spinach--and six closely spaced early seneca hybrid zucchini plants. the greens are all cut by mid-june; by mid-july my better-quality yellow crookneck squash come on, so i pull the zucchini. then i till that entire row, refertilize, and sow half to rutabagas. the nursery bed of leek seedlings has gotten large enough to transplant at this time, too. these go into a trench dug into the other half of the row. the leeks and rutabagas could be reasonably productive located farther from the sprinklers, but no vegetables benefit more from abundant water or are more important to a self-sufficient kitchen. rutabagas break the winter monotony of potatoes; leeks vitally improve winter salads, and leeky soups are a household staple from november through march. row : semi-drought tolerant brassicas row gets about half the irrigation of row and about one-third as much as the raised bed, and so is wider, to give the roots more room. one-third of the row grows savoy cabbage, the rest, brussels sprouts. these brassicas are spaced feet apart and by summer's end the lusty sprouts form a solid hedge feet tall. row : kale row grows feet of various kales sown in april. there's just enough overspray to keep the plants from getting gnarly. i prefer kale to not get very stunted, if only for aesthetics: on my soil, one vanity fertigation about mid-july keeps this row looking impressive all summer. other gardens with poorer soil might need more support. this much kale may seem an enormous oversupply, but between salads and steaming greens with potatoes we manage to eat almost all the tender small leaves it grows during winter. row : root crops mostly carrots, a few beets. no irrigation, no fertigation, none needed. one hundred carrots weighing in at around pounds each and -some beets of equal magnitude make our year's supply for salads, soups, and a little juicing. row : dry-gardened salads this row holds a few crowns of french sorrel, a few feet of parsley. over a dozen giant kohlrabi are spring sown, but over half the row grows endive. i give this row absolutely no water. again, when contemplating the amount of space it takes, keep in mind that this endive and kohlrabi must help fill our salad bowls from october through march. row : peas, overwintered cauliflower, and all solanaceae half the row grows early bush peas. without overhead irrigation to bother them, unpicked pods form seed that sprouts excellently the next year. this half of the row is rotary tilled and fertilized again after the pea vines come out. then it stays bare through july while capillarity somewhat recharges the soil. about august , i wet the row's surface down with hose and fan nozzle and sow overwintered cauliflower seed. to keep the cauliflower from stunting i must lightly hand sprinkle the row's center twice weekly through late september. were water more restricted i could start my cauliflower seedlings in a nursery bed and transplant them here in october. the other half is home to the solanaceae: tomato, pepper, and eggplant. i give this row a little extra width because pea vines run, and i fertigate my solanaceae, preferring sprawly tomato varieties that may cover an -foot-diameter circle. there's also a couple of extra bare feet along the outside because the neighboring grasses will deplete soil moisture along the edge of the garden. row : water-demanding brassicas moving away from irrigation on the other side of the raised bed, i grow a succession of hybrid broccoli varieties and late fall cauliflower. the broccoli is sown several times, row-feet each sowing, done about april , june , and july . the late cauliflower goes in about july . if necessary i could use much of this row for quick crops that would be harvested before i wanted to sow broccoli or cauliflower, but i don't need more room. the first sowings of broccoli are pulled out early enough to permit succession sowings of arugula or other late salad greens. row : the trellis here i erect a -foot-long, -foot-tall net trellis for gourmet delicacies like pole peas and pole beans. the bean vines block almost all water that would to on beyond it and so this row gets more irrigation than it otherwise might. the peas are harvested early enough to permit a succession sowing of purple sprouting broccoli in mid-july. purple sprouting needs a bit of sprinkling to germinate in the heat of midsummer, but, being as vigorous as kale, once up, it grows adequately on the overspray from the raised bed. the beans would be overwhelmingly abundant if all were sown at one time, so i plant them in two stages about three weeks apart. still, a great many beans go unpicked. these are allowed to form seed, are harvested before they quite dry, and crisp under cover away from the sprinklers. we get enough seed from this row for planting next year, plus all the dry beans we care to eat during winter. dry beans are hard to digest and as we age we eat fewer and fewer of them. in previous years i've grown entire rows of dry legume seeds at the garden's edge. row : cucurbits this row is so wide because here are grown all the spreading cucurbits. the pole beans in row tend to prevent overspray; this dryness is especially beneficial to humidity-sensitive melons, serendipitously reducing their susceptability to powdery mildew diseases. all cucurbits are fertigated every three weeks. the squash will have fallen apart by the end of september, melons are pulled out by mid-september. the area is then tilled and fertilized, making space to transplant overwintered spring cabbages, other overwintered brassicas, and winter scallions in october. these transplants are dug from nurseries on the irrigated raised bed. i could also set cold frames here and force tender salad greens all winter. row : unirrigated potatoes this single long row satisfies a potato-loving household all winter. the quality of these dry-gardened tubers is so high that my wife complains if she must buy a few new potatoes from the supermarket after our supplies have become so sprouty and/or shriveled that they're not tasty any longer. chapter the backyard water-wise gardener i am an unusually fortunate gardener. after seven years of struggling on one of the poorest growing sites in this region we now live on acres of mostly excellent, deep soil, on the floor of a beautiful, coastal oregon valley. my house and gardens are perched safely above the -year flood line, there's a big, reliable well, and if i ever want more than gallons per minute in midsummer, there's the virtually unlimited umpqua river to draw from. much like a master skeet shooter who uses a . to make the sport more interesting, i have chosen to dry garden. few are this lucky. these days the majority of north americans live an urban struggle. their houses are as often perched on steep, thinly soiled hills or gooey, difficult clay as on a tiny fragment of what was once prime farmland. and never does the municipal gardener have one vital liberty i do: to choose which one-sixth of an acre in his -acre "back yard" he'll garden on this year. i was a suburban backyard gardener for five years before deciding to homestead. i've frequently recalled this experience while learning to dry garden. what follows in this chapter are some strategies to guide the urban in becoming more water-wise. water conservation is the most important first step after it rains or after sprinkler irrigation, water evaporates from the surface until a desiccated earth mulch develops. frequent light watering increases this type of loss. where lettuce, radishes, and other shallow-rooting vegetables are growing, perhaps it is best to accept this loss or spread a thin mulch to reduce it. but most vegetables can feed deeper, so if wetting the surface can be avoided, a lot of water can be saved. even sprinkling longer and less frequently helps accomplish that. half the reason that drip systems are more efficient is that the surface isn't dampened and virtually all water goes deep into the earth. the other half is that they avoiding evaporation that occurs while water sprays through the air between the nozzle and the soil. sprinkling at night or early in the morning, when there is little or no wind, prevents almost all of this type of loss. to use drip irrigation it is not necessary to invest in pipes, emitters, filters, pressure regulators, and so forth. i've already explained how recycled plastic buckets or other large containers can be improvised into very effective drip emitters. besides, drip tube systems are not trouble free: having the beds covered with fragile pipes makes hoeing dicey, while every emitter must be periodically checked against blockage. when using any type of drip system it is especially important to relate the amount of water applied to the depth of the soil to the crops, root development. there's no sense adding more water than the earth can hold. calculating the optimum amount of water to apply from a drip system requires applying substantial, practical intelligence to evaluating the following factors: soil water-holding capacity and accessible depth; how deep the root systems have developed; how broadly the water spreads out below each emitter (dispersion); rate of loss due to transpiration. all but one of these factors--dispersion--are adequately discussed elsewhere in _gardening without irrigation._ a drip emitter on sandy soil moistens the earth nearly straight down with little lateral dispersion; foot below the surface the wet area might only be foot in diameter. conversely, when you drip moisture into a clay soil, though the surface may seem dry, inches away from the emitter and just inches down the earth may become saturated with water, while a few inches deeper, significant dispersion may reach out nearly inches. on sandy soil, emitters on -inch centers are hardly close enough together, while on clay, -or even -inch centers are sufficient. another important bit of data to enter into your arithmetic: cubic foot of water equals about gallons. a -inch-diameter circle equals . square feet (a = pi x radius squared), so cubic foot of water ( gallons) dispersed from a single emitter will add roughly inches of moisture to sandy soil, greatly overwatering a medium that can hold only an inch or so of available water per foot. on heavy clay, a single emitter may wet a -foot-diameter circle, on loams, anywhere in between, gallons will cover a -foot-diameter circle about inch deep. so on deep, clay soil, or even gallons per application may be in order. what is the texture of your soil, its water-holding capacity, and the dispersion of a drip into it? probably, it is somewhere in between sand and clay. i can't specify what is optimum in any particular situation. each gardener must consider his own unique factors and make his own estimation. all i can do is stress again that the essence of water-wise gardening is water conservation. optimizing space: planning the water-wise backyard garden intensive gardening is a strategy holding that yield per square foot is the supreme goal; it succeeds by optimizing as many growth factors as possible. so a raised bed is loosened very deeply without concern for the amount of labor, while fertility and moisture are supplied virtually without limit. intensive gardening makes sense when land is very costly and the worth of the food grown is judged against organic produce at retail--and when water and nutrients are inexpensive and/or available in unlimited amounts. when water use is reduced, yield inevitably drops proportionately. the backyard water-wise gardener, then, must logically ask which vegetable species will give him enough food or more economic value with limited space and water. taking maritime northwest rainfall patterns into consideration, here's my best estimation: water-wise efficiency of vegetable crops (in terms of backyard usage of space and moisture) efficient enough early spring-sown crops: peas, broccoli, lettuce, radishes, savoy cabbage, kohlrabi overwintered crops: onions, broccoli cauliflower, cabbage, favas beans endive kale garden sorrel indeterminate tomatoes giant kohlrabi parsley--leaf and root heirloom summer squash (sprawly) pole beans herbs: marjoram, thyme, dill, cilantro, fennel, oregano root crops: carrots, beets, parsnips marginal brussels sprouts (late) potatoes determinate tomatoes rutabagas eggplant leeks leeks savoy cabbage (late) peppers, small fruited inefficient beans, bush snap peppers, bell broccoli, summer radishes cauliflower scallions, bulb onions celery sweet corn lettuce turnips have fun planning your own water-wise garden! more reading about the interlibrary loan service agricultural books, especially older ones, are not usually available at local libraries. but most municipal libraries and all universities offer access to an on-line database listing the holdings of other cooperating libraries throughout the united states. almost any book published in this century will be promptly mailed to the requesting library. anyone who is serious about learning by reading should discover how easy and inexpensive (or free) it is to use the interlibrary loan service. carter, vernon gill, and tom, dale. _topsoil and civilization._ norman, okla.: university of oklahoma press, . the history of civilization's destruction of one ecosystem after another by plowing and deforestation, and its grave implications for our country's long-term survival. cleveland, david a., and daniela soleri. _food from dryland gardens: an ecological, nutritional and social approach to small-scale household food production._ tucson: center for people, food and environment, . world-conscious survey of low-tech food production in semiarid regions. faulkner, edward h. _plowman's folly._ norman, okla.: university of oklahoma press, . this book created quite a controversy in the s. faulkner stresses the vital importance of capillarity. he explains how conventional plowing stops this moisture flow. foth, henry d. _fundamentals of soil science._ eighth edition. new york: john wylie & sons, . a thorough yet readable basic soil science text at a level comfortable for university non-science majors. hamaker, john. d. _the survival of civilization._ annotated by donald a. weaver. michigan/california: hamaker-weaver publishers, . hamaker contradicts our current preoccupation with global warming and makes a believable case that a new epoch of planetary glaciation is coming, caused by an increase in greenhouse gas. the book is also a guide to soil enrichment with rock powders. nabhan, gary. _the desert smells like rain: a naturalist in papago indian country._ san francisco: north point press, . describes regionally useful native american dry-gardening techniques russell, sir e. john. _soil conditions and plant growth._ eighth edition. new york: longmans, green & co., . probably the finest, most human soil science text ever written. russell avoids unnecessary mathematics and obscure terminology. i do not recommend the recent in-print edition, revised and enlarged by a committee. smith, j. russell. tree crops: a permanent agriculture. new york: harcourt, brace and company, . smith's visionary solution to upland erosion is growing unirrigated tree crops that produce cereal-like foods and nuts. should sit on the "family bible shelf" of every permaculturalist. solomon, stephen j. _growing vegetables west of the cascades._ seattle: sasquatch books, . the complete regional gardening textbook. -------------------------. _backyard composting._ portland, ore.: george van patten publishing, . especially useful for its unique discussion of the overuse of compost and a nonideological approach to raising the most nutritious food possible. stout, ruth. _gardening without work for the aging, the busy and the indolent._ old greenwich, conn.: devin-adair, . stout presents the original thesis of permanent mulching. turner, frank newman. _fertility, pastures and cover crops based on nature's own balanced organic pasture feeds._ san diego: rateaver, . reprinted from the faber and faber, edition. organic farming using long rotations, including deeply rooted green manures developed to a high art. turner maintained a productive organic dairy farm using subsoiling and long rotations involving tilled crops and semipermanent grass/herb mixtures. ven der leeden, frits, fred l. troise, and david k. todd. _the water encyclopedia, second edition._ chelsea, mich.: lewis publishers, . reference data concerning every possible aspect of water. weaver, john e., and william e. bruner. _root development of vegetable crops._ new york: mcgraw-hill, . contains very interesting drawings showing the amazing depth and extent that vegetable roots are capable of in favorable soil. widtsoe, john a. _dry farming: a system of agriculture for countries under low rainfall._ new york: the macmillan company, . the best single review ever made of the possibilities of dry farming and dry gardening, sagely discussing the scientific basis behind the techniques. the quality of widtsoe's understanding proves that newer is not necessarily better. a little garden calendar [illustration] a little garden calendar _for boys and girls_ by albert bigelow paine _author of "the little lady, her book," "the arkansaw bear," etc._ with forty-six illustrations philadelphia henry altemus company _copyright, , by henry altemus published march, _ by the same author the little lady, her book, $ . the arkansaw bear, . the wanderings of joe and little em, . a word to teachers and parents when dr. s. p. langley, secretary of the smithsonian institution, established the children's room in that great museum, he took for his motto, "knowledge begins in wonder," and he put into this room a selection of specimens especially intended to excite interest in the young mind. the biggest bird and the littlest were placed side by side; curious eggs, nests, and insects--not many in number, but temptingly displayed--were ranged about to attract attention and to awake the desire to know more. it was the same dr. langley who had once declared that his chief interests in life were children and fairy stories, and it is in the little washington room that we seem to find the thought embodied, for the children are there, and the fairy stories of nature are suggested on every hand. it is with dr. langley's motto in mind that the "little garden calendar" is offered to parents and teachers, and to children themselves who are old enough to read. the author has tried to tell in simple language a few of the wonders of plant life, and to set down certain easy methods of observation, including planting, tending, and gathering the harvests, from month to month, throughout the year. along with this it has been his aim to call attention to the more curious characteristics of certain plants--the really human instincts and habits of some, the family relations of others, the dependence of many upon mankind, animals, and insects, and the struggle for existence of all. simple botany plays a part in the little narrative, which forms a continuous story from chapter to chapter, interwoven with a number of briefer stories--traditions, fairy tales, and the like, all relating to plant life and origin. these are presented by way of entertainment--to illuminate fact with fancy--to follow, as it were, the path of knowledge through the garden of imagination. the illustrations in this book are from excellent photographs--especially made for the various chapters--that the student of plant life may compare and identify with some degree of assurance as to varieties and particular specimens, especially in the matter of plant organisms. the volume is divided according to the calendar, for the reason that in the plant world there is interest for every month in the year if only someone is by to point the way, and it is for this purpose that the little story of prue and davy and their garden is offered to instructors in the schoolroom and at home, and to the young people themselves, with the greetings and good wishes of the author. contents page january, i you may begin your garden right away ii your garden may not look as i have it here iii many seeds are given wings iv i think seeds know the months february, i little plants won't stand much handling ii hey for the merry little sweet pease iii even clover belongs to the pulse family iv beans and morning-glories twine to the right v the honeysuckle twines always to the left march, i still it was really a radish ii the sun swings like a great pendulum iii long before there were any railroads and cities iv did you ever see the little man in the pansy? april, i the yellow dust is a food for the seed ii the coming of the corn iii cross by name and cross by nature iv a peppery family v for in that dish was davy's corn may, i sweet pease have to be put down pretty deep ii different families of ants have different droves of cows iii there are many ways of producing species june, i then they went down into the strawberry patch ii how the rose became queen iii the sun is the greatest of all july, i a plant is divided into three principal parts ii there are exogens and endogens iii i don't see what weeds are for, anyway august, i there are just two kinds of leaves ii sometimes i think plants can see and hear iii there are plants which do not bloom iv the princess by the sea september, i a flower really has clothes ii a flower has many servants iii a flower may really reason iv some flowers live off other flowers and plants v the prince and the thread of gold october, i seeds are made to be planted ii there are bitter nuts and sweet ones iii there are many things called fruits november, i there are annuals, biennials, and perennials ii plants know how to spread iii all thanks for the plants december, i new gardens in the windows ii to the garden of sleep iii in the gardens of christmas iv some verses, and then good-by illustrations page _frontispiece_ davy's window--prue's window the beans at the end of two weeks the morning-glories two weeks old the pot of radishes the pease two weeks old the corn at the end of two weeks the pease run up straight ladders a member of the pulse family the morning-glory twines to the right the nasturtiums began to hide the little pot the very small lettuce leaves davy's pot of radishes "davy's corn sent out a plume at the top" "the morning-glories had bloomed and already had seed pods" "cabbage" was the fat fellow's name "they called it nasturtium" alyssum--the sweetest of the "cross" family "don't you think the blackberry looks a little like a wild rose?" "and the apple blossom, too?" budding the chief gardener's strawberries big, big berries that looked so good the rose stamens and pistil which produce the seed "gardeners often take a rose of one kind and shake it gently over a rose of another kind" "sometimes the gardener takes up the pollen on a soft brush and lays it gently on the stigma of another rose" the pistil and stamens of the lily a pistil and calyx and a complete flower a group of endogens--the lily, hyacinth, and daffodil some simple leaves pine-needles are leaves there is a lot of kinds and shapes "beware of the vine with the three-part leaf" the dandelion is bound to spread its seed "so it blooms below the lawn-mower's cutting-wheel" "they cling to everything that passes" three members of the acorn family the apple is a calyx. the pistil is the core inside of it a raspberry is a cluster of pistils without the core the seed and sets of the onion a black raspberry vine preparing to spread "what are stuck-ins?--oh, slips!" the wool that grows on the sheep's back is there because the sheep feeds on the green grass in summer a japanese fern-ball the kind of a tree that nobody but santa claus ever raises january a little garden calendar january i you may begin your garden right away this is the story of a year, and begins on new year's day. it is the story of a garden--a little garden--and of a little boy and girl who owned the garden, and of the chief gardener, who helped them. and the name of the little boy was david, after his grandfather. so they called him davy, because when grandfather was a little boy, he had been called davy, and this little boy wanted to be just as his grandfather had been--just the same kind of a little boy, with the same name and all. and the name of the little girl was prudence, and she was called prue. for when her mother was a little girl, _she_ had been called prue, and the chief gardener still called her that, sometimes, when he did not call her just mamma. and the little girl was five years old, and the little boy was 'most seven--"going-on seven" the little boy always said, when you asked him. the garden was in a window, at first--in two windows, side by side--called a double window. it had to be in a window, because outside it was very cold, and the snow was white and deep on the beds where the chief gardener had flowers and vegetables in summer-time. prue and davy were looking out on this white, snow-covered garden on new year's afternoon. christmas was over, and spring seemed far away. and there had been _so_ much snow that they were tired of their sleds. "i wish it would be warm again," said davy, "so there would be strawberries and nice things to eat in the garden; don't you, prue?" "and nice green grass, and dandelions and pinks and morning-glories," said prue, who loved flowers. then the little girl went over to where the chief gardener was reading. she leaned over his knee and rocked it back and forth. "will it _ever_ be warm again?" she asked. "will we _ever_ have another garden?" the chief gardener turned another page of his paper. prue rocked his knee harder. "i want it to be warm," she said. "i want it to be so we can plant flowers." "and things," put in davy, "_nice_ things, to eat; pease and berries and radishes." "oh, davy, you always want things to eat!" said the little girl. "we've just had our new year's dinner!" "but i'd be hungry again before the things grew, wouldn't i? and you like strawberries, too, and short-cake." the chief gardener laid down his paper. "what's all this about strawberry short-cake and morning-glories?" he asked. "we want it to be warm," said prue, "so we can have a garden, with pinks and pansies--" "and pease--" began davy. "and a short-cake tree," put in the chief gardener, "with nice short-cakes covered with whipped cream, hanging on all the branches. that would suit you, wouldn't it, davy boy?" the very thought of a tree like that made davy silent with joy; but prue still rocked the knee and talked. "when _will_ it be warm? when _can_ we have a garden?" she kept asking. "it is warm, _now_, in this room," said the chief gardener, "and you may begin your garden right away, if you like." the children looked at him, not knowing just what he meant. "in the window," he went on. "there are two, side by side. they are a part of the garden, you know, for we always see the garden through them, in summer. you remember, we said last year they were like frames for it. now, suppose we really put a little piece of garden in the windows." prue was already dancing. "oh, yes! and i'll have pansies, and roses, and hollyhocks, and pinks, and morning-glories, and--" "and i'll have peaches, and apples, and strawberries, and pease--" "and a field of corn and wheat," laughed the chief gardener, "and a grove of cocoanut trees! what magic windows we must have to hold all the things you have named. they will be like the pack of santa claus--never too full to hold more." "but can't we have all the things we like?" asked davy, anxiously. "not _quite_ all, i'm afraid. the hollyhocks and roses that prue wants do not bloom the first year from seed. it would hardly pay to plant them in a window-garden, and as for peach and apple trees, i am afraid you would get very tired waiting for them to bear. it takes at least five years for apple-trees to give us fruit, often much longer. peach-trees bear about the third year. i think we would better try a few things that bloom and bear a little more quickly." ii your garden may not look as i have it here the chief gardener took his pencil and a piece of paper, and drew a little plan. he was not much of an artist, and sometimes when he drew things he had to write their names below, so that prue and davy could tell which was the rabbit and which was the donkey, and so they wouldn't think the kitten was a lion. but a window was not so hard, and then he could put names under the plants, too. on the next page is the picture that the chief gardener drew. while he was making the picture, the children had been asking questions. "which is my side? oh, what's that in the center--that tall plant? what are those vines? what will we have in those littlest pots? oh, i know what those are! those are morning-glories! oh, goody!" [illustration: davy's window prue's window] the last was from prue, when she saw the artist putting the flowers along the vines that he had made climbing up the sides of her window. "yes," said the chief gardener, "those are morning-glories. you can have two vines in each pot, if you wish, and in that way get four colors--blue, white, purple, and pink. on davy's side i have made climbing beans--scarlet and white runners--because they are very pretty, and also very good to eat. davy's is a vegetable, and yours a flower, garden. then, if davy wants some flowers, and you get hungry, you can give him flowers for vegetables." "oh, that will be playing 'market,' won't it? i just love to play 'store' and 'going to market.'" "my beans look a good deal like prue's morning-glories, all but the flowers," said davy. "so they do, davy; and they really look something the same in the garden. the leaves are nearly the same shape, only that the morning-glory's is more heart-shaped, and then beans have three leaves to the stem instead of one. sometimes i have taken a morning-glory for a bean, just at first." "what else have we?" asked prue. "what are the little flowers, and the big one in the center?" if the chief gardener felt hurt because his pictures did not show just what all the flowers were, without telling, he did not say so. he said: "well, in the center of your window, prue, the big flower is made for a sunflower. not the big kind, but the small western sunflower, such as we had along the back fence last summer. i think we can raise those in the house." "i just love those," nodded prue. "then those two slender plants are sweet-pease on your side, and garden-pease on davy's. i put two in each window, because i know that you love sweet-pease, while davy is very fond of the vegetable kind." "i'd like a whole bushel of sweet-pease!" said prue. "and i wish i had a bushel of eating pease!" said davy, "and i know that's sweet corn in the middle of my window. i just love it!" "yes," said the chief gardener, "and a little pot of radishes on one side, and a pot of lettuce salad on the other. do you think you like that, davy?" "can't i have strawberries, instead of the salad?" asked davy. "strawberries don't bear from seed the first season, and i can't remember any fruit that does, unless you call tomatoes fruit, and i don't think a tomato vine would be quite pleasant in the house. it doesn't always have a sweet odor." "oh, well, i can eat lettuce," said davy. "i can eat anything that's good." "what are in my other little pots?" asked prue for the third or fourth time. "well, one is meant for a pot of pansies--" "oh, pansies! pansies! can't i have two pots of pansies?" "you can have three or four plants in one pot--perhaps that will do. then you can put nasturtiums in the other little pot. they are easy to grow, and very beautiful." "yes," said prue, "i never saw anything so _lovely_ as your nasturtiums by the house, last year." the chief gardener looked at the sketch and tapped it with his pencil. [illustration: the beans at the end of two weeks] "of course," he said, "your garden may not look just as i have it here. i don't draw very well, but i can make things about the right sizes to fit the windows, and that isn't so hard to do with a pencil as it is with the plants themselves. plants, like children, don't always grow just as their friends want them to, and they are not always well behaved. you see--" "but won't my bean vines and corn grow up like that?" asked davy. "and won't my morning-glories have flowers on them?" asked prue. "i hope they will, and we will try to coax them. but you see things may happen. sometimes it comes a very cold night when the fires get low, and then plants are likely to chill, or perhaps freeze and die. we can only try to be very careful." "how long will it take them to grow?" asked davy. "that is not easy to say. when everything is just right, some seeds start very soon. i have known radishes to pop up within three days, when the weather was warm and damp. corn will sprout in about a week, in warm weather. sweet-pease take a good deal longer, though we can hurry them a little by soaking them in warm water before we plant them. but we will talk about all that later. first, let's see about the pots and earth, and the seeds." iii many seeds are given wings the chief gardener took davy and prue down in the basement, where in one corner he kept his flower-pots and garden-tools. "i'm going to use the hoe," said davy, reaching for the long handle. "i'll have the rake for my garden," said prue. the chief gardener smiled. "i don't think we'll need either for this gardening. a small weeder or an old kitchen-knife will be about the largest tool you can use." then he picked out some pots, set them side by side on a table, and measured them to see how long a row they made. then he changed them and measured again. "there," he said, "those will just fit one window. now, another set for the other window and we are ready for the soil." "where will you get dirt? everything is frozen hard," said davy. the chief gardener took up a spading-fork from among the tools. "we'll get our hats and coats, first," he said, "then we'll see what we can find." outside it was really very cold, but the children, with their thick wraps, did not mind. they raced in the snow across the empty little garden, and followed the chief gardener to a small mound in one corner. here he pushed away the snow, and with the fork lifted up a layer of frozen-looking weeds; then another layer, not quite so frozen and not quite so weedy; then still another layer that did not seem at all frozen, but was just a mass of damp leaves and bits of grass. and under this layer it must have been quite warm, for steam began to rise white in the cold air. "oh, see!" said prue. "what makes the smoke?" "that's steam," said davy, wisely; "but what makes it warm?" [illustration: the morning-glories two weeks old] "fever," said the chief gardener, "just as you had, davy, that night you ate too much layer-cake. you said you were burning up, but it was only nature trying to burn up the extra food. that is what nature is doing here--trying to burn up and turn to earth the pile of weeds and grass i threw here last summer for compost. next spring the fire will be out, and leave only a heap of rich soil for the garden." beneath the last layer there was warm, dark earth. the chief gardener filled the basket he had brought, and they hurried back to the basement to fill the pots. "not too full--we must leave room at the top for digging and watering, without spilling dirt and water on the floor. then the plants will help fill up by and by, too, and i think we would better put in a little of this compost at the bottom. when the roots run down they will be glad to find some fresh, rich food. don't pack the earth too tightly, davy; just jar the pot a little to settle it, and it should be fine and quite dry. perhaps we'd better dry it a little," the chief gardener added, as he saw by the children's hands that some of the earth was rather damp and sticky. so he brought out a flat box, emptied all the pots into it, and set the box on top of the furnace. "while it's drying, we'll go upstairs and pick out the seeds," he said. "oh, see my beans! how pretty they are!" cried davy, as the chief gardener pointed out the purple-mottled seeds of the scarlet runners. prue looked a little envious. she was fond of pretty things. "but my pease are better-looking than those crinkly things of yours," she said; "mine are most like little beads; and see my nasturtium seed! they look good to eat, like little peanuts." it was davy's turn now to be envious. anything that looked like peanuts must be very good to eat. "people often pickle nasturtium pods," said the chief gardener. "they are fine and peppery. so prue will really have something to eat in her garden, while davy will have beautiful flowers on his scarlet runners." "see my morning-glory seed, like quarters of a little black apple, and how tiny my pansy seeds are!" cried prue, holding out the papers. davy was looking at the little round, brown kernels that the chief gardener had said were radish seeds, and the light little flakes that were to grow into lettuce. "what makes seeds so different?" he asked soberly. "ah, davy, that is a hard question," answered the chief gardener. "a great many very great people have tried to answer it." he opened a little paper and held it out for them to see. "what funny little feather-tops!" said prue. "like little darts," said davy. "what are they?" "marigold seeds. they are very light, and the little tufts or wings are to carry them through the air, so they will be scattered and sown by the wind. many seeds are given wings of different kinds. maple seeds have a real pair of wings. others have a tuft of down on them, so light that they are carried for miles. but many seeds are hard to explain. plants very nearly alike grow from seeds that are not at all alike, while plants as different as can be grow from seeds that can hardly be told apart, even under the magnifying-glass." the pots filled with the warm earth were brought up and ranged in the windows. "how deep, and how many seeds in a pot?" asked davy. "that depends," the chief gardener answered. "i believe there is a rule that says to plant twice as deep as the seed is long, though sweet-pease and some other things are planted deeper; and you may plant more seeds than you want plants, so that enough are pretty sure to grow; four beans in each pot, davy--two white and two colored, and three grains of corn in the large center pot." the children planted the seeds--the chief gardener helping, showing how to cover them with fine earth--the corn and beans quite deeply, the sweet-pease still deeper, fully an inch or more, the smaller seeds thinly and evenly: then how to pat them down so that the earth might be lightly but snugly packed about the sleeping seeds. "now we will dampen them a little," he said, "and when they feel their covering getting moist, perhaps they will think of waking." so he brought a cup of warm water, and the children dipped in their fingers and sprinkled the earth in each pot until it was quite damp. then they drew up chairs and sat down to look at their garden, as if expecting the things to grow while they waited. iv i think seeds know the months but the seeds did not sprout that day, nor the next, nor for many days after they were planted. prue and davy watered them a little every morning, and were quite sure the room had been warm, but it takes sunshine, too, to make seeds think of waking from their long nap, and the sun does not always shine in january. even when it does, it is so low in the sky, and stays such a little time each day, that it does not find its way down into the soil as it does in spring and summer time. "you said that corn sprouts in a week," said davy to the chief gardener, one morning, "and it's a week to-day since we planted it, and even the radishes are not up yet." prue also looked into her little row of pots, and said sadly that there was not even a little teeny-weeny speck of anything coming up that she could see. "i'm sorry," said the chief gardener, "but you know i really can't make the sun shine, and even if i could, perhaps they would be slow about coming, at this season. sometimes i think seeds know the months as well as we do, for i have known seeds to sprout in june in a place where there was very little warmth or moisture and no sunshine at all. yes, i think the seeds know." "and won't my pansies come at all?" whimpered little prue. "oh, i think so. they only need a little more coaxing. suppose we see just what is going on. you planted a few extra radish seeds, davy. we will do as little folks often do--dig up one and see what has happened." so the chief gardener dug down with his pocket-knife and lifted a bit of the dirt, which he looked at carefully. then he held it to the light and let the children look. sticking to the earth there was a seed, but it was no longer the tiny brown thing which davy had planted. it was so large that davy at first thought it was one of his pease, and on one side of it there was an edge of green. "it's all right, davy boy. they'll be up in a day or two," laughed the chief gardener. "now, we'll try a pansy." "oh, yes, try a pansy! try a pansy!" danced little prue, who was as happy as davy over the sprouting of the radish. [illustration: the pot of radishes] so the chief gardener dug down into the pansy-pot, but just at first could not find a pansy seed, they were so small. then he did find one, and coming out of it were two tiny pale-green leaves, and a thread of white rootlet that had started downward. prue clapped her hands and wanted the chief gardener to dig in all the pots, but he told them that it would not be good gardening to do that, and that they must be patient now, and wait. so then another anxious week went by. and all at once, one morning very early, prue and davy came shouting up the stairs to where the chief gardener was shaving. "they're up! they're up!" "my pansies!" "and my radishes! they've lifted up a piece of dirt over every seed, and there's one little green point in the corn-pot, too!" the chief gardener had to leave his shaving to see. sure enough! davy's radishes and prue's pansies were beginning to show, and one tender shoot of davy's corn. and in less than another week davy's lettuce and pease and beans were breaking the ground above each seed, while prue's garden was coming too, all but the sweet-pease, which, because of their hard shell, sprouted more slowly, even though they had been soaked in warm water before planting. but in another week they began to show, too, and everything else was quite above ground. [illustration: the pease two weeks old] then the chief gardener dug up one each of the extra seeds, root and all, and showed them just how they had sprouted and started to grow. he showed them how the shell or husk of the seed still clung to the two first leaves of some of the morning-glory and radish plants, how when the little plant had awakened from its long nap, it had stretched, just as a little boy would stretch, getting up out of bed, and how, being hungry, it had made its breakfast on a part of the tender kernel packed about it in the seed, and then pushed its leaves up for light and air. he also showed them how the grain of corn and the pea stayed below the ground to feed the little shoots that pushed up and the sprangled roots that were starting down to hunt for richness. but they all laughed at the beans, for the beans left only the husk below and pushed the rich kernel up into the air--coming up topsy-turvy, davy said, while prue thought the leaves must be very greedy to take the kernel all away from the roots, instead of leaving it where both could have a share. and now another week passed, and other tiny leaves began to show on most of the plants. these were different shaped from the first oval or heart-shaped seed-leaves--real, natural leaves, prue said, such as they would have when they were grown. only the corn did not change, but just unfolded and grew larger. and so in every pot there were tender green promises of fruit and flower. the little garden was really a garden at last. february february i little plants won't stand much handling yet the little garden seemed to grow slowly. the sun in february was getting farther to the north, and came earlier and stayed later than it had in january, and was brighter, too. but for all that, to davy and prue, each new leaf came quite slowly--just a tiny point or bud at first, then a little green heart or oval or crinkly oblong with a wee stem of its own. it was very hard to see each morning, just what had grown since the morning before. of course they did grow--little by little, and inch by inch--just as children grow, and a good deal faster, for when they measured their bean and morning-glory vines, they found one morning that they had grown at least a half an inch since the day before, and that would be a good deal for a little boy or girl to grow in one day. but davy perhaps remembered the story of "jack and the beanstalk" and how jack's bean had grown to the sky in a very short time; and, of course, remembering a story like that is apt to make anybody impatient with a bean that grows only half an inch a day. "i think it would be a good plan," he said one morning, "to tie a rubber band to the top of each of my bean vines, and then fasten the other end higher up the window to help pull the vines along." and little prue said: "i pulled my morning-glories along yesterday a little, with my fingers. i know they grew a tiny speck then, but they don't look quite so nice this morning." the chief gardener came over to see what was going on. "i don't think we'd better try any new plans," he said. "i'm afraid if we pull our plants to make them grow, we will have to pull them up altogether, pretty soon, and plant new ones. tender little plants won't stand much handling." the chief gardener was not cross, but his voice was quite solemn. little prue looked frightened and her lip quivered the least bit. "oh, will my morning-glories die now?" she asked; "and i pulled the pansies just a tiny speck, too. will they die?" "not this time, i think; but i wouldn't do it again. just give them a little water now and then, and dig in the pots a little, and turn them around sometimes so that each side of the plant gets the light, and nature will do the rest. of course you can't turn the bean and morning-glory pots after they get to climbing the strings, but they will twine round and round and so turn themselves. your garden looks very well for the time of year. perhaps if you did not watch it so much it would grow faster. they say that a watched pot never boils, so perhaps a watched plant does not grow well. i am sure they do not like to be stretched up to a measuring-stick every morning at eight o'clock. suppose now we put up the strings for the morning-glories and beans to climb on, and some nice branchy twigs for the pease, then water them well and leave them for a few days and see what happens." so then the chief gardener and the two little gardeners went down in the basement, where they found some tiny screw-hooks and some string, and where they cut some nice sprangly little limbs from the christmas tree that still stood in one corner, and was getting very dry. then they all came up again and put up strings for the scarlet runners and morning-glories, by tying one end of each string to a stout little stick which the chief gardener pushed carefully into the soil between the plants, and then carried the string to the small screw-hooks, which were put about half-way up, and at the top of the window-casings. the branchy twigs were stuck carefully into the pots where the pease grew, and stood up straight and fine--like little ladders, prue said--for the pease to climb. [illustration: the corn at the end of two weeks] "it's just like a circus," said davy. "the beans and morning-glories will be climbing ropes, and the pease will be running up straight ladders." "and while we are waiting for the performance to begin," added the chief gardener, "suppose you let me tell you something about the performers--where they came from, and some stories that are told of them." ii hey for the merry little sweet-pea the chief gardener went into the next room, which was the library, and drew a cozy little settee up before the bright hickory fire. it was just wide enough for three, and when he sat down, davy and little prue promptly hopped up, one on each side. in a low rocker near the window big prue was doing something with silks and needles and a very bright pair of scissors. the chief gardener stirred the fire and looked into it. then he said: "speaking of pease, i wonder if you ever heard this little song about 'the two peas 'oh, a little sweet-pea in the garden grew-- hey, for the merry little sweet-pea! and a garden-pea, it grew there, too-- hi, for the happy little eat-pea! in all kinds of weather they grew there together-- ho, for the pease in the garden! hey, for the sweet-pea! hi, for the eat-pea! hey, he, hi, ho, hum! 'oh, the sweet-pea bloomed and the eat-pea bore-- hey, for the merry little sweet-pea! and they both were sent to a poor man's door-- hi, for the happy little eat-pea! in all kinds of weather they came there together! ho, for the pease from the garden! hey, for the sweet-pea! hi, for the eat-pea! hey, he, hi, ho, hum! 'now, the poor man's poor little girl lay ill-- what a chance for a merry little sweet-pea! and there wasn't a cent in the poor man's till-- good-by to the jolly little eat-pea! in all kinds of weather they brought joy together when they came from the happy little garden! hey, for the sweet-pea! hi, for the eat-pea! hey, he, hi, ho, hum!'" "was there really ever a poor man and a little sick girl who had pease sent to them?" asked little prue, as the chief gardener finished. "oh, i am sure there must have been! a great many of them." "but the ones you sung about. those really same ones--did they ever really live, or did you make it up about them?" "i don't think my pease would be quite enough for a poor man who didn't have a cent of money," said davy, after thinking about it. "but my sweet-pease will be enough, only i want to know if there is really such a little girl, so i can send them. is there, papa?" "well, i am sure we can find such a little girl, if we try. and i know she'd be glad for some sweet-pease. and now here's a little story that i really didn't make up, but read a long time ago. "once upon a time there were two friars--" "what are friars?" asked prue. "do they fry things?" "well, not exactly, though one of these did do some stewing, and the other, too, perhaps, though in a different way. a friar is a kind of priest, and these two had done something which the abbot, who is the head priest, did not like, so he punished them." "what did they do?" asked prue, who liked to know just what people could be punished for. "i don't remember now. it's so long--" "what do you _s'pose_ it was?" "well, i really can't s'pose, but it may have been because they forgot their prayers. abbots don't like friars to forget their prayers--" "if i should forget my prayers, i'd say 'em twice to make up." "oh, prue!" said davy, "_do_ let papa go on with the story!" "but i would. i'd say 'em sixty times!" "yes," said the chief gardener, "friars have to do that, too, i believe; but these had to do something different. they had to wear pease in their shoes." "had to wear pease! in their shoes!" "yes, pease, like those we planted, and they had to walk quite a long ways, and, of course, it wouldn't be pleasant to walk with those little hard things under your feet. "well, they started, and one of them went limping and stewing along, and making an awful fuss, because his feet hurt him so, but when he looked at the other he saw that instead of hobbling and groaning as he was, he was walking along, as lively as could be, and seemed to be enjoying the fine morning, and was actually whistling. "'oh, dear!' said the one who was limping, 'how is it you can walk along so spry, and feel so happy, with those dreadful pease in your shoes?' "'why,' said the other, 'before i started, i took the liberty to _boil my_ pease!'" "but, papa," began little prue, "i don't see--" "i do," said davy, "it made them soft, so they didn't hurt." "what kind of pease were they?" asked prue. "like davy's or mine?" [illustration: the pease run up straight ladders] "well, i've never heard just what kind they were. there are a good many kinds of pease, and they seem to have come from a good many places. besides the sweet-pease and garden-pease, there are field-pease, used dry for cattle, and in england there is what is called a sea-pea, because it was first found growing on the shore of a place called sussex, more than three hundred and fifty years ago, in a year of famine. there were many, many of them and they were in a place where even grass had not grown before that time. the people thought they must have been cast up by some shipwrecked vessel, and they gathered them for food, and so kept from going hungry and starving to death. the garden-pea is almost the finest of vegetables, and there are many kinds--some large, some small, some very sweet, some that grow on tall vines and have to have stakes, and some that grow very short without stakes, and are called dwarfs. there are a good many kinds of sweet-pease, too, different sizes and colors, but i think all the different kinds of garden-pease and sweet-pease might have come from one kind of each, a very, very long time ago, and that takes me to another story which i will have to put off until next time. i have some books now to look over, and you and davy, prue, can go for a run in the fresh air." iii even clover belongs to the pulse family it was on the same evening that prue and davy asked for the other story. and of course the chief gardener had to tell it, for he had promised, and little prue, especially, didn't like to put off anything that had been promised. so this is the story that the chief gardener told: "the pulse family is a very large one. i don't know just where the first old great-grandfather pulse ever did come from, but it is thought to be some place in asia, a great country of the far east. it may be that the first pulse lived in the garden of eden, though whether as a tree or a vine or a shrub, or only as a little plant, we can't tell now." "i think it's going to be a fairy story," said prue, settling down to listen. "is it, papa? a real, true fairy story?" "well, perhaps it is a sort of a fairy story, and i'll try to tell it just as truly as i can. anyway, the story goes, that a long time after the garden of eden was ruined and the pulse family started west, there were two cousins, and these two cousins were vines, though whether they were always vines, or only got to be vines so they could travel faster, i do not know. some of their relations were trees then, and are now; the locust tree out in the corner of the yard is one of them." davy looked up, and was about to ask a question. the chief gardener went on. "the cousins i am talking about, being vines, traveled quite fast in the summer-time, but when it came winter, they lay down for a long nap, and only when spring came they roused up and traveled on. one of them was a very fine fellow, with gay flowers that had a sweet smell, and people loved him for his beauty and fragrance. the other brought only greenish-white flowers, not very showy, but some thought him far more useful than his pretty cousin, for he gave the people food as he passed along. "so they journeyed on, down by the way of the black sea, which you will know about when you are a little older, and still farther west until at last the pretty pulse cousin and the plain but useful pulse cousin had spread their families all over europe, and were called p's, perhaps because the first letter of their family name began with p. then by and by it was spelled p-e-a, and they were called garden-pease and sweet-pease, and were planted everywhere, one for the lovely flowers, and the other for food. now we have them side by side in your windows, just as they were when they first started on their travels, so very, very long ago." "did they really travel as you have told?" asked davy, looking into the fire. "well, i have never been able to find any printed history of their travels, so it may have been something like that." "they did, didn't they, papa?" insisted little prue, who always wanted to believe every word of every fairy story. "they went hand in hand, just as davy and i do when we go walking, didn't they?" "and davy is the garden-pea and you the sweet-pea, is that it? well, they did come a long way--that is true--and they do belong to a very large family. why, even the clover belongs to the pulse family, and the peanut, and the locust, and the laburnum, and there is one distant branch of the family that is so modest and sensitive that at the least touch its members shrink and hide, and these are called sensitive plants." "aren't beans of the pulse family, too?" asked davy. "why do you think so?" asked the chief gardener. "well, i remember that the flowers are something alike, and then they both have pods." [illustration: a member of the pulse family] "and you are right, davy. both the flowers are what is called butterfly-shaped, and pods of that kind are called legumes. whenever you see a flower of that shape, or a pod of that kind, no matter how small or how large, or whether they grow on a plant or a tree or a shrub, you will know you have found one of the pulse family and a relative of the pea. your scarlet runners are about second cousins, i should think, and i have something to tell about them, too, but it is too late this evening." iv beans and morning-glories twine to the right "my morning-glories are climbing! my morning-glories are climbing up the strings!" "and so are my scarlet runners! two of them have gone twice around already, and one of them three times! but oh, papa, something has broken one of my stalks of corn, right off close to the ground!" it was two days after the strings had been put up, and prue and davy had tried very hard not to look at their garden during all that time. then they just had to look, and found that the beans and morning-glories were really starting up the strings. but what could have happened to davy's corn! the chief gardener hurried down to see. then with an old knife he dug down into the pot a little, and up came, what do you suppose? why, a white, fat ugly worm--a cut-worm, the chief gardener called him. "they are a great enemy to young corn," he said, "especially in cool weather. sometimes almost whole fields have to be replanted. blackbirds will kill them, but many times the farmer thinks the blackbird is pulling up his corn, and drives him away with a gun, when the blackbird is only trying to help the farmer." "do you suppose there are any more?" asked davy anxiously. the chief gardener dug carefully around the other stalk, until the white roots began to show. "no, i think your other stalk is safe," he said, "at least from cut-worms." grown-up prue came to see the gardens. yes, the vines were really making a nice start, as well as the other things. one of davy's pease had sent out some tiny tendrils that were reaching toward the slender twig-branches, but thoughtful davy was looking first at his beans, then at prue's morning-glories. "they all go around the strings just alike," he said at last; "all the same way. why don't some go the other way?" "you ask such hard questions, davy," the chief gardener answered. "i have never known anybody to tell why all the beans and morning-glories twine to the right, any more than why all the honeysuckles twine to the left." the chief gardener turned to the little woman beside him. "there must be some reason, of course; some law of harmony and attraction. i suppose it would be quite simple to us if we knew. why, where did davy go?" davy came in, just then, with his hat and coat on. "i'm going to look at the honeysuckles," he said, "those out on the porch." the others put on wraps, too, and went with him. it was crisp and bright out there, and dry leaves still clinging to the vines whispered and gossiped together in the wintry breeze. "they do!" said davy, "they every one turn the other way--every single one! how do you suppose they can tell which way to start--which is right, and which is left?" the chief gardener shook his head. "perhaps a story might explain it," he said. "stories have to explain a good many things until we find better ways." so then they went inside to see if a story would really tell why the morning-glory and scarlet runner always twined to the right, and why the honeysuckle always twined to the left. and this was the chief gardener's story: v the honeysuckle twines always to the left "away back in the days that came after eden, the time i told you of, when the garden was given up to weeds and the plants went wandering out through the world, a certain morning-glory and climbing-bean were good friends, and were often found together--twining up the same little tree or trellis, and very happy. of course they were not called morning-glory and bean then, and the honeysuckle that grew near was not called honeysuckle either, though it had just the same sweet flowers, and the humming-birds came to suckle honey from them, just as they do now, in summer-time. i don't know what the old names were. it has been so long since then, i suppose they are all forgotten. "now the honeysuckle was very proud of its sweet flowers, that scented all the air around and drew the beautiful humming-birds, while the morning-glory and bean had only very pale little flowers that the humming-birds did not care for at all. "and the honeysuckle used to laugh at them, and tell them how plain and useless they were. how they lived only a little while in summer, and withered when the frost came, while it only shed its leaves, and stood strong and sturdy against the wind and cold of winter, ready to grow larger and more useful each spring. and this, of course, made the two friends feel very sorry, and wish they could be beautiful and useful, too. [illustration: the morning-glory twines to the right] "now, one day in early spring, the sun, who makes the plants grow and gives the colors to the flowers, heard the honeysuckle, which was putting out green leaves on its strong vines, laughing at the bean and morning-glory, that were just peeping from the earth. "and the sun said, 'this is too bad. it is not fair for one who has so much to make fun of those who have so little. i must give them more.' "so, lo and behold, when the morning-glory vine began to bloom, instead of having pale little flowers, they were a beautiful white and blue and purple and rose color, and when the bean blossomed, it had a fine scarlet flower, and both were more beautiful than the honeysuckle, though the honeysuckle still had its sweet perfume, and its honey for the humming-birds." "but what about the twining?" asked davy. "that is what you started to tell." "why, yes, of course. i forgot that. well, when the sun came to look at them he said, first to the honeysuckle, 'because you have been so proud, you must follow me,' and to the bean and morning-glory, 'because you have been meek, you shall turn always to meet me,' and since that day, the honeysuckle has turned always to the left, following the sun, while the bean and the morning-glory have twined always to the right, to meet it on every turn." the chief gardener paused, seeing that davy was making circles in the air with his finger--first circles to the right, then more circles to the left. then the circles got slower and slower, showing that he was thinking very hard. "that's right," he said at last. "if they turned to the right, they would meet the sun every time around, and if they turned to the left they would be following it." the chief gardener was glad he had told his story right. "and then, by and by," he said, "i suppose people must have given them their names--the honeysuckle's because of the humming-birds that came to suckle the flowers, and the morning-glory's because it made each morning bright with its beautiful flowers, while the bean they called the scarlet runner, and when they found that its pods held good food, they planted it both for its flowers and its usefulness, and valued it very highly, indeed. just where all this happened i do not know. the honeysuckle and morning-glory now grow wild, both in europe and the united states, and the scarlet runner is said to have been found wild in these countries, too, though i have never seen it except in gardens." "papa," asked little prue, "haven't my morning-glories any useful relations, like my sweet-pease?" "why, yes, of course, let me see. the sweet potato belongs to that family. it is really about a first cousin, and useful drugs are made from the juice and root of a wild morning-glory. there are hardly any families that do not have both useful and ornamental members, and most of them, i am sorry to say, have troublesome ones, too, which we call weeds. but i must run away now, and all that will have to wait until another time." march march i still, it was really a radish and so the month of february passed. once the vines had started up the strings, they seemed to grow faster--almost as if they were running races, while the pease reached out and clung to the little twigs, and stood up straight and trim, like soldiers. the pansies and nasturtiums, too, and the lettuce and radishes all sent out more and more leaves, and began to hide the little pods. davy was wild to pull up just one radish to see if it wasn't big enough to eat, but on the first day of march, when the chief gardener told him that he might do so, he was grieved to find only a pale little root, just a bit larger and a trifle pinker at the top, instead of the fat, round vegetable he had expected. still, it was really a radish, davy said, and he cut the thickest part in two and gave half to little prue, who brought out her little dishes and set her table that santa claus left under the christmas tree. then she put her piece on one little plate, and davy's piece on another, and picked one tiny pansy leaf and one from the nasturtiums to make bouquets. and davy picked a lettuce leaf--a very small lettuce leaf--for a salad, so that when their little table was all spread and ready, with some very small slices of bread, and some cookies--some quite large cookies--and some animal crackers, with milk for tea, it really looked quite fresh and pretty and made you hungry just to look at it. [illustration: the nasturtiums began to hide the little pot] and, oh, yes, i forgot to say that there was some salt, the least little bit, in two of the tiniest salt dishes, and when they sat down at last to the very first meal out of their garden, all on the first day of march, when no other gardens around about had been planted yet, they dipped the tiny bits of radish into the tiny salt dishes, and nibbled it, just a wee bit at a time to make it last, and last, ever so long. and they said it tasted real radishy, and that the lettuce leaf, with one drop of vinegar and a speck of salt, was just fine. and little prue held her doll and made her taste, too, and then the chief gardener and grown-up prue must each have a tiny, tiny bite. and so, of course, davy got to be really quite proud of his first radish, and said that after all it wasn't so bad for the first one, and that it was almost as big as a slate-pencil, in the thickest part. pretty soon they might have a radish that would be big enough for each one to have quite a piece, and they would serve it on a whole leaf of salad. he felt sure that on his birthday, which would be on the tenth, they might really have something very nice. then prue was very quiet for a minute, thinking. by and by she asked: "and do you think i will have flowers for davy's birthday? davy can just pick his lettuce and radishes any time. my 'sturtiums and pansies are as big as his things, but i have to wait for them to bloom." "why, that's so, prue." the chief gardener went over to her pansies and looked at them very closely, but if he saw anything he did not speak of it. "oh, well," he said, "if you don't have flowers for davy's birthday, maybe you will for mine. it comes in march, too, you know. and then it's ten days yet till davy's, and you never can tell what will happen in ten days." alas, this was too true. it got quite warm during the second week of march, and the fire in the furnace was allowed to get low. then one night it suddenly turned cold--as cold as january. "oh, what makes some of my pea leaves look so dark?" asked davy, as they stopped in the icy sitting-room for a moment, before hurrying through to the warm dining-room, where a big open fire was blazing. the chief gardener shook his head, rather solemnly. "i'm afraid they are bitten a little by jack frost," he said. "oh, mine are all dark, too," whispered prue, sorrowfully. "i am going to take them right out to the dining-room fire, and warm them." "and that would be the very worst thing you could do," said the chief gardener. "let them stay right where they are, and we will heat the room slowly by opening the register just the least bit at a time, and draw the shades to keep out the sun. perhaps if we do that the frost will come out so gently that the plants will not be killed. if you should warm them quickly they would be very apt to die, or at least to be badly injured." so they did as the chief gardener said, and kept the sitting-room quite cool all day. then by another day the pease and all the others looked about as well as ever, only a few of the tenderest leaves withered up and dropped off because jack frost had breathed harder on these than on the others. as for the radishes and lettuce and pansies, they hadn't minded it the least bit, for they can stand a good deal of cold, and the corn and sunflower and nasturtiums didn't lose any leaves, so, perhaps, they didn't care for a touch of frost either. ii the sun swings like a great pendulum and now with each day there was brighter sunshine that came earlier and stayed longer. from a high east window they saw the sun rise each morning, when it was bright weather, and when they happened to be awake in time, and they saw how the big red ball crept farther and farther to the north, along the far fringe of trees, beyond all the houses which they could see. "it rose away down beyond that little white house on christmas morning," said davy, who was always up early. "i remember very well. now it's got past the tall pine by the red barn. how much farther will it go?" the chief gardener pointed to a dim pencil-mark on the window-sill. "that was the angle of the shadow," he said, "on the twenty-first of june, and points to just where the sun will rise on the longest day of the year. you will have to be up very early to see it on that day." he pointed to another faint line. "that," he said, "was the angle on the twenty-first of december, the shortest day. the sun swings like a great pendulum from one point to the other and gives us winter and summer, and all the seasons between. half-way between these marks is due east, and there the sun will rise on the twenty-first of march, which is the first day of spring." "do you think our garden things are looking at it, and wishing it would hurry and get farther toward the june mark," said little prue. "i think they are," the chief gardener answered. "they don't have eyes, as we have, but they have a way of seeing the sun, and of knowing just where it is, for most of them turn toward it as they grow, and some of them follow it all the way across the sky, from morning until night, and then turn back and wait for it to rise again. your sunflower would do that, prue, if it were out under the open sky." [illustration: the very small lettuce leaves] "oh, it does now. i mean it looks toward the sun in the morning, with its top leaves, and keeps them turned toward it as far as it can." "so you have noticed that, have you? well, i'm glad, for i have read in books--books written by very wise men--that the sunflower did not really do this, but that it was just an old fable. i think those wise men, perhaps, never saw the wild western sunflowers, but only the big tame ones that have heavy, coarse stems and are so big and clumsy and fat that they couldn't well turn, even if they wanted to. i have seen whole fields of wild sunflowers--little ones like yours, and long before they were in bloom--with every stem bent toward the sunrise, when there was not a breath of wind blowing; and i have seen the same flowers straighten their little stems as the sun rose higher, and then bend them again to the west in the evening; and the little bend would be so tight and firm that you could hardly straighten the stalk without breaking it. very wise men make mistakes sometimes, mistakes that even a little girl would not make, just because they have not happened to see something which a little girl with sharp eyes has seen and thought about. it is a wonderful and beautiful sight on the prairies of the west to see miles of wild sunflowers in full bloom. they are like a great sea of gold, and in the early morning, when the air is still, every bloom is faced toward the sunrise, as bright and fresh and faithful as the sun itself." "i should think there would be a story about the sunflower," said davy, half speaking to himself. "oh, there have been many stories about it, davy. after breakfast i will try and remember the one i like best." so then they hurried down to the dining-room, pausing just long enough to see that the garden was all safe, and to notice that the upper leaves of prue's sunflower were really faced so far to the sun that there was a sharp little crook in the stem, then out to the big dining-room fire, for the fragrant breakfast that was waiting, and back to the library fire for the story that was to be told. iii long before there were any railroads and cities "once upon a time--" "oh," said prue, "once upon a time--i just love 'once upon a time.'" "yes," nodded davy, solemnly, "and once upon a time there was a little girl who couldn't keep still so that her papa could tell a story." prue snuggled down, and the chief gardener began all over. "once upon a time, long before there were any railroads, and cities such as ours, long before columbus ever sailed over the ocean to a new world--when all this great wide country, as you know, was held by indians, who hunted and fished, and made war sometimes, when they had disputes--there lived away in the far west two very friendly tribes. their lands joined and they hunted together, and when one tribe was at war the other joined in and helped to fight the enemy. so they became almost as one tribe and their children grew up together. "now, in one tribe there was a little indian boy, a chief's son, who was very fond of a little indian girl of the other tribe. their mothers had always been great friends, and often for a whole day at a time the little indian boy and girl played together, and as they grew up they cared for each other more and more, and the indian boy, ahlogah, said that when he was older and a chief he would make the little indian girl, laida, his wife. "but it happened that in laida's tribe there was also a chief's son, a jealous-hearted and cruel boy that laida did not like. but this boy cared for laida, and like ahlogah made up his mind that some day she should be his wife. "so they all grew up, and ahlogah and laida loved each other more dearly every day, and kapoka, the other youth, grew more jealous and more cruel-hearted. and when one day his father died, and he became chief of his tribe, he said that if she did not give up ahlogah, he would make war on ahlogah's tribe. "so then ahlogah and laida met one evening just before sunset to say good-by for the last time. their tribes had never been at war, and they were willing to part forever to keep kapoka from making a war now. laida had not promised to marry kapoka, she had only promised not to see ahlogah again. and now they parted, just as the sun was going down, and they both turned to see it for the last time side by side. and then ahlogah said: "'to-morrow just at sunrise go to the high rocks above the river and look to the east. and where the river passes through our lands, i will go also to see some high rocks, and i will look to the east, too, when the sun rises, and i will know that though we are apart, we are watching the sun rise together, and it will be always our message of love to each other as it travels across the sky.' "so laida went back to her tribe and ahlogah to his, and every morning they watched from their high rocks above the river, and held out their arms to the rising sun, as a message it should bear between them. "and kapoka found out that laida went every morning to the high rocks, and held out her arms to the sun. and he found that ahlogah also went every morning to the high rocks farther up the river. then kapoka knew that laida would never be his wife as long as ahlogah was alive. and one morning very early kapoka left his wigwam and crept across to the lands of the other tribes, and to the high rocks where ahlogah stood waiting for the sunrise. and just as the sun rose, and kapoka knew that ahlogah would not hear him, he slipped up behind ahlogah, and gave him a great push that sent him over into the swift river, hundreds of feet below. "and the swift river caught him and tossed him and whirled him about, and finally carried him down past the high rocks where laida was sending her message to the sun. and laida looked down and saw him coming. she saw his chieftain's dress and plumes tossed and whirled by the water. she knew it was ahlogah, and she waited for him. then, when he just was below the high rocks where she stood, she gave a great cry, 'ahlogah!' and she was in the whirling, tossing water beside him. "then the tribes searched together, and they found ahlogah and laida far below, cast up on a place of white pebbles, side by side. and they buried them, side by side, and both the tribes mourned. but when the spring came there grew upon their graves two strange flowers with bright, beautiful faces that turned each morning to the sunrise. and these they named ahlogah and laida, but in another year there were more of them, so they called them sunflowers, and after that the land in september, the month when they had died, was like gold with the beautiful flowers of the sun." "but what became of the wicked kapoka? what did they do with him?" asked prue, anxiously. "they never saw him again. i suppose he was ashamed to come back, and by and by his brother, who was good and noble, ruled the tribe, and they dwelt in peace for many generations." "do sunflowers belong to a family now?" asked davy. "oh, yes, to the very largest of all families--a family that spreads all over the world, and the sunflower has been found to be so perfect in form that the family is sometimes called the sunflower family. its true name is the composite family, which means flowers with thick, bunchy centers, formed of a lot of very tiny little flowers, with a rim of petals around the whole--rays they are called--making it into one big flower." "the black-eyed susans must belong to that family, too," said davy. "they do, and the daisy, and the marigold, and the zinnia, and the aster, and your lettuce, too, davy, and many, many more. whenever you see a flower with a round bunchy center and a rim of petals, like a sunflower--no matter what color or how small it is--you will know it belongs to the composite family. i suppose there are more of this family in america than in any other country, but the sunflower is the finest of them all, and the most generally useful. its seeds are full of fine oil, and are excellent food for cattle and poultry. the indians sometimes use them for bread. the flowers themselves are full of honey, the leaves, too, are good for cattle, and the stalks make fine fuel. in many places and many countries the sunflowers are cultivated and valued highly. of course, there are other useful members, and your lettuce is one of the finest salads in the world." iv did you ever see the little man in the pansy? march was really an exciting month in the little window gardens. with longer and brighter suns, everything grew faster, until the windows began to look full and green, and the children often went outside to look in, and were very proud, indeed, of the pretty show of vines and leaves beyond the glass. the race of vines became very close. davy had one bean and prue one morning-glory which kept ahead of the others, and grew about the same each day. they grew so fast that davy thought if he would only watch very closely he would be able to see them grow a little, but watch as he would, he never could catch the little vine turning or sending out a new leaf. it was like the short hand of the clock. it went twice around each day, but nobody could see it move. the corn and the sunflower were having a race, too, and the sunflower was a little ahead, though davy's corn was a good deal taller when he lifted the points of the leaves. "i don't think that is fair," said prue, and the chief gardener was called to decide. "no," he said, "the corn must be measured from where the leaves turn over, until it sends up its tassel, or bloom. then it may be measured to the top of that. and that may be sooner than you think, too," he added, as he looked down into the healthy-looking green stalk that was fully two feet high. "and just see those vines; why they are more than half-way up the casings already!" it was the day before davy's birthday, and prue was looking anxiously at her pansies. all at once she gave a joyous cry. "oh, papa, a bud! oh, it truly is, a real sure enough bud!" the chief gardener looked with care. "yes," he said, "it is really a bud, and quite a large one, too. it begins to show the color. it's going to be a purple one, i believe." prue was fairly wild with excitement. [illustration: davy's pot of radishes] "oh, may i pick it to-morrow for davy's birthday?" she asked. "i don't believe i would, prue. it won't be open for a week or more, perhaps. i would wait until it opens." so davy's birthday came and passed without flowers from their garden, but they did have radishes, two of them, and these were cut in two and divided around so that each had quite a nice taste, and a leaf of salad, too. the radishes were nearly as big as marbles, little marbles, of course, and very red and beautiful, and prue put her pansy-pot on the table, and showed the bud, with its purple tip, every time davy made any mention of his radishes or his lettuce, and with a big cake and other good things they had a very happy time indeed. but now things began to happen in real earnest. the pansy bloomed--a big velvety, purple bloom, and then there was a yellow bud and a yellow bloom with a purple spot in the center. little prue was simply too happy to keep still, and danced in front of her garden almost from morning until night. then suddenly they found a bud on the bean vines, and then on the morning-glories, and then there were blooms--pink and purple blooms on the morning-glories, and scarlet and white ones on the beans. then davy's corn sent out a plume at the top, a wonderful tassel, and when davy measured to the top of it he found that it was over three feet high. "my birthday will be a regular feast of flowers," said the chief gardener, and really there was good reason for saying so, for the window casings were white, scarlet, pink, and purple, and the tasseling corn and the broad green leaves of the sunflower were fair and lovely. and prue's pansy-pot was again on the table, and when the dinner was over, the chief gardener drew it toward him, and picking one of the purple blooms that was nearly ready to fall, said: "did you ever see the little man in the pansy?" "no, oh, no," said prue and davy together. "show him to us, papa." so then the chief gardener pulled off carefully all the petals of the flower, and there, sure enough, sat a little round-bodied man, in a wonderful green chair, made of the outer part, or calyx, of the flower. his head was light green, his coat pale yellow, and he wore a rich, brown collar. just below him was a round green sack or tube, filled with water, and when the chief gardener slitted it down, why there, truly, were two little legs and feet that had been in the little vessel. the children were delighted. "oh, tell us about him!" they said. "who is he?" "he was a king," said the chief gardener, "a poor, feeble king, who always sat on a green throne, with his feet in a tub of water. and his wife and daughters, all very splendidly dressed, used to perch themselves around him on the throne and ask for more money to spend on their fine clothes, and they were often cruel to him because he wouldn't give it to them, crowding him and almost smothering him with their velvet dresses. [illustration: "davy's corn sent out a plume at the top"] "so one day the fairies heard of it, and came to see. and they took pity on the poor king, and the next time the wife and daughters were crowding him on his throne they changed the king and his throne and all the others, with their fine dresses, into a flower. and the flower was the pansy. the velvet petals are the wife and daughters. the calyx is the green throne, and this little man is the poor, sick king with his feet and legs still in the little tub of water, though he can never be worried and scolded again." "i know that story is true," said little prue, "for there is the very little man, himself, and oh, see, you can take his coat off, and there is a little green body inside." sure enough, it was as prue had said, and the chief gardener explained. "that little body becomes a pod to hold the seeds by and by. the little coat helps to make the seed, too. i won't tell you all the names of these things now, for you could not remember so much. only try to remember that the green throne is called the calyx, and each little piece of it is a sepal, while the beautiful wife and daughters are called petals, and when taken together are called a corolla, and that this is true of every complete flower." and so march, too, slipped away. and on one day near the very end of the month, when it had been warm and bright for nearly a week, the chief gardener went out into his garden and turned over some of the earth which was getting dry. davy said that it smelled all new and springy, and reminded him of kite-time. and then the chief gardener made two little beds of his own, and in one he sowed some lettuce, and in the other some radish seed, because these were the things most likely to grow from an early planting. davy and prue watched and helped, and were very anxious to have little beds of their own, but the chief gardener told them that they would better wait at least another month before they did any outside gardening. their window gardens were just coming to their best time, he said, and planting outside so early was always risky. and that night when the wind went to the northeast, and a cold rain set in, that turned to snow before morning, and made the ground all white and glassy like december, they were very glad they had not made any beds, and were sorry for the chief gardener's little beds of vegetables, outside beneath the cold, cold snow. april april i the yellow dust is a food for the seed april showers began early. the sun shone out brightly on the morning of the first day, but by breakfast time the rain was pattering down, and all the rest of the day there were showers, one after another, that streamed down the garden windows and made a little river of the path outside. davy said he had never seen it rain so much in one day, and prue said it was too bad. the chief gardener said it was an april fool. but there was reason to be happy, after all. whether it was the shower outside; or the sun that was trying to shine; or just because it was april, prue and davy did not know, but prue all at once found a bud on her sunflowers and davy about the same time discovered a tiny brown silky bunch on his corn, the beginning of the ear. then they forgot all about the rain, or at least they did not care so much, and got their books and their little table and sat down by their garden, which was now a real garden, of real flowers and vegetables, and read some stories about other little people, and looked at the pictures and talked about what they would do when warm weather came and they had a still bigger garden outside. and that night, when the chief gardener came home, he had to look at the corn and the sunflower the first thing, and say, "well, well," every time prue told him how she had first seen the bud, which was a good many times, and he had to explain to davy all about the corn silk, and the little ear that was still behind the rough green leaf, and how the dust, or pollen, dropping down from the tassel above helped to make the corn swell and grow on the ear. "it is so in every flower, the yellow dust is a food for the seed. in most plants the seed-pod and the food-dust or pollen are all in one flower, but with the corn they are separate, as you see. did you ever notice, davy, how much a cornstalk looks like an indian, with plumes, and its ear, like a quiver for holding arrows?" "oh, is that why people sometimes call it indian corn?" asked davy. "no, that is not the reason. at least, there is a better one which i will tell you when we have had our dinner." so by and by, when dinner was over, and prue had two servings of pudding because she didn't care for chocolate cake--one very little serving, of course, the chief gardener and davy, and big prue and little prue all went into the library, and the chief gardener told the story of ii the coming of the corn "you remember," said the chief gardener, "how i told you about the first sunflowers--" "yes," put in prue, "about that wicked kapoka, who pushed poor ahlogah from the high rocks. oh, i hope he is not in the corn story, too." "no, he isn't in the corn story, but it was, perhaps, about that time that the corn came to the american indian tribes, for the corn was first found in america, and it is a true indian plant like the sunflower. like the sunflower, too, it came once upon a time. "well, then, once upon a time, there was a year of famine. the winter had been very cold, and almost all the wild game, upon which the indians then lived, had either died or gone out of the country. the fish, too, seemed scarce and hard to catch, and the wild fruit had been winter-killed. there was little to eat during the winter, and even when spring came it was not much better, though by and by some of the game came back and there were more fish in the streams. "still it was very hard to get enough food, and every bird and animal was killed wherever found, and brought to the camps to be eaten. "but one day there flew down very close to one of the very large camps a big bird, such as no one of the tribe had ever seen before. it was not a hawk, nor an eagle, for it was a golden yellow, and it seemed to have come a very long way. it sat quite still, and its wings drooped, and it did not seem frightened when the wondering and hungry indians came nearer to look at it. "then one or two indians began stringing their bows to shoot the great bird for food. but others said, 'no, let us not harm the stranger. he has come from a far country. and see, the color is golden, like the sun. perhaps, the sun has sent a messenger, as a good omen.' "so they did not kill the bird, but even brought it food, little as they had, and the bird ate and rested through the day. then just at evening he lifted his great wings and flew away into the sunset, and was seen no more. "but when a week had gone by, there came up where the bird had rested a strange new plant which grew very fast in the warm sun and shower and sent out long graceful leaves, and at last a plume at the top like that of an indian chief, and from behind the graceful drooping leaves, tufts of silk that became ears, and were like indian quivers. and when the summer was past, the tribe gathered these ears, and pulled away the husk, and lo, there were the rows of ripened corn, golden like the great bird. "then the tribes from far and near were called together, and there was great rejoicing and thanks for this new gift, brought to them by the wonderful bird of the sun. and to each chief was given a few of the grains for planting, so that the next year all the tribes around about were watching and tending the tall green stalks that were to give them abundance of seed against another famine. "and that is the legend of the corn. after the third year there was seed for all, and corn became the best and surest food for all the indian tribes. when the white men came, they ate it, too, and by cultivation made new kinds and colors. now we have the sweet or sugar corn, the davy's, and we have popcorn, too, which is only a dwarf corn with a hard, flinty shell which pops open with heat." "do they raise corn in any other country except america?" asked davy. "oh, yes, there is a great deal raised in other countries now, and i believe they claim to have found some grains of it in a very old tomb in greece, and a picture of it in a very old book in china, so, perhaps, it was from some place in the far east that the great bird of the indians came with the seed." "and does it belong to a family, too?" asked little prue. "it is claimed by the grass family, and, of course, it is something like big grass. wheat and oats and, indeed, all the grains, belong to that wonderful family, too. then there is broom-corn, useful for making brooms, while sugar-cane, which is also a grass, gives us our best sugar and molasses, but corn not only gives us the ears for food, but the leaves are used for cattle, and the husks for making cushions and mattresses, and for packing fruits. syrup also is made from the young stalks, and the dry stalks are used for thatching, stable-bedding and fuel. in fact, every part of the corn is valuable, and i think we might call it the king, or, perhaps, being an indian, the chief of the tribe of grasses." "i know the best of all the things that comes from it," said little prue. "what?" asked davy. "pop-corn balls," said prue. iii cross by name and cross by nature what wonderful things happened to the little window-garden in april! the nasturtium bloomed early in the month--first a red one then a yellow one, then a lot of red and yellow ones. they were so beautiful that almost every meal the little pot stood on the table, and sometimes the pansy-pot, too. and then the sweet-pease bloomed, beautiful pink and white and purple blooms that were so sweet you could smell them as soon as you came into the room. davy's garden-pease had bloomed even sooner, and had little pods on them by april. before many days the tiny pease inside began to swell, and you could see every one quite plainly when you turned the pod flat side to the light. as for the beans and morning-glories, they had bloomed and bloomed, and already had seed-pods hanging all the way up the vines that now reached to the top of the casings and looped down and joined in a long festoon which hung between. and how proud the children were of their two beautiful windows. and how happy they were when passers-by stopped to look in, and perhaps wondered about the gardens, and maybe thought that the rosy-cheeked boy and girl looking out between the blossoms and leaves and vines were the brightest and best flowers that bloomed there. and davy's corn sent out another ear, a little one, and both ears grew and the pollen from above sifted down, and davy knew that inside the green husks the sweet kernels were forming. "when can we eat it?" he asked almost every day. "don't you think it's about big enough now?" "when the silk turns brown," said the chief gardener. "that is about the best rule. i think you'll have pease and beans, too, pretty soon, so you can have quite a feast." [illustration: "the morning-glories had bloomed and already had seed-pods"] "just in time for my birthday," said big prue, who had been an april baby a long time ago. "it's ever so long till my birthday," said little prue, rather sadly. "i don't think we'll have anything left by august." "oh, but i'll have a fine garden outside by then," said the chief gardener, "and you will, too. i'll have radishes and lettuce now before you know it;" for in spite of the cold snow and freeze, the chief gardener's first planting had sprouted fairly well, and was rapidly filling his first two little beds. "papa, you haven't told us a word about my nasturtiums yet, and they're so lovely. not a single story or anything, nor about their family relations, or where they came from--not a thing." "well, that's so," said the chief gardener, "perhaps because i wanted to make a family affair of it. you see, davy's radish is a sort of a name-cousin of your nasturtium, and i've been thinking that when i told about one i'd tell of the other, too, and that i'd call the story iv a peppery family [illustration: "cabbage" was the fat fellow's name] "nobody seems to know just where the cross family came from. you can find them in every part of the world now, some of them growing as weeds, some as flowers, and some as very fine vegetables. but wherever they came from, in the beginning, they were certainly of very sharp, biting natures, and never could agree. why, they were so cross that even their flowers were shaped like little crosses, and people called them cruciferous, which means cross-shaped, and used to say of them, "'cross by name and cross by nature, cross of fibre, face, and feature,' and did not want them in their gardens, because they disturbed the other vegetables and flowers, and might make them cross, too. "well, the cross family became tired of this, at last, and made up their minds to be either useful or ornamental: at least, most of them did. so they got together, and after a great deal of quarrelling among themselves to begin with, for, of course, they couldn't help that when they had been unpleasant so long, they at last began to work together and decide what each wanted to be, and how it could be brought about. "'i think,' said a fat one who was always better-natured than any of the others, 'i should like to be a nice sweet vegetable that people were very fond of and gave a good place to, in their gardens, where i should be well taken care of.' "so the clerk of plants, who was alive then, like the weather clerk, you know, put down 'cabbage,' which was the fat fellow's name, and wrote after it, 'sweet vegetable--needs care.' "'i,' said another, 'would like to be a sweet vegetable, too, but i want to grow mostly under the ground, so that i will need less care to keep off insects and worms.' "so then the clerk of plants wrote 'turnip,' and put after it, 'vegetable with sweet, wholesome root; needs little care.' "so they went on with those who wanted to be vegetables. but most of the others did not want to be quite so sweet in their nature as the turnip and the cabbage. they said they liked people with a little temper of their own, so the radish, who was a fat, red little chap, was put down as a vegetable rather sweet, but with sharp flavor, and 'horseradish' was put down, 'very sharp and biting, to be used only for seasoning.' the clerk was about to turn to those who wanted to be flowers, when a little green plant, who had been named 'nose torment,' because he made people's noses itch and burn, spoke up and said, 'i should like to be beautiful and useful, too--a pretty green dressing that people like, and i will grow in the water, which may wash away some of my ill manners.' "so then the clerk of plants dropped the name of 'nose torment' and wrote down, 'water cross, a fine table-salad--grows in clear streams.' "'but i don't like the name "cross,"' said the little plant. "'oh, well,' said the clerk, 'spell it with an "e" then--make it cress.' so water-cress it became, and all the others spelled their family name with an 'e,' too, and became the cress family instead of the cross family, just as people often change the spelling of their names to-day. "but the clerk of plants wasn't through, for there were a good many who wanted to be flowers. some of them wanted to be very sweet flowers, and some, like mustard, wanted to be flowers and useful, too. so the clerk wrote down 'wallflower,' and 'stock' and candy tuft,' and a good many others, but there was one gentle little blossom which said, 'oh, i want to be white and pure, and have a sweet and delicate perfume that all people will love.' and this was 'alyssum,' and when the clerk wrote it down, he wrote it 'sweet alyssum,' and so it has been called ever since. "and then, when the clerk was all through, he said, 'there are some who have not come to the meeting. where is your brother, mustard? and yours, alyssum, the one we call pepper-grass, because he is so fiery?' "mustard and alyssum shook their heads sadly. "'well,' said the clerk, 'they have had their chance. they are wild and will always be,' so he wrote down. 'wild mustard' and pepper-grass,' and after these names he put the word 'weeds.'" "but my nasturtium, papa, what about that?" "why, that's so, i forgot all about your nasturtium. well, you see, it doesn't really belong to the cress family, but is only a name-relative. the word nasturtium comes from two latin words, _nasi tormentum_, which means nose torment, and it was nasturtium that little water-cress had sometimes been called." "but," said prue, "my nasturtium isn't water-cress." [illustration: "they called it nasturtium"] "no, but when it was discovered, and the people tasted the leaves and the flowers, and sometimes used them for salad, and especially when they found it had a sharp-tasting seed, they called it cress, indian cress, and then they took the name that little water-cress had dropped and called it nasturtium. so you see it isn't really a cress or a nasturtium. it is only called that. it's true name is acriviola, or sharp violet, because of its taste, and the flower, which is shaped something like a violet. all the true cress family have a corolla of but four petals, shaped like a cross, and nearly all the flowers, and especially the seed-pods, have a sharp flavor. even the sweet alyssum has the least touch of the old flavor, and mustard is very sharp. on the whole, the cress family has become a most useful and ornamental family, and the acriviola or nasturtium, which is neither a violet nor a nasturtium, but a geranium--of the geranium family, i mean--need not be at all ashamed of its adopted names." v for in that dish was davy's corn when big prue's birthday came, there was much excitement. of course, there were the presents which must be hidden until the very morning, but even the presents were not of the very greatest importance this year. oh, no, this year it was the garden. big prue's birthday was to be a regular garden feast. [illustration: alyssum--the sweetest of the "cross" family] for now the days had become warm and bright. already the children had been to the woods for hepaticas and violets, and everywhere the trees were tinged with green. the little garden had fairly filled the window so that now you had to look between the vines to see. even in the garden outside, the chief gardener had made some more beds, and the first ones--the radishes and lettuce--were so well along, that early on the morning of big prue's birthday he brought in some tiny radishes and some tender green salad leaves, almost as good, davy said, as the first ones from his garden. "these are for breakfast," he said. "you and prue will have to supply the birthday dinner." and that is just what they did. first of all there was a lovely bunch of sweet-pease on big prue's plate--these, of course, being from prue's garden. there was a little bunch of pansies for prue, while for the chief gardener and davy there were round, bright sunflowers, one each for their buttonholes. in the center of the table there was a wonderful little glass bowl of nasturtium flowers, that were so fresh and pretty that one must be hungry just to look at them. then it was davy's turn. in a pretty salad-dish on a little side table, there was a lettuce salad that looked like a great green bloom, and lying upon another smaller dish at the side, were four of the roundest, reddest radishes imaginable, the very last of the little garden crop. but now something came in in two small covered dishes, something that steamed, and behold, when they were opened, in one were davy's beans, ever so many, white and mottled, all cooked and hot and ready to be eaten, and in the other davy's pease! but that was not all. still another steaming dish came in, and when that was opened, everybody fairly shouted, "oh, my!" for in that dish was davy's corn! think of it! two whole ears of corn, one large one to be divided between little prue and davy. never was there such a birthday dinner as that. the flowers were beautiful, the beans and the pease splendid, while the corn, why the corn was just the sweetest and best corn that was ever raised. they all said so, and davy got excited and said he was going to plant a thousand acres of corn just as soon as the chief gardener would let him. and then they began to plan for the new garden of summer-time, which was to be made outside. most of their things they thought they would take out of the windows, and reset in the open garden, but, of course, there were no radishes or lettuce to take now, and the corn and pease were no longer of value, while the vines would be hard to move. so they decided to take out all but the vines. prue could reset her pansies and nasturtiums and sunflower, and the sweet-pease, which would bloom all summer, perhaps, leaving the morning-glories and scarlet runner in the windows, to bloom as long as they would. "my windows would look very bare without even the vines left of the little gardens," said big prue, "but it is getting so green outside, that we won't miss them so much now, and, of course, everything must go, sometime." "and we are going to have them next year," said davy. "we will begin then earlier, and have other things, too, but first we are going to have ever and ever so much outside, in the real garden. prue is going to have flowers, and i am going to have, oh, ever and ever so many good things to eat!" and so with big prue's birthday dinner, the little garden in the windows saw its greatest glory, and the month of april, which had been its happiest season, came to a happy end. may may i sweet-pease have to be put down pretty deep it was may and the apple-trees were in bloom. in the garden outside was the chief gardener, with prue and davy--one on each side--hoeing and digging and raking. the early plantings, like radishes and lettuce and pease, were already well along, but it was just time, now, for a second planting of these things, and for the first planting of such things as corn and beans, and most of the kinds of flowers. some sweet-pease, it is true, little prue had planted earlier, one warm day in april, when the chief gardener had dug for her a trench along the fence, and she had put in the pease, one at a time, and just so far apart, so that they wouldn't crowd, she said, or get in each other's way. the trench was quite deep--most too deep, prue thought, but then sweet-pease have to be put down pretty deep, and the soil dragged up to the vines as they grow, to give them strength. now, she planted some sweet-williams, and pansies, and mignonettes, and alyssum, and had brought most of her pots from the house, and set the things in a little row by themselves, so that they might still be company as they had been through the long winter and late spring. davy, too, had made a fine garden, with six hills of sweet-corn, one hill of cantaloupes, a row of pease, a little row of onions, lettuce, and radishes, besides a very small row of sweet herbs, such as marjoram, fennel, and thyme. each garden was fully eight feet square, which is really quite a good-sized garden, when you remember that it must be kept nicely tilled and _perfectly clean_ of weeds. "i think i will have a hill of cucumbers, too," said davy. "i like cucumbers." "but they won't do, near your cantaloupes," said the chief gardener. "you see, cucumbers and cantaloupes belong to the same family, and one of the most twining, friendly families i know of. each member left to itself is very good in its way, and often ornamental, but let them run together ever so little and before you know it they begin to mix up and look like one another, and even have tastes alike. a cucumber-hill there, davy, would spoil the taste of your cantaloupes, and the cucumbers would not be good either. it's the same way with watermelons, and citrons, and pumpkins, and all the rest of the gourds." "gourds!" "why, yes, they all belong to the gourd family, and they will all look and taste like gourds if you give them a chance. it's really, of course, because the pollen of one blows into the bloom of the other, and the members of the gourd family are so closely related that pollens blend and mix. different kinds of corn will do the same thing. that is why we have our popcorn as far from our sweet corn as we can get it. there are other families that do not mix at all. we grow apples and plums and peaches and roses, side by side--even different kinds of each--and they never mix." "but apples and plums and peaches are not roses, are they?" asked little prue. "just as much as strawberries, and pears and quinces are," said the chief gardener. the children looked at him rather puzzled. "how about blackberries and raspberries?" asked the chief gardener. "don't you think they look a little, a very little, like wild roses, only the flowers are smaller and white, instead of pink?" "why, yes, so they do!" nodded davy. "and doesn't the bloom of a blackberry look like the bloom of a plum, and a cherry, and a pear, and an apple, and all those things?" "a good deal," said prue, "and wild crab blossoms look just like little wild roses, and they smell so sweet, too." "and the wild crab has thorns like a rose, only not so sharp," said davy. [illustration: "don't you think the blackberry looks a little like a wild rose?"] "and a rose has little apples after the bloom falls," said the chief gardener. "i have known children to eat rose apples, though i don't think they could be very good." davy had run down to the corner of the garden and came back now with something in his hand. it was a wild rose that grew by the hedge there; a pretty, single pink blossom. then he stopped and picked a strawberry bloom, and one from the apple-tree that hung over the fence. these he brought over to the little bench where prue and the chief gardener had sat down to rest. the chief gardener took them and held them side by side. "there, you will see they are all very much alike," he said. the children looked at them. then prue ran across the lawn and came back with a little yellow bloom. "isn't this flower one of them, too?" she asked. "some people call it wild strawberry, and some sink-field." "that," said the chief gardener, "is cinque-foil. i suppose the name sink-field comes from that. it is french, and means five-leaved, but sink-field is not so bad a name either, for it often grows in moist places. yes, that is a rose, too." "then buttercups must be roses," said davy. "they look just like that." "no, davy, that is one place where our eyes must look sharp. can you find a buttercup?" "oh, plenty," said prue, and ran to bring them. then the chief gardener took a buttercup and an apple-bloom, and held them side by side. there was a difference, but not very great. then he took his knife, and divided the blossoms in half. "now look again," he said, and he took a small magnifying-glass from his pocket and held it so that they could see. "the petals and the sepals (that make the corolla and the calyx, you know) are a good deal the same," he said, "but, you see, there are many more stamens in the buttercup, and then the seed pod or pods, which we call the pistils, are not at all alike. the buttercup has a lot of tiny pods or pistils inside the flower, while the apple-bloom has one round pod below the flower, and this forms the fruit. the buttercup does not make fruit. it belongs to the crowfoot family, and is a cousin of the hepatica and of the larkspur, which you would not think from the shape of the larkspur's bloom. the crowfoot family is not so beautiful nor so useful as the rose family, which is, perhaps, the most useful family next to the grass family, and certainly one of the most beautiful families in the world." "i think the rose family is nicer than the grass family," said prue. "oh, no," said davy. "we couldn't do without wheat and corn, and we could do without fruit and flowers--that is, of course, if we had to," he added with a sigh. "i couldn't," said little prue. "i like flowers best, and jelly and jam to eat on my biscuits, and you like all those things, too, davy, and shortcake, and berry pie." "of course! but how would you have biscuits and shortcake without wheat to make the flour of?" the chief gardener smiled. [illustration: "and the apple-blossom, too"] "we can't decide it," he said. "they go together. it is said that we shall not live on bread alone, and i don't think we could live altogether on fruit and flowers, though i believe some people try to do so. jam and bread go together, and a shortcake must have both crust and fruit to be a real shortcake. wheat fields and orchards march side by side, and taking these together we have peach pudding and apple tart." prue was looking out over her little garden where the smoothly patted rows of beds made her quite happy, just to see them. "i've got four things that begin with sweet," she said. "sweet-pease, sweet-williams, sweet-mignonette, and sweet-alyssum." "and my little sweetheart is the sweetest flower of all," said the chief gardener. ii different families of ants have different droves of cows it seemed wonderful to the chief gardener how much the children had learned just from the little pots of their window-garden. he had let them begin these gardens merely as an amusement, at first, but during those long winter weeks while the plants were growing and being cared for daily, little by little, prue and davy had been learning the how and why. when the seeds began to come now, he had to tell them very little about the care of the plants. it is true that davy was a little too anxious to hoe his rows of pease and salad almost before they were out of the ground, and hoed up a few plants, while prue wanted to water her garden when the bright sun was shining, which would have baked the ground and done more harm than good. but they both knew so much more than they had known a year ago, that the chief gardener was glad of those little window-gardens which were now gone. "you see, i was remembering the worm that cut off one of my cornstalks," said davy one morning when the chief gardener found him digging carefully around the tender shoots. "i found one, too, but he hadn't done any harm yet." "i'm crumbling the hard dirt around my little plants," said prue, "it's so sharp and cakey, and i pull out every little weed i see, so they won't have a chance to get big." the chief gardener looked on approvingly. then he walked over to his own rows and looked carefully at his pease, which were just now beginning to bloom. then he got down and looked more closely. then he called davy and prue. they left their work and came quickly. "look here," said the chief gardener, "i have a whole drove of cattle in my garden." "cattle!" said davy. "oh, papa's just fooling," said prue. "why, no," said the chief gardener, "don't you see them. there is a whole drove of cows," and he pointed to some little green bug-like things that clustered on the tips of his pea-vines. the children looked closely and then turned to him to explain. "there are some ants there, too," said davy. "they are crawling up and down." "yes," said the chief gardener. "they own the cows. the cows are those green things--aphides, they are called, and the ants milk them. look very carefully now." prue and davy watched and saw an ant go to one of the green insects and touch with its bill first one, and then the other, of two little horns that grew from the aphid's back. and then the ant went to another aphid, and did the same thing. then they saw that tiny drops of fluid came from the ends of these tiny green horns. "that," said the chief gardener, "is honeydew, or ant's milk. the ants are very fond of it, and wherever you find these aphides, you will find ants, milking them. in fact, i believe the ants keep these aphides during the winter in some of their houses, and drive them in the spring to tender green feeding-places like these pea-vines, so that the milk will be sweet and plentiful. i have heard that different families of ants have different droves of cows, and fight over them, too." the children were very much interested in all this, and watched the ants run up and down the vines and milk their cows. then the chief gardener said, "i'm sorry, but i'm afraid we'll have to get rid of these. they are very bad for young plants, and ants are, too. they suck the juice, and ruin them. i must give them a mixture." he went into the basement and cut up a few ounces of whale-oil soap, and dissolved it in hot water. then when it was cool and weakened, he sprinkled the pease with it. the next day all the cows were gone, and most of the ants. but about a week later, just after a shower, there they were again, and the chief gardener said that the ants must have driven up a new herd. so he had to sprinkle them again, and even once more before the end of the month; and while he was sprinkling, he sprinkled the little gardens, too, for whale-oil soap when it isn't used strong enough to hurt the young plants is a fine thing for little gardens, and big ones, too. iii there are many ways of producing species there were a good many rains in may. the weeds grew and grew, and it was hard to keep them down when it was wet and warm, and the plants were still so small. prue and davy had to get down close and pull them out carefully with their fingers, and this left the little green rows so straight and trim, and the earth smelled so nice when the sun came out warm, after a shower, that the children grew happy in the work, and wanted to plant new things almost every day. around the house prue had planted a border of nasturtiums on one side, and a border of marigolds on the other, and they were all coming up and looked as if they would grow into strong, fine plants. davy had planted some hills of castor beans in the garden, because the chief gardener had said that they were good for the three ms--moles, malaria, and mosquitoes. he was also attending very faithfully to a row of strawberries which the chief gardener had told him he might have for his own. the little boy was quite skillful with a hoe, and could take care of his vegetables almost as well as the chief gardener, so the chief gardener thought. "you must not hoe your beans when the dew is on them, davy," he said one morning. "the vines are tender and it causes them to rust or blight, but you may hoe most of the other things, and you may hoe around most of your vegetables as often as you want to. loosening up the soil about young plants makes them grow. it gives the roots a chance to spread, and lets sun and air into the soil. you must be a little more careful with flowers, prue, for they are usually more tender, and it is better to dig with an old knife or a small, weeding rake. you must thin out your plants, too. keep pulling from between, as they grow larger, so that they stand farther and farther apart. where plants grow too thickly they are small, and the flowers and vegetables poor. people sometimes try to raise more on a small piece of ground by having more plants on it, but it does not pay, for the plants do not produce as much as if there were only half as many on the same soil. give everything plenty of room and air, and they will grow and thrive like children who have a good playground and plenty of wholesome food." "papa," said prue, "you were talking the other day of the different kinds of one thing: what makes them?--the different kinds of roses, i mean, and pansies, and--" "and peaches and apples," interrupted davy, "i want to know that, too." the chief gardener did not answer just at first. then he said, "i am afraid that is a pretty big subject for little people. there are a good many ways of producing species of flowers, and some of them are not easy to understand. but i can tell you, perhaps, about the fruits now, and we will try to understand about some of the flowers another time. "to begin with, the upper part and the lower parts of our fruit-trees are different. the root and a little of the lower stalk is from a seed, and upon this has been grafted or spliced with soft bands and wax, a bud from some choice kind of peach or apple or plum, or whatever the tree is to be, and this new bud grows and forms the tree. sometimes a bud of the choice kind is merely inserted beneath the bark of another tree and grows and forms a new limb. by and by, when it bears fruit, the fruit will be of the kind that was on the choice tree, but the seed, though it looks just the same, may be altogether different. if a seed like that is planted, it may make a tree like the root part of the one from which it came, or it may make a tree like the upper part, or it may make something different from either one. no one can tell what that seed will bring. so fruit growers plant a great many such seeds each year, and once in a great while some new peach, or apple, or plum, or cherry, finer than anything ever grown before, comes from one of those seeds. then every little limb of that tree is saved and grafted or spliced to a lot of sturdy little roots that have come from other seeds, and this new kind of fruit goes out all over the world and is grafted, and re-grafted, until there are trees everywhere of the new kind." [illustration: the bark is slit to receive the bud the bud is inserted in the opening the limb is then closely bound budding] "and wouldn't i get those same fine peaches we had last year if i planted the seeds?" asked davy. "you might, davy, but there are a hundred chances to one that you would get a very poor, small peach, which you would not care to eat." davy looked disappointed. "well," he said, "i might as well pull it up, then." "why, did you plant one, davy?" asked the chief gardener. "yes, last summer. i didn't know then, and after i ate my peach i planted the seed over there in the corner, and now it's just coming up, and i was going to keep it for a surprise for you." "that's too bad, davy, but let it grow, anyway. perhaps it will make some new and wonderful kind. even if it doesn't, we can have the limbs grafted when it is larger." "oh, and can you have more than one kind on a tree?" "why, yes, i have seen as many as three or four kinds of apples on one tree." "and peaches, and apples, and plums, and pears, all on one tree, too?" said prue. "why that would be a regular fairy tree!" "we could hardly have that," laughed the chief gardener, "though i have heard of peaches, and nectarines, and plums being all on one tree, though i have never seen it. i don't think such things do very well." they went over to look at davy's little peach-tree, which was fresh and green and tender, and seemed to be growing nicely. "it should have fruit on it in three years," said the chief gardener. davy and prue did not look very happy at this. it seemed such a long time to wait. "it will pass before you know it," the chief gardener smiled. "i shall be as old as nellie taber," said little prue, who had been counting on her fingers, "but nellie will be older, too," she added with a sigh. "so i'm afraid i can't catch up with her." the chief gardener led them over to another part of the garden, where there was a bunch of green leaves, like the leaves of a violet, but when they got down to look, they found that the flowers, instead of being all blue, were speckled and spotted with white. "oh, papa, where did you get those funny violets?" asked prue. "what makes them all speckly?" "i think," said the chief gardener, "that this is one of nature's mixtures. i found it in the crescent lake woods last spring, and brought it home. there may be others like it, but i have never seen them. so you see, nature makes new kinds herself, sometimes. you know, don't you, that the pansies you love so much, prue, are one kind of violet, cultivated until they are large and fine?" "why, no, are they violets? are my pansies violets?" "yes, they are what is called the heartsease violets. they were a very small flower at first, and not so brightly colored. they will become small again if you let them run wild a year or two." prue was looking at the variegated violet in her hand. "i should think there's a story about this," she said, nodding her busy, imaginative little head. "suppose you tell it to us, prue," said the chief gardener. "well, i think it's this way," said prue. "once upon a time there was a little girl named bessie. and she lived way off--way over by crescent lake--with an old witch-woman who was poor. and bessie had to carry milk to sell, every day, because they had a cow, and bessie couldn't drink the milk, because they had to sell it. "and one day when bessie was going with the milk through the woods, she stopped to pick some flowers, because she liked flowers, all kinds, and specially violets. and when she stooped over to pick the violets, a little of her milk spilled out of her pail, and it went on the violets, right on the blue flowers. and when bessie saw them all spattered with the milk she says, 'oh, how funny you look! i wish you'd stay that way all the time.' and there was a fairy heard her say that, and she liked bessie because she was so good, so she made the violets stay just that way with the white spots on them, and bessie went home, and one day when the old witch-woman died the fairy brought a prince on a white horse, and bessie went away with him to be a princess, in a palace covered with gold and silver, and lived happy ever after." the chief gardener looked down at the little girl beside him. "why, what an exciting story! did you make it all just now?" "yes, just now. it just came of itself," said little prue. "and didn't bessie want her violets?" asked davy. "she took some of them along with her in a basket, and planted them around her new palace." "and the rest she left for us," said the chief gardener. "i know now what to call them. we shall call them bessie's violets." june june i then they went down into the strawberry patch june, the month of roses, and strawberries. the beautiful month when spring is just turning to summer, and summer is giving us her first rare gifts. in davy's garden the corn was up, and had grown more in two weeks than the corn planted in the house had grown in four. it was the long sunny days that did this, and the showers that seemed to come almost too often, but perhaps the gardens didn't think so, for they grew, and the weeds grew, too, and kept prue and davy busy pulling and hoeing and cultivating. davy's radishes were big enough to eat just a month from the day they were planted--think of it!--when those planted in the house had taken ever and ever so long. prue's pansies and sweet-pease, and her other three "sweets" were all up, too, and so green and flourishing. but perhaps the thing that made them both happiest, at this season, was the chief gardener's strawberry-patch. either that or big prue's roses--they were not sure which. "when i grow up, i am going to have acres and acres of strawberries," said davy. "and miles and miles of roses," said prue. "and herds and herds of little jersey cows that only give the richest cream," said the chief gardener. "and we'll put wreaths of roses about the cows' necks," said big prue, "and drive them home at evening, and milk the rich creamy milk and put it on the fresh strawberry shortcake, just out of the oven--" [illustration: the chief gardener's strawberries (members of the rose family)] "and eat and eat forever," interrupted davy. "and be happy ever after," finished little prue. after that nobody said anything for quite a long time--thinking how fine all that would be, when it came. then they went down into the strawberry-patch where the big red berries were ripening on the broad, green leaves. and little prue and her mamma went into the house and came out with two bowls--one quite large bowl--white, with blue vines and flowers on it, and one quite small bowl--white, with blue kittens on it, chasing one another around and around on the outside. and the chief gardener and big prue picked the ripe red berries and put them in the big bowl. and davy and little prue picked the ripe red berries and put them into the little bowl. and sometimes the chief gardener would eat a berry--a real, real ripe one--just to see if they were good, he said. and sometimes big prue would eat a berry--a real, real little one--just to see if little berries would do for a shortcake, she said. and sometimes little prue would eat a berry, and sometimes davy would eat a berry--big, big berries--just because they looked so good, and tasted so good, that a little boy and a little girl could not help eating them, even if it took some of the berries out of the shortcake they were going to have for tea. but they didn't eat all of the berries they picked. oh, no. they put some of the berries into the little white bowl with the blue kittens chasing one another around and around on the outside. and the chief gardener and big prue put most of their berries into the big bowl with the blue flowers and vines on it. and by and by both of the bowls were full--full clear to the top and heaping--so that no more berries, not even the very little ones, would lay on. and then big prue took the big bowl, and little prue the little bowl, and they went up the little garden step into the house, carrying the bowls very carefully, so as not to spill any of the red berries that were heaped up so high that no more, not even very little ones, would lay on. and the chief gardener and davy followed along behind, talking of the fine june evening, and saying how long the days were now and how far to the north the sun was setting. then they looked around at the garden, and wondered if they would have green corn by the middle of july, and when they looked under the bean vines they found that some pods were quite large, and the chief gardener said that by sunday they could have beans, and pease, with lettuce and several other green things--a regular garden dinner. and then little prue came out and called them to come--right off. and they saw that she was dressed in a fresh white dress, and that her hair was tied with a bright blue ribbon, and her face was as rosy as a strawberry. "we have got the deliciousest shortcake that ever was!" she called, as they came closer, "and i helped, and rolled the dough and picked over some of the berries!" "you didn't put all the berries in," said the chief gardener. "oh, i did--i did, papa--all but two." [illustration: big, big berries that looked so good] "and i will have those," said the chief gardener, and he lifted the little girl in his arms and gave her a big, big kiss, on each rosy cheek. "i think june is the best month that ever was!" said davy a little later, as he finished his second large piece. "it always seems the queen month to me," said big prue, "perhaps because it is the month of the rose--the queen of the flowers." "is the rose really the queen of the flowers?" asked little prue. "i have always heard so." "how did she get to be queen? did she just happen to be queen, or did the other flowers choose her?" little prue's mamma looked thoughtfully out the garden window, where a great climbing rambler was a mass of red blossoms. "do you think any other flower could be queen over that?" she asked. "why, no, but--but don't folks have to choose queens, or something?" "they do presidents," said davy. "i think you'll have to tell us about it," laughed the chief gardener. "it's your turn for a story, anyway." so then big prue took them all out on the wide veranda, where they could watch the sunset, that came very late now, and there she told them ii how the rose became queen "once upon a time there was a very great garden that lay between two ranges of blue, blue hills. and the sky above was blue, as blue as the hills, so that you could hardly tell where the sky ended and the hills began, and underneath was the great, beautiful garden which covered all the lands between. "and in this rare garden there were all the choicest flowers and fruit that the world knew, and when the flowers were all in bloom, under that blue, blue sky--in all the wonderful colors of gold and crimson, and royal purple, and with all the banks of white daisies, and all the sweet orchards of apple-bloom, there was nothing like it in the whole world, and the sweet perfume went out so far that sailors on the ships coming in from sea, a hundred miles away, could smell the sweet odors, and would say, 'the wind blows from the garden of the princess beautiful.' for i must tell you that the garden was owned by a great princess, and she was called beautiful by all who knew of her, and every traveler to that distant country made his way to her white marble palace to seek permission to look upon the most wonderful garden in all the world. "and many who came there were of high rank, like herself, and some of them tried to win her love, for the princess was like her name and as beautiful as the rarest flower in all that marvelous garden. but to princes and even kings she would not listen, for her heart and pride were only in her flowers, and she wished to remain with them forever and be happy in their beauty. she was only sad when she saw that some of those who came went away with heavy hearts because she would not leave her palace for theirs. "now once there came to the palace of the princess beautiful a great queen. she had traveled far to see the splendid garden, and when she came, the princess led her with all her court among the flowers. and all that sunlit day, under the blue, blue sky, the great queen and her court lingered in the garden--up and down the paths of white shells, where hyacinths and lilies and daffodils and azaleas grew on every side--and rested in the shade of the blossoming orchard trees. and when it was evening, and they had gone, and the flowers were left alone, they whispered and murmured together, for never before had they seen a queen and her court. "and by and by as the days passed, the flowers decided that they, too, must have a queen--some rare flower, fine and stately, whom they would honor, even as they had seen their beautiful princess honor her royal guest. and night after night they talked of these things, but never could decide which of their number should be chosen for the high place. "and then one day a great sadness came upon the fair garden between the hills. a young traveler from an unknown country had come to the white palace, and one sunny afternoon the princess beautiful had led him among the beds of primroses and lilies and daffodils. and when the sun was going down and she turned and looked into his face, and saw how fair he was, and how the sun made his hair like gold, how it shimmered on his beautiful garments of velvet and fine lace, she felt for the first time a great love arise within her heart. then, all at once, she forgot her garden, her palace and her pride--forgot everything in all the world except the fair youth who stood there with her in the sunset--and she told him her great new love. "and as she spoke, softly and tenderly, the words she had never spoken to any one before, the breeze died, and the sun slipped down behind the far-off hills. and then, as the light faded, it seemed to the princess beautiful that the fair youth before her was fading, too. his face grew dim and misty--his hair became a blur of gold--his rare garments melted back into the beds of bloom. and behold, instead of the fair youth there stood before her in the twilight only a wonderful golden lily with a crimson heart. "then the princess beautiful knew that because she had cared only for her garden, and had sent from her those who had offered a great love like her own, that this wonderful lily had come to her as a youth with a face of radiant beauty, and with hair of gold, to awaken a human love in her heart. and each day she mourned there by the splendid lily, and called upon it to return to her as the fair youth she had loved; and at last when its flowers faded and the stem drooped, the white palace of the princess beautiful was empty, for the princess lay dead beside the withered lily in the rare garden between the hills. "and there they made her grave, and above it they built a trellis where a white climbing rose might grow. but when the rose bloomed, instead of being white, it was a wonderful crimson, such as no one had ever seen before. and when the other flowers saw those beautiful crimson blossoms, they no longer mourned, for they said, 'this is our princess beautiful who has returned to be our queen.' "and so it was the red rose became the queen of flowers, and a symbol of great human love. the poet burns sings, 'my love is like a red, red rose that's newly blown in june,' and it was always in june that the great crimson rose bloomed on the grave in the garden of the princess beautiful." "and did the lily ever bloom again?" asked little prue. "i'm sure it must have done so. we always speak of roses and lilies as belonging together, and there is a great golden lily called the superbus, which i think might have been the beautiful youth that came to the white palace." "does the story mean that we shouldn't care too much for our gardens?" asked davy. "more than for folks, i mean?" "do you know, davy," said the chief gardener, "i was just wondering about that, too." iii the sun is the greatest of all chemists it was about a week later, that one afternoon little prue and davy and the chief gardener were helping big prue with her roses, and admiring all the different kinds. little prue had been thinking a good deal about roses since the story of the princess beautiful, and wondering just which of the climbing red ones had grown about her grave. then she began to wonder about all the kinds, and how they came. she spoke about this now, as her mamma pointed out one which she said was a new rose--just offered for sale that year. "where did it come from?" asked the little girl, "where do new roses come from?" "from seed," answered the chief gardener, "like the new peaches and apples i told you of. roses belong to the same family, you know, and they are grafted much in the same way. then the seeds are planted, and from these, fine new kinds are likely to come. rose-growers are always trying hard to make new kinds by mixing the pollen. the pollen, you remember, is the yellow powder on the little tips of the stamens. these tips, as i believe i told you, are called anthers, and the slender part of the stamen is the filament. it is the pollen falling from the anthers upon the single green stem or pistil in the center of the flower that produces the seed. the pistil is divided in parts, too. the little top piece is called the stigma, and the slender green stem is called the style. the pollen falls on the stigma and is drawn down through the style to give life to the seed-pod below." [illustration: the rose stamens and pistil which produce the seed] the chief gardener picked the bloom of a single bramble rose and pulled it apart to show the children all these things. "now," he went on, "gardeners often take a rose of one kind and color and shake it gently over a rose of another kind and color, so that the pollen will fall from the anthers of one upon the stigma of the other. in this way the seeds are mixed and it may happen that wonderful new roses come from those seeds. sometimes, instead of shaking the rose, the gardener carefully takes up the pollen on a tiny soft brush and lays it gently on the stigma of the other rose, all of which has to be done as soon as the bloom is open. of course, such roses are kept to themselves, and labeled, and the seeds are carefully labeled also." davy and prue were both interested. "oh, can i make some new kinds of roses," asked little prue, greatly excited. "can i, mamma?" "you may try, but i am afraid you will not be very successful where all the roses are out here in the open air. still, it will do no harm to see what will happen, and you might get something very wonderful." "i am already trying for a new kind of peach," said davy. "and if you get a good one we will call it the 'early david,'" laughed the chief gardener. "and what will you call my rose?" "why, 'the princess prue,' of course." "do seeds from the same bush make the different roses?" asked davy. "yes, and from the same pod." "but are the seeds just alike?" "they are so far as anybody can see, but when they come to grow and bloom, one may be a white rose, another pink, and another red. some may be dwarfs in size, and others giants. all may have the same sun, the same water, the same air, and the same soil. it is only the tiny little difference which we cannot see that makes the great difference in the plant, by and by." davy was thinking very hard. soon he said: "and where do sweet and sour and all the pepper and mustard and horseradish tastes come from? the air and the water don't taste. i never tasted much dirt, but i don't believe any of it would bite like a red pepper." [illustration: "gardeners often take a rose of one kind and shake it gently over a rose of another kind"] the chief gardener laughed. "no, davy, i don't believe it would," he said. "and i think the sun is the only one who could answer your question. it is a chemistry which no one of this world has been able to explain. chemistry is a magic which you will understand by and by, and you will know then that the sun is the greatest of all chemists. suppose we go down into your gardens and see what he is doing there." [illustration: "sometimes the gardener takes up the pollen on a soft brush and lays it gently on the stigma of another rose"] they all went down the little steps that led to the chief gardener's enclosure, where prue and davy had their gardens, side by side with his. there just as they entered was a great mass of morning-glory vines that every morning were covered with a splendor of purple, and pink, and white, and blue, and just beyond these was a mass of dianthus pinks of every hue and shade. bachelor-buttons, petunias, and verbenas were all there, too, besides prue's sweet-pease by the fence, and her alyssum and mignonette. then came davy's things, all fresh and growing, and beyond these the chief gardener had ever so many things, from beets to beans, from parsley to parsnips, from carrots to corn. in one small corner by the strawberry-bed there grew a little bed of pepper plants, and near-by a row of tomatoes. the chief gardener stopped in the midst of all these things. "here is the sun's chemistry," he said. "we put some tiny bits of life in the ground. the same earth holds them, the same rain wets them, the same air is above them. then the sun shines, and with that earth and water and air and that tiny seed, it makes something different of its own. of one it makes a flower, of another a fruit, and of another a vegetable. of the flowers it makes many kinds and colors--of the fruits and vegetables it makes many shapes and flavors. the sweet red strawberry and the fiery red pepper grow side by side. it makes food of the roots of the beet, and the parsnip, and carrot, and of the seed of the bean, and of the corn. it fills the mustard, and the horseradish, and the pepper, with a flavor so that we may season our meats and soups, and it gives to thyme, and marjoram, and fennel, a sweet savor that is like an odor of by-gone days. into the flowers it pours the color and perfume that make them delicious and beautiful, and into the fruit and vegetables the starch and phosphates that make them pleasant to the taste and nourishing to our bodies. where do all these things come from? we do not see the colors, or smell the perfumes, or taste the sweet and the sour and the bitter in the air and water, and we could not see, or smell, or taste, them in the earth. yet they must be there, and only the sun knows just how and where to find them, and how to make the best use of them for the world's good, and comfort, and happiness. without the sun the earth would be bare and cold, and there would be no life--at least, not such life as we know. every breath we draw, every bite we eat, every step we take, every article of clothing we wear, comes to us through the sun." "papa, we _can_ see the sun's colors," said davy. "when it shines through the cut-glass berry-dish it makes all its colors on the table-cloth." "so it does, davy, i didn't remember that. a glass prism shows us all the colors in the sunlight, and these are the colors that it puts into the flowers and fruit--just how, i am afraid we shall never know, though like all great wonders, i suppose, it is really a very simple thing. when plants grow without sunlight, they grow without color, and it is the same with little boys and girls. open air, sunlight, fresh water, and good food--these are what make plants and people strong and happy and beautiful." and so june passed and half the year was gone. prue and davy were brown from working and playing out of doors, and were growing so fast that davy said it was hard for his corn to keep up with him. they took great pride in the flowers and vegetables that came to the table from their gardens and always wanted them in separate dishes from those that came from the larger garden. when any of their friends came to dine with them, it was prue's flowers that were to be worn and davy's vegetables that were first to be served. by the end of june some of the early things were gone, and had been replanted. other things had grown so big that they were beginning to crowd in their rows and beds, so that by the first of july, the little gardens that grew side by side, and could be seen like a picture through the windows where the winter gardens had been, reminding little prue of alice's garden in wonderland, had become almost a wonderland jungle. july july i a plant is divided into three principal parts "class in botany will please rise." davy and prue looked up quickly from their little corner by the peach-tree. it was a warm day, and they were resting in what they called their "house," because it was a shut-in nook behind the corn, and with tall sunflowers on the other side. just now when the chief gardener came upon them they were pulling some flowers to pieces and talking about them very earnestly. "class in botany please rise," he said again, taking a seat himself on a bench close by. "but i can't--it's too warm," said little prue, "and besides i've got my lap full of flowers." "can't the class in botany sit by the teacher?" asked davy. the teacher moved over. prue gathered her dress into an apron, and presently the children were perched one on each side of the chief gardener, who fanned himself with his straw hat, for it was a real july day. "we've been seeing how many of the parts of a plant we knew," said davy. "we know all the parts, i guess, but of some plants we can't tell which are which." "suppose you name the parts for me," said the chief gardener. "oh, let me! let me!" began prue. "i asked first!" davy looked a little disappointed, but waited. "very well, suppose you try, prue." the little maid was excited. "why--why, there's the c'roller and the calyx and the pistil and the panthers, and--" the chief gardener laughed in spite of himself, and davy looked rather shocked. "she always calls the anthers 'panthers,'" he said, sorrowfully, "and she never will say 'corolla' right." "and those are not the parts of a plant either," added the chief gardener, "but the parts of a flower. a plant is divided into three principal parts. now, davy, it's your turn. see if you can tell me what they are." "well," began davy, "the root is one." "the root is one, davy; quite right. now for the others." "the leaves are another." "the leaves, yes, the leaves are another." "and the flower makes three, doesn't it? but then there's the stalk, too. that makes four. there must be four parts." "there are a great many parts," nodded the chief gardener, "but there are only three principal parts--the root, the stem, and the leaf. to a botanist--one who studies plants and how they grow--the flower is only a branch of the stem, and its parts are leaves." "i suppose that is why rose-petals are called leaves," said little prue. "i think it is." "but--but don't you think a flower _ought_ to be a principal part?" asked davy. "well, it is in a way. it is a particular kind of a principal part, made for a special purpose. but after all, it is really a branch, for it comes from a bud, just as other branches do, and it comes just where any branch would come. many times you cannot tell whether a bud is going to make a flower or just leaves until it opens. and there are a few queer flowers in the world that can hardly be told from leaves even after they do open." ii there are exogens and endogens "now let us tell the parts of a flower. that was what we were doing when you came up," said davy. "and let me tell again," said little prue. "i know i can get them right, this time." so little prue told again, and got it almost right, though she did call anthers "panthers" again, just as the first time. "now, davy, it's your turn," said the chief gardener. davy picked up a little pink flower which he had found in the grass. it was oxalis, or sorrel, and sometimes the children nibbled the sour leaves, calling it sour-grass. of course, you must not forget that davy was older than prue, and perhaps a little more thoughtful. "this," he began, picking off the little green flower-casing, "is the calyx, and each little piece is called a sepal. this flower has five sepals in its calyx, and five petals in its corolla. these are the petals," and he pulled out the little pink flower-leaves, and laid them by the green sepals. then he held it up for the chief gardener and little prue to see. "look at the stamens," he said. "they all grow together at the bottom." "that's because your sorrel is a monadelphian," said the chief gardener. davy looked puzzled. [illustration: the pistil and stamens of the lily] "i know what a philadelphian is," said prue. davy laughed. "the words are very much alike," smiled the chief gardener. "they both mean brotherhood, and come from some old greek words. philadelphia means brotherly love, and monadelphia means brotherly union. you see those stamens are all brothers and are joined together as one. all plants with such stamens are called monadelphians." "a stamen has three parts," davy went on, "its filament, its anther, and its pollen. the filament is the stem, the anther is its cap, and the pollen is the dust which falls on the pistil and helps to make the seed." [illustration: a pistil and calyx and a complete flower] very carefully davy took away the ring of stamens, and left only the little yellowish-green center of the sorrel flower. "this is where we get the seed," he said, as gravely as an old college professor lecturing to a class. "this is the pistil, and it has three parts, too: the pod, the style, and the stigma. the stigma is the little piece at the top which catches the pollen from the anthers. the style is the stem, and the pod is the big part below which holds the seeds." he held up the little stripped flower again. "this pistil has five styles and five stigmas," he went on. "a good many flowers have more than one. it has ten stamens, too--two stamens for each style, and five petals and five sepals. you can divide it by five all the way through." "even to the seed-pod," added the chief gardener. "it has five divisions," and he cut the tiny green pulp and showed them with his magnifying-glass. "the little sorrel flower is one of the most perfect of flowers--one of the most perfect in a great class of flowers called ex-o-gens. there is one other class called end-o-gens. those words are from the greek, too. exogen means outward-growing. endogen means inward-growing. the stem of an exogen grows by layers, as most trees grow." "oh, yes," said prue, "i know. we counted the rings on that big oak that was cut down over by the lake last year. it had one ring for each year." [illustration: a group of endogens--the lily, hyacinth, and daffodil] "that's right, prue, and the stem of the endogen grows inside a shell, and is often just a soft pith, like the inside of a cornstalk. these are the two great classes of all flowering plants and trees. you can always tell the difference by their stems; nearly always from their leaves; always from their seeds, if you have a strong magnifying-glass, for the little germ of the exogen has two leaves like the morning-glory, and the germ of the endogen has but one like the lily, or corn. but the easiest way for you to tell is by the flowers. an exogen flower nearly always goes by fives, like the little sorrel bloom, sometimes by fours, but hardly ever by threes. the endogen flower is nearly always divided in threes, like the lily, which has six petals. it very seldom has four parts, and never five. so, you see, we know right away that the sorrel and the rose and buttercup are exogens, and that the lily and the hyacinth and the daffodil are endogens. of course, there are many flowers not so easy to place as these, and i am afraid i am giving you too hard a lesson for one time, especially for such a hot day." "but i'm not hot now," said davy. "there's a fine breeze, and i like to sit here and talk." so they talked on about the different kinds and classes of plants, and by and by when big prue found them, little prue had much to tell her about all the new things she had learned. and she was careful not to pronounce anything wrong, and to explain that an exogen was a plant that grew on the outside, and that an endogen was another plant that grew on the inside, and big prue said that davy must be an exogen, because he was getting so fat, and that little prue must be an endogen, because she was growing so smart. then everything had to be told over, and then it was tea-time, with a dainty table all spread under the arbor, and delicious raspberries, and very, very delicious ice-cream. iii i don't see what weeds are for, anyway and the very next day was fourth of july, with all the fire-crackers and torpedoes and sky-rockets that always come on that day. but there was something else. for when big prue and the chief gardener come to the breakfast-table, they found that davy and little prue had arranged what prue called a "susprise." the room was all red, white, and blue--not with flags or bunting, but with flowers. there were bowls of red and white and blue morning-glories on the sideboard, and in the center of the table there was a very large bowl of red, white, and blue sweet-pease, so nicely arranged that each color was separate, and the whole looked like a cake of flowers cut in three equal parts. and there were other red and white and blue flowers, too, but the sweet-pea bowl in the center was the finest of all. there was not much gardening that day, of course, for there were parades to see and music to hear, and fireworks in the evening. the chief gardener had brought home the fireworks, and when all the rockets had been fired and the roman candles, he brought out something larger than the rest, and when it was lighted, it all at once turned into a great flower-pot and sent out hundreds of the most beautiful fiery flowers, such as no garden would grow, no matter how hot it was. "that is to pay for the sus-prise you gave us this morning," said the chief gardener, when little prue was through dancing and squealing and jumping up and down with delight. "they grew in that hot sun yesterday." but little prue didn't believe it, though she did ask if some of the stars which came out of the rockets didn't stay in the sky with the other stars. she was quite certain she had never seen so many in the sky before. july was a great month in the little gardens. almost everything bloomed and bore. the pinks, the pansies, the alyssum, the sweet-williams and the morning-glories--they grew and then bloomed and crowded each other in their beds until some of them had to be moved into new places, while as for davy's things, his corn grew taller and taller, until it shaded his tomato vines, and he was afraid they would not do well for want of sun. but the sun was up so high, and was so hot in july, that perhaps they got enough anyway, for they grew so big they had to be tied up, and the tomatoes on them were so large that davy thought one was almost enough for a whole family. as for his beans--well, davy will plant fewer beans next year. they began to bear just a little at first, and then, all at once, there were beans enough on his few hills, not only for himself and prue, but for the rest of the family, and then for the neighbors, too. davy picked nearly all one hot afternoon to keep up with his bean crop, and then nearly trotted his fat legs off carrying little baskets to the different people that he knew, explaining to each that these were really from his own garden--his own beans that he had planted and tended himself. then he and prue carried some vegetables and flowers to a little hospital not far away, where there were some sick children, and some who were just getting well. and it was a happy, happy time for the little boy and girl when they took the things they had planted and cared for to the other little boys and girls who seemed so glad to have them come. but as the weather grew warmer and summer showers came the weeds got worse and worse. sometimes when davy and prue had tried very hard to get them all out and found that new ones had come almost over night, while some of the old ones they had cut down had taken root again, they were almost discouraged. "i don't see what weeds are for anyway," davy said one warm morning, almost crying, and little prue, whose face was very red and hot, flung herself down in the shady peach-tree house, too tired to talk. "now, there's that old pursley, i pull and pull and cut, and unless i carry every bit of it away, it all takes root again and grows right along as if i hadn't touched it." "yes," said the chief gardener, "it is a nuisance. i suppose its pretty sister is very much ashamed of it." "its sister! why, who is its sister?" asked davy, while little prue sat up and forgot she was tired. "miss portulaca purslane, of course, sometimes called rose-moss, because her flower is something like a wild rose and her stem and leaves a little like overgrown moss." "oh, is my sweet rose-moss just old pursley weed?" whimpered little prue, who was very proud of a little bunch of portulaca that was just in full bloom. she had chosen the pretty flower from a catalogue, and it had been one of her best growers. "why, no, prue, your rose-moss is not a weed at all, but she belongs to the purslane family, and like a good many other families it has a member who has run wild and become a disgrace to its relatives and a trouble to everybody. there is another wild purslane, but it is not a weed. it is just a little wild-wood cousin of portulaca. her name is claytonia, and she lives in pleasant places in the woods, and hides under the leaves in winter-time. most people call her spring-beauty." "oh, spring-beauty! oh, i know! just bushels of them--davy and i found over by the lake last spring! little white flowers with pink lines in them, and smell--just a little tiny smell--so--so springy and wild. oh, i just love spring-beauties! but i'm sorry my nice rose-moss is pursley. is it, papa? is it really a sister to that ugly weed?" "suppose you bring a branch of each over to the bench here--one with flowers on it." prue brought a sprig of her precious rose-moss, and davy a large piece of the pursley from the pile he had just cut down. the chief gardener took them and put them together. "you see, they are a good deal alike," he said, "though the leaves are different--miss portulaca's being the finer." then he took one of the tiny pursley flowers and put it under the magnifying-glass, and let the children look. yes, it was almost exactly like the beautiful flower of the rose-moss, only smaller. each flower had two green sepals and five colored petals, also five stamens, so they knew it was an exogen, though it would have been harder to tell this from the thick, pulpy leaves and stem. the little seed-pod of each had a tiny cap which lifted off when the seeds were ripe, leaving a perfect cup, heaping full. "you see, children," said the chief gardener, "weeds do not care to be either useful or ornamental. so they become rank and common, and lose their beautiful flowers. but somehow they never have any less seed. they want to grow just as thickly as they can, and however small their flowers are, the seed-pods are always full to the brim." "well," said prue, "i'm sure there can't be any of my flowers relation to chickweed. i never can get that out of my beds." the chief gardener thought a minute. "why, yes, prue," he said, "that's cousin stella; i suppose she came to see the beautiful dian and to make her all the trouble she can." "oh, papa! what do you mean by stella and dian?" "well, stellaria is chickweed, and she's a cousin to dianthus, your lovely pinks. i suppose you might call them stella and dian, for short. they are not very nearly related, but they do belong to the same family, and perhaps they were once more alike. i don't suppose beautiful dian would own stella, but stella (or perhaps her weed friends call her chick), is a great nuisance and makes dian and _her_ friends all the trouble she can." "papa," said davy, who had been silent all this time, "are there really any plant families that don't have wild members who behave badly and become just weeds?" "i don't remember any real weeds in the lily family, davy, though almost any plant will become a weed if allowed to run wild and live in fence corners, like a tramp. they become prodigals then, like the man's son in the bible. and sometimes they come back to the garden, as the prodigal son did, to become well-behaved and useful flowers again. of course, there are many others that have always lived wild in the woods and fields, and are not called weeds, because they do not spread and destroy other plants. these are our wild flowers, and the world would be poor, indeed, without them. sometimes we bring them into the garden, and make them grow larger and call them by a new name. and sometimes, i am sorry to say, a sweet wild flower will suddenly spread and overrun the fields and become almost a weed. i am afraid our beautiful daisies are becoming a weed to a good many farmers. those fields that are like banks of snow, and so beautiful to us, must worry the man who owns them and cannot get rid of the millions of 'rare marguerites!'" little prue sighed. "oh, dear," she said, "it's just too bad that there isn't some flower, or somebody, or something that can be just every bit good, all the time, to everybody." the chief gardener smiled. "we can only do our very best," he said. august august i there are just two kinds of leaves a good many things were ripe in august, and some of the things were through blooming. prue did not plant a great deal. it was too hot to dig long in the sun, and then there did not seem to be much in the way of flowers that could be planted so late. davy planted a few turnips and some late beans and salad, because there was time for these, but even davy found it pleasanter to sit in the shade, where there was a breeze, and pull plants to pieces and talk about exogens and endogens and the different parts of things, than to hoe and dig and rake on an august day. the chief gardener heard quite loud voices under the peach-trees, one warm afternoon. prue and davy were not really quarreling, but they seemed to be a good deal in earnest about something. the chief gardener went over there. "what is all the excitement?" he asked. davy held up and waved a large stem of very coarse grass. "it's an endogen," he said, very decidedly, "isn't it, papa?" "it isn't at all, is it, papa?" eagerly asked little prue. the chief gardener took the plumey stem and sat down. "why do you think it is an endogen, davy?" he asked. "because it's a grass, and belongs to the grass family. and corn belongs to the grass family, too, and corn is an endogen, for it has a big pith instead of rings. so if corn is an endogen, grass is, too." the chief gardener smiled. "well, that's pretty good, davy, and is true enough, but it isn't just the best way to reason. now, prue, why did you think it was an exogen?" "because the stem is hollow, and makes a ring when you cut off a little slice of it, and because the bloom part is in five pieces." "sharp eyes," nodded the chief gardener, "but davy is right. there is not always a pith in the endogens. pipe-stems and fish-poles are hollow, but the cane we make them of is an endogen, too. and as for the bloom part of this grass, it is a sort of a tassel, like that of the corn. the real blooms are very tiny--too small for us to examine. and then, perhaps, some insect or bird has nipped some of it away. i think i must tell you a little more about leaves, so davy won't have to know that grass is an endogen because corn is, and so you won't be mistaken. suppose, davy, you try to tell me how many kinds of leaves there are." davy looked quite helpless. "it would take a hundred years," he said. "why, no," said prue. "there are just two kinds. exogens and endogens." davy laughed, and the chief gardener laughed with him. "but you are right, prue, in one way," he said. "there are just two kinds of leaves--simple and compound. a simple leaf is a leaf of just one blade, like a grass leaf, or the leaf of a morning-glory. a compound leaf is a leaf made up of several blades, like a bean leaf, which you know is divided into three parts. of course, there are hundreds of shapes and thousands of species of leaves, but there are just two great kinds, simple and compound. suppose, davy, you look about and bring me three compound leaves, and you, prue, try to find three simple leaves, and let's see what they are." the children jumped up quickly, and wandered out into the sunny garden, looking as they went. the chief gardener heard them chatting, as they looked this way and that. presently they returned with what they had found. little prue climbed up in his lap. "look at mine first!" she said, holding them out, and fanning herself with her little hat. davy sat down by them, and looked his collection over to be sure they were right. "well, prue, let's see what you have," began the chief gardener. "one peach leaf--that's simple enough. then here's a lily leaf--that's simple, too. but what's this? it looks as if it came from a virginia creeper. but where's the rest of it? that's only part of a leaf." "i told prue that," said davy, "and i brought a whole one for one of my compound leaves." davy held up what he had brought. the chief gardener took the stem of the virginia creeper. branching from it were five little stems with a small leaf on each. prue had taken one of these to be a complete leaf, when it was really only a part of one compound leaf divided into five parts. "you see, prue, there is only one stem that joins the main stalk," explained the chief gardener. "whatever branches out from that stem is a part of that leaf. what else have you brought, davy?" davy held up a blackberry leaf, and the leaf of a tomato. "those are both right," said the chief gardener. "the blackberry has three parts like the bean, and the tomato has a good many parts. there are some leaves that are compounded as many as four times--each little stem being compounded over and over until there are hundreds of little parts, and yet all are connected with the main leaf-stem which joins the stalk or branch, making really only one leaf. of course, it is not always easy to tell about leaves, any more than about flowers. sometimes shapes are so peculiar that it is almost impossible to tell just what they are. pine-needles are leaves, but it is hard to tell whether they are simple or compound, and it would be hard to tell whether the pine was an exogen or an endogen if we had only the needles to go by." "but you haven't told us how to tell that by the leaves at all," said davy. "that is what we started to find out." [illustration: some simple leaves] "that's so, davy. it's hard to keep to the subject in botany. there are so many things, and all so interesting." the chief gardener took up the lily leaf and that of the blackberry, and held them up to the light. "do you see the difference?" he asked. "why, yes," said prue, "the blackberry is all criss-crossy, and the lily leaf runs straight and smooth." "those are the veins," said davy; "i heard mamma say so." [illustration: pine-needles are leaves] "yes, they are the veins," nodded the chief gardener, "and when they form a network, or run criss-crossy, as prue says, it means that the plant is an exogen. when they run side by side smoothly, as they do in corn and grass, it means that the plant is an endogen. there are a few of both kinds which do not quite follow this rule, like the pine-tree, which is an exogen, but has its little straight-grained needles, or like smilax, which has netted leaves, but is an endogen." ii sometimes i think plants can see and hear it was about a week after this that davy and prue came to the chief gardener with their hands filled with leaves. "we want you to tell us about them," they said. "there is a lot of kinds and shapes, and some we can't tell whether they are simple or compound, or anything." the chief gardener looked over their collection. "well," he said, "i am afraid you are getting ahead too fast. it would take a real sure-enough botanist to tell all about these leaves." davy picked up a daisy leaf. "is that simple or compound?" he asked. "it's mostly ribs," laughed the chief gardener. "there really isn't much leaf about a daisy leaf, but what there is of it is simple, only it is so cut and sprangly that it might almost be called a compound leaf." they looked at many others in the collection, and the chief gardener explained as far as he could. "you will learn all the names of the different shapes some day," he said, "but it is too much for little folks. i suppose, though, you might remember the parts of a leaf. they are the blade, the stem, and the stipules." "this is the blade, and this is the stem," said davy, "but what are stipules?" the chief gardener picked up a red clover leaf, and pointed to a little thin pale-green husk where the stem joined the main stalk. "those are stipules," he said. "in the clover they grow together, as one. the stipules are a part of the outside of the leaf-bud. when the bud opens, and the leaf goes out into the world, the stipules stay behind. sometimes they are like little leaves, and take up air for the plant, just as the leaves do. sometimes they almost take the place of leaves, and are quite large. sometimes they are very tiny, and some plants have no stipules at all." [illustration: "there is a lot of kinds and shapes"] "but leaves have veins, too," said davy. "those are parts of the blade. the blade has ribs--they make a framework which holds it together; also veins--the fine threads which help to carry the sap. you see, plants are a good deal like ourselves, and live much in the same way. some leaves have only one strong rib through the center--a sort of a backbone. some have as many as six or seven." they talked about these things, and looked at the different leaves and stems. then they spoke of the stalks of different plants, and the chief gardener explained how the tender stalk of the lowliest plant, that of the tall twining vine, and the trunk of the giant oak, were all one one and the same, only different in kind. each came at some time from a tiny seed. each put forth buds and leaves and branches. each was made to withstand the storm--the oak by its strength, the vine by its fast hold on the wall or lattice, the tender plant through its lowliness. "oh," said davy suddenly, "that makes me think of something. our virginia creeper on the front lattice has three ways to climb." "what are they, davy?" "why, it twists, for one way." "twines, you mean." "yes, twines, and then it has little curlers, like a grape-vine." "tendrils, they are called, davy." "and little clingers, like an ivy." "feet, you should say. yes, i have noticed that. a lattice is not very well suited to a virginia creeper, and ours has to try every way known to vines, to hold on. i have never known all three ways on one vine before. but vines are very curious things. sometimes i think they can see and hear. i know they can feel, for a honeysuckle shoot will grow perfectly straight until it touches something that can be climbed. then it will begin to twist so fast you can almost see it." "but why do you think they can see and hear?" asked little prue. "i don't know that i do really think so, but i have tried every way i can think of to keep those morning-glories of yours from running up my little pear-tree. i have pushed them away, and tied them away, and i have even cut some of them away. but if i turn my back for a day, or even a half a day, there is one of them starting up the stalk, or, at least, reaching out for it as hard as ever it can." little prue laughed, and ran over to see. yes, there it was--a fuzzy green shoot half-way up the little pear-tree, and three more reaching out in the same direction. "a vine will grow in the direction of a tree or shrub, if it is half way across the garden from it. whether it hears or sees, or, perhaps, smells it, i do not know. some vines will turn out of their way for a drink." "for a drink! oh, papa!" "yes, certain melon vines. in dry weather they will turn to find a pan of water set several feet away. i suppose they can sense the moisture from it." the children talked the rest of the afternoon about these curious things. they found where a scarlet runner had traveled several feet through the grass to reach a peach-tree, and had climbed far up into its branches. then davy happened to remember the story about the vines which the chief gardener had told them during the winter, and told it all over to little prue--how the honeysuckle had laughed at the scarlet runner and the morning-glory, and had been punished by being made to twine to the left, away from the sun, instead of to the right, toward it, like the morning-glory and the bean. so the happy summer day passed, and in the cool of the evening big prue came out to watch the sun go down, and in the pleasant arbor they all had tea together. iii there are plants which do not bloom but during the last two weeks of august the chief gardener and big prue and little prue and davy all went to the seashore, which was not far away. they lived in a pretty cottage near the beach, and there were meadows behind that stretched away to the blue hills. davy and prue loved the sea, with all its curious shells and star-fishes and other wonderful creatures. they loved the white sand, where they found these things, and where the great waves billowed and broke over them when they bathed on hot afternoons. they loved the meadows, too, for here there were birds building in the grass, and flowers unlike any in their gardens, and little streams of clear water that went singing to the sea. it was when they came from the meadow one afternoon, that they hurried to the chief gardener with the little basket which they always carried. "we have found some things," said davy, "and want you to look at them." the chief gardener took the basket. on top were some mushrooms--two kinds. one had whity-brown tops, and was pink or brown or almost black underneath, while the other had yellow tops with white spots on them, and was very pale underneath. the chief gardener looked sharply at the children when he saw these yellow mushrooms. "go and wash your hands, quickly," he said, "and i hope neither of you have put your hands to your mouth since you touched these." "i haven't," said davy, "and i picked the yellow ones." "they are deadly poison," said the chief gardener, "they are called the amanita, and even to touch the tongue with your fingers after handling them might make you very ill. the others are meadow mushrooms and harmless. but even they could not be eaten after being in the basket with the amanitas." the children ran to wash their hands, and were presently back to ask questions. meantime the chief gardener had found a lot of beautiful moss and ferns in the bottom of the basket, and some lichens, which the children had gathered from a rocky cliff not far away. "papa, _aren't_ mushrooms toad-stools, and _don't_ they build them to sit on, in pleasant weather, and to get under, when it rains?" this was little prue, and she was quite excited. "i think they are some kind of plants," said davy, "but i don't see where the flowers are, or how they make seeds." "how about the ferns?" asked the chief gardener. "did you find any flowers on the ferns?" "no, but we found seeds." davy turned one of the fern leaves over, and, sure enough, there were a lot of little brown seeds under the ends of some of the leaflets. then the chief gardener turned over one of the meadow mushrooms, and divided the little layers beneath with the tip of his pencil. "that is where the mushroom keeps its seeds, too," he said. "we do not call them seeds, though, but spores. fern seeds are called spores, also." "but toads do sit under mushrooms, don't they?" insisted little prue. "why, yes, i suppose a great many toads have done that, but they are really plants, as davy says." davy had become thoughtful. "are they exogens?" he asked, "or endogens? i should think the mushrooms might be endogens from their stems, and the fern exogens from their leaves." "well, davy, that is very well said, but they are really neither one. they belong to a great class of their own. exogens and endogens are only the two kinds of flowering plants. these mushrooms and ferns and mosses and lichens all belong to the flowerless plants, and are called crip-tog-a-mous--a very long word, which i do not expect you to remember. the divisions of flowerless plants are too hard a study for little folks, but the plants are all very interesting, and we can gather them, and see how they grow. in fact, i think we will have to call our meadow and our beach your august garden." "but there isn't anything on the beach," said prue. "how about all that seaweed you were gathering yesterday?" "but does that really grow like our plants on the shore?" asked davy. "very much the same, and it belongs to the flowerless class, too, along with the mosses and lichens and ferns and mushrooms. it has spores instead of seeds, and is really a sort of a moss of the sea." "oh, call us not weeds, we are flowers of the sea, for lovely and bright and fresh-tinted are we," sang little prue, with a memory of her kindergarten. "yes, they are flowers of the sea, though they do not bloom," said the chief gardener, "and are very beautiful in color and form. i will give you some white cards and you can gather specimens to dry. you spread out the little branches with a tooth-pick, and the cards make pretty little books afterwards." "but do seaweeds and mosses and lichens and ferns and mushrooms all belong to one family?" asked davy. "oh, by no means. not even all to the same division of flowerless plants. but it is too hard a study for a little boy, and it is enough to learn now that they do all belong to the big flowerless or crip-tog-a-mous class." "papa, is it true that if you put fern seeds in your shoes, nobody can see you?" asked little prue. "why, i don't very well see how '_nobody_' could see you, but i think somebody might." "it says in my fairy book that the princess put fern seed in her shoe, and then there wasn't any one who could see her. i wish it was like that. i'm going to try it," and the little girl pulled off some of the brown spores and tucked them in her dusty ties. "can you see me? can you see me, now?" she asked, dancing about. "why, no," said the chief gardener, who pretended to be looking for her in another direction. "can you, davy? can you see me?" "not very well, when _you_ go so fast," laughed davy. "stand still, and let me try." just then big prue came out on the porch, and little prue danced up to her. "can _you_ see me? can you _see_ me, mamma? you mustn't, you know, because i've got fern seed in my shoe." big prue shut her eyes, and put out her arms. "no, i can't see you," she said, "but you feel like the same little girl," and she kissed the little round tanned face on her shoulder. iv the princess by the sea "i heard you talking about flowerless plants," big prue went on, "as i sat there by the window. i wonder if you would like to hear a little story of how they came to be without flowers." "please, yes!" and little prue forgot her fern seed and hugged closer. "well, once upon a time there was a princess with a beautiful garden--" "is this the same princess that turned into a red rose?" "oh, no, this is another princess. there have been a great many princesses with gardens. this princess lived by the sea, where there was a meadow, and a cliff not far away, much like it is here. she loved her flowers more than anything in the world, and her garden was so beautiful that even the fairies loved it better than their own gardens of fairyland and came at midnight to dance in the moonlight, after the princess was asleep. "and the princess knew that they danced there, for once a gentle fairy had come to her and told her of it, and warned her never to try to see them, for whoever sees the fairies dance by the midnight moon may meet with some dreadful misfortune, which even the fairies themselves cannot help. "but when the princess heard about the fairy dance, she wanted to see it very much. instead of trying to forget it and going to bed before it began, she thought of it all the time, and the more she thought, the more she made up her mind to see it, no matter what might happen afterwards. "so one night, just before twelve o'clock, she crept into a large cluster of blooming ferns--" "but ferns do not bloom--" "they did then, and their sweet odor filled the still night air; the moon was white and round in the sky, and the level sea had a path of glory that led close to where she lay. "the princess thought how beautiful was all the world, and especially her garden, and she grew sad to think that perhaps some time she would not be there to see it all. and then all at once she forgot everything else, for there in the moonlight were the fairies, dancing in a great glittering ring. "the princess looked, hardly daring to breathe. then it seemed to her that she could not see so well. she rubbed her eyes, but the world about her only grew dimmer still. she thought the moon had gone under a cloud, but it was sailing high in the sky. and then everything faded out, the world became dark and the princess gave a great cry of grief, for she knew that her punishment had come, and she was _blind_! "the fairies heard the cry, too, and vanished, but the gentle little fairy who was her friend came and guided her in sorrow to her palace, and said, 'i can grant you one wish, but it must not be to see again--that i cannot grant.' "'then,' said the princess, 'if i cannot see my flowers, i wish that they may never bloom again until some one, who cares more for them than i, shall wish to see them.' "and the wish came true. never a flower in the garden of the princess bloomed from that day. their buds dropped, their leaves shrank, and many of them hid away where they would not be seen by passers-by. some slipped away into the water and became seaweeds. some hid in the deep woods, and crept into dark places, and became ferns. others, growing smaller each year, became moss. some hid among the rocks of the cliff and became lichens. and some, who wanted to be useful if they could not bloom, scattered themselves over the woods and fields and became mushrooms. but some of these were of bitter or sharp nature, and these we cannot eat. and some grew wicked and vicious, and these are poison. one of them, the amanita, which had bloomed as a great golden white-spotted flower in the garden of the princess, became the most vicious of all. it kept much of its color, which now makes people shun it because it is a sign of deadly poison." "and will the flowers that grew in the garden of the princess never bloom again?" "never, unless some one who cares more for them than she did shall wish to see them." "but how can i care so much unless i can see them?" asked little prue. "perhaps that is why they will never bloom again," said davy. september september i a flower really has clothes the little gardens were in quite a bad way when davy and prue came back from the seashore. everything had done well, even to the weeds, and that was just the trouble. it took two whole days, working when the sun was not so very hot, to get the beds in shape, and the chief gardener had to work, too, very hard. but by and by everything was clean and beautiful again, and the seat under the peach-tree was a finer place than ever, because there were more things in bloom, and everything had become more beautiful. one day davy came to the seat, where little prue and the chief gardener were resting, with a double carnation in his hand. "i wish you would look at this," he said. "i can't tell petals from stamens." the chief gardener took the flower, and slowly pulled it to pieces. "well, no," he said; "it isn't the easiest thing to do, though, of course, those anther-looking things must belong to stamens." "but the filaments are like petals," objected davy. "yes, and here are others like them, though they have no anthers. those are supposed to be stamens, too, or, at least, they were stamens, once." davy looked puzzled. "you remember i told you once, davy, that a flower was only one form of a leaf--a leaf intended to make the plant beautiful, and to make it bear seed. well, in some plants, especially cultivated ones, the flower-leaves seem to get rather mixed in their parts." the chief gardener picked a scarlet canna that grew near. "here is a flower which has three little petals and four large flower-leaves which you would think were petals, wouldn't you? but the stamens and petals and sepals are so mixed that even botanists can hardly decide which is which. in a water-lily, too, the petals gradually become stamens, so, perhaps, the leaf came first, ages and ages ago, and little by little it has changed, first to sepals, then petals, then to stamens and pistils, so that it could make seeds and scatter them to the wind. gardeners make double flowers out of single ones by a process of turning stamens and even pistils into petals. the double flower is sometimes very beautiful, but it is not the most perfect flower. the wild rose is more perfect than the finest double american beauty. perhaps double flowers came before single ones, a long time ago, when the leaves were turning to blossoms, so that the gardeners who make the wonderful double blooms now are really going backward instead of forward. but that is all too hard. i'm afraid--especially for a little girl who likes very double carnations." "i know everything you're talking about, just as well as davy does," said the little girl, sitting up quite straight. "and i like single flowers, 'specially lilies, and wild roses; but i think double flowers are nice, too, because they seem dressed up, like folks--queens and princesses, all with nice dresses--velvet and chiffon and lacey stuff." "why, that is just what they are, prue. they are dressed up, and, of course, the more anything, or anybody, is dressed up the less they are really like themselves. the petals and sepals of a flower are really fine clothes, you know, just as you sometimes play they are, when you make hollyhock dolls, and it wears them for just about the same reason that we wear ours. it might grow and be useful without them, but it would not be very attractive, and some of its friends and servants might pass by without seeing it." "servants! but flowers don't really have servants. that must be just a story." "no--at least, it is all very true. flowers are like people in very many ways. they really have servants and friends, and some of them live off other flowers and plants, and some of them eat and sleep, very much as we do. i will tell you something about that another time." ii the flower has many servants it was about a week after this that little prue was picking some sweet-pease for the table when davy came along with the chief gardener. "the servants are busy this morning," said the chief gardener. "do you mean me?" asked little prue. "i am trying to pick some flowers, but there are so many bees around that i'm afraid." "those are the servants i mean. i do not think they will hurt you if you are careful. they are only collecting their wages, and working at the same time." davy and prue looked close. "what do you mean by their working?" asked davy. "do you mean for the flower, or for themselves?" "for both. watch this bee. you see, he pushes open the flower for honey, but to get it he has to cover his legs with the pollen from the anthers, which are placed down in this little lower part called a keel, just where his legs and body will be covered. then he comes out and goes to another flower and carries this pollen, and really rubs it on the stigma there as he crawls in and out, and takes more pollen, and so goes on from one to another--a real servant, doing a real duty and getting his pay as he goes." "but he doesn't have to do it. the pollen would fall on the stigma anyway, wouldn't it?" "it might with the sweet-pea, but even if it did, the pollen from the same flower is not as good as the pollen from another flower from a different plant, and the seed would be poor and the plants would grow weaker every year. there are many insects that act as servants to the flowers, and the wind is one of the servants, too. it shakes the corn-tassel so that the pollen falls on the silk and makes the ear, and it carries the pollen of one stalk to the silk of another--sometimes from one field to another." "but, of course, the bee doesn't know that he does it," said prue, who was still very intently watching the little servants of the sweet-pease. "i am not so certain of that," the chief gardener said musingly. "the flower must know, for it dresses in bright colors so that the bee may see it, and offers honey as pay for his work. and if the flower knows, why shouldn't the bee?" "but don't you think it might all just happen so?" asked davy. "i don't think anything in nature just 'happens so,' davy, and i am sure that the bee's work for the flower doesn't, for there are too many flowers that would have no seed and would die out if it were not for the bees that carry the pollen, and most of these flowers have grown just to fit in every way the especial little bee, or big bee, or insect, that comes to work for them. there are some flowers, like the sweet-pea, that the bee cannot get into without getting pollen on his legs, and there are others that drop it upon his back. some flowers have stamens that wither before the pistil is ready for the pollen. in such flowers the little servants go from one to the other--from a new flower to an old one--carrying the pollen which would not be of any use in the flower where it grew." "and is that really all that the flower's pretty color and sweet smell and delicious honey are for?" asked little prue, "just to get bees to work for it?" "no, prue, i don't think so. i think all the world of nature is harmony, like sweet music, and the flowers with their beauty and sweetness are part of it, but i think that just as we may attract friends and good servants by kindness and offering something in return, so the flowers attract the bees and butterflies, and even a little girl and boy to keep the weeds away. the more a flower depends on an insect to carry its pollen, the gayer or sweeter that flower always is. the orchids, which are almost the finest flowers in the world, seem to be made especially for the insects, and they could not do without them, any more than the insects could do without the flowers." "and is that what makes some flowers such funny shapes, too?" "i think it is. the foxglove, and the horse mint, and many others, have curious shapes and forms, just to fit their little helpers, and the milkweed has a funny little saddle-bag which it hangs to the bee's feet, so that he can carry it to another plant. there is another kind of a milkweed which is very cruel, for it attracts small insects by its odor, and when they come they are caught by a sticky substance and held until the weed sucks them down and really eats them, much as we eat our food. so, you see, plants are a good deal like people, just as i told you the other day." "you said they could sleep, too." "yes, your rose-moss closes up every night, shuts its eyes just as you do, and rests. many flowers close at night, and some even droop their heads quite low, like the bird, which sleeps with its head beneath its wing." iii a flower may really reason how beautiful was the september garden! the wild sunflowers were all in bloom like a wall of gold. a bunch of black-eyed susans at the corner of the house seemed trying to imitate its large cousins, and was just as bright and yellow, too, in a small way. the little susans had not been planted, but had strayed in out of the field somewhere, perhaps longing to be with people. a row of bright red cockscombs made a crimson line of plumes down one side of a garden-path, and just beyond them davy's third planting of beans was in full bearing. prue's pinks and sweet-pease bloomed on and on, and her alyssums and the other sweets became sweeter every day. "do you think all these things like to be together?" prue asked, one afternoon, as they sat looking at them from the shade of the peach-tree. "i think those that grow well do," said davy. "they seem to, anyway." "and they do, davy," said the chief gardener. "a plant that doesn't like a place will not grow in it, and in the woods and fields we only find those plants together which like that particular spot. down below the hillside yonder you will find golden-rod and several kinds of tall blue and white daisies and grasses that all belong there, and seem very happy together. they would not grow well in the wet woods, and would soon die out, but there are other plants that grow and tangle and are happiest where the ground is damp and the shade overhead. so, you see, there we have another way that plants are like people--they have their proper company, and, perhaps, their societies and friendships. i am sure they have their friendships, for there are certain little plants, and big ones, too, that you will nearly always find together. violets and spring-beauties and adder-tongues must love each other, i am sure, for you seldom see one without the others, and there are certain vines, like the virginia creeper and the poison-ivy, that are nearly always together, though why the virginia creeper should care for the poison-ivy i don't see. perhaps it doesn't seem poison to the creeper, but only to us." "it seemed poison enough to me," said davy, "when i got a dose of it last year. it nearly itched me to death." [illustration: "beware of the vine with the three-part leaf"] "yes, it is terrible stuff, and little folks, and big ones, too, have to be very careful, for it looks very much like its friend, the creeper, only that its compound leaf is divided into three parts instead of five. you can always tell by that, and you must always _beware of the vine with the three-part leaf_." "do poison-ivy and virginia creeper belong to the same family?" asked davy. "no, though they look so much alike. the poison-ivy belongs to the sumach family, while the creeper belongs to the grape family. the families are quite close together, but are separate. often members of different families are better friends than members of the same family, and that is still another way that plants are like people." "do you suppose the poison-ivy knows that it is poison?" asked prue, who liked to believe that plants were really _just_ like people. "perhaps it does. we can never be quite sure how much a plant knows. i told you once how i believed they could feel and hear, and even see. i am almost sure that the dandelion can reason." davy looked interested, and the chief gardener went on. "you will remember, davy, how when the dandelions first bloomed they had quite tall stems. then we mowed the lawn, and when they tried to bloom again the stems were shorter. we mowed again, and the stems grew still shorter, and so they became shorter and shorter each time, until they bloomed flat against the ground, so low that we could not mow them. they were bound to bloom, and they did bloom, and then all at once almost in a day they shot up long pale stems with balls of white-winged seeds that were ready when we mowed again to float away at a touch or a puff, to be ready to sprout and grow another year. the dandelion is bound to spread its seed. by and by it learns that the lawn-mower cannot cut below a certain level. so it blooms below the lawn-mower's cutting-wheel, and then when it is ready to seed, it pops up as high as ever it can, and stands waiting for the mower to come around and help scatter its seed. perhaps it doesn't really reason, but it does something exactly like it, and there are people in the world who would be happier if they could do the same thing." [illustration: the dandelion is bound to spread its seed] and just then big prue came out into the garden, and they all sat on the bench under the peach-tree, and watched the sun going down, away off over the purple hills. and they thought how the summer was nearly over, and how soon the glory of the little garden would be fading, and how the snow would be sifting down among the withered leaves. [illustration: "so it blooms below the lawn-mower's cutting-wheel"] iv some flowers live off other flowers and plants so summer with its song and its blossom came to an end. autumn clad in gold and purple came across the land, and the gentle haze of indian summer lay upon the fields. from the banks of golden-rod below the hill, prue and davy filled jars and vases, and one day they brought in great bunches all linked and bound together with something like a tangle of golden thread. the chief gardener was not at home that day, so they brought their discovery to big prue to explain. "why," she said, "that is dodder, or love-vine. it is what is called a parasite, for it has no root in the ground, but lives from the plant it grows on." then she showed them where the small, tough little rootlets were really embedded in the stalk of the golden-rod from which it drew its strength and life. "oh," said prue, "that is what papa meant when he told us once that some flowers lived off other flowers and plants, just as some people live off other people." big prue nodded. "there are a good many such plants," she said. "the mistletoe we get for christmas grows on several sorts of trees. its seed lodges under the bark and sprouts there, just as it would in the ground. then the wood grows up around the root, and the mistletoe becomes almost a part of the tree. then there are many kinds of mosses, and the indian pipe--that white, waxy flower which you found in the woods not long ago, and thought you had found a flowering mushroom. it is a sort of a relation of the mushroom, for it springs from damp, decaying leaves, and has no real root, but it is more of a parasite, for it feeds mainly on roots of living trees and plants. this dodder blooms and drops its seeds to the ground, where they sprout, but as soon as it finds a weed to cling to, the root dies and it lives only on the weed." "why do they call it love-vine?" asked little prue. her mother took the long golden tendril and twined it about her slender white finger. then she told them the story of v the prince and the thread of gold "there was once a prince," she began, "who lived in a far country between blue seas. and all the land the prince owned, and a great palace, but he was not happy, because there was a little fisher girl more beautiful than the sunrise, who would not come and dwell in his palace and be his princess. "when this fisher girl saw the prince coming toward her, she would dance away laughing, like a ripple of sunlight on the water, and there were some who said she was not a real child, but a sea-fairy, for she had been found as a babe by the fisher's wife, cast up on the sand, after a great storm. "but the prince did not care whether she was a human being or not. he thought only of her, as each day she grew taller and always more beautiful. he went every morning to the fisher's hut to beg that they would give her to him, and this they would have been glad to do had dodora been willing, but always she laughed and danced away when they spoke of it, and sometimes they did not see her again until evening. "but one morning, when she was eighteen years old, and they spoke to her, she said, laughing: "'tell the prince to tie a knot in the thread of love. if he will tie a knot in the thread of love it will hold me fast,' and again she danced away, while her laugh came as the tinkle of the tide among the pebbles on a still evening. "so when the prince came that day they told him, and he went away sadly, for he thought she was only playing with him for her amusement. "but that night, as he walked alone in the moonlight by the shore, he suddenly saw on the sand in front of him a radiant fairy, spinning on a silver spinning-wheel a wonderful thread of gold. without daring to breathe he stood and looked at her, and then he saw that it was from the rays of moonlight that she was spinning the thread. all at once she rose and came to where he was standing. "'here is the thread of love,' she said to him, and then she showed him how to tie the true lover's knot in it. 'with this you may win our dodora,' the fairy added, and then suddenly like a breath of perfume she was gone, leaving the thread of gold in the prince's hands. "and all that night the prince tied and retied the true lover's knot, as the fairy had showed him, and next morning he hurried with it to the fisherman's cottage where dodora lived. and when dodora saw him coming, she did not dance away as she had always done before, but went forward to meet him, and took his hand. then suddenly she snatched the golden thread from him and ran, with the prince after her. she ran fast, but he was about to overtake her, when dodora dropped the knot into the weeds, and then all at once she stopped, for the wonderful thread had suddenly become a great tangle of gold that held dodora fast, and she could not get away. so the prince overtook her, and led her to his palace, where they lived happily for a long time. and the thread of love grew as a wonderful vine that had no root in the earth, but twined about the weeds and spread over the country in many places. some called it dodora, after the princess, and this was changed at last to 'dodder' by those who did not know. others called it golden thread, and still others called it love-vine, and tied true lover's knots in it which they threw over their shoulders on moonlight nights. if these knots grew they won their sweethearts. they did not always grow, but about the palace of the prince the vine flourished in a golden mass, and the prince, never forgetting the wonderful night when it had been spun for him out of moonbeams, let it grow through all the world, to become the golden thread of love." october october i seeds are made to be planted october brought seedtime in the little garden. many seeds had ripened during the summer, and prue had already gathered some of the tiny black flakes from the opened pods of her precious pinks, and davy had saved some seed pease. but october was the real harvest-time. the children took a lot of white envelopes, and upon them davy printed the names of all the seeds they expected to gather. into these envelopes they put carefully the different little black and brown and white seeds after they had picked and blown the husks all away, so, as davy said, they would look just like seeds bought at the store. and some of the seeds were big flat beans, or little long round beans; and some, like the sweet-pease, were very round, like shot; and some, like the cockscomb seeds, were tiny and shiny and black and so slippery that prue lost more than she got in her envelope, though she got enough, for there is _such a lot of seed_ on a cockscomb. some seeds were in funny little pods that snapped when you touched them, and sent the little black or brown shot flying in every direction, like a charge out of a bomb, and these had to be gathered very carefully. then there were seeds with little wings, made to help them to fly, and there were seeds with little claws made to catch and hold on, so they would be carried and planted in many places. but these were mostly weed seeds, and were only gathered because they clung to the children's clothes, and stuck so fast that it was hard to pick them off. [illustration: "they cling to everything that passes"] "you see," said the chief gardener, who was watching them, "everything has a way of taking care of itself. just as i told you about the dandelion, the plants have something which is very much like reason, or instinct, to guide them. these zinnia seeds do not have the little prongs, because the zinnia does not need them. it is a garden flower, and the seed will be taken care of. but those brown two-pronged little things you are picking off your coat-sleeve came from its very near relation, the spanish needle, which is a weed, and must look out for its own planting. those wild sunflowers turn top-side down, and the little yellow birds that peck and chirp about them all day are scattering the seed so thickly that next spring the garden will be covered with the young plants. the big tame sunflower doesn't take care of itself nearly so well. of course, you remember how the dandelion seeds go drifting on the wind, while the thistle-down that goes floating by is carrying seed to some farmer's field, or fence corner. then there are the maple seeds, which have two wings, or keys, as they are called, and there are many of these key seeds that are tossed here and there when the wind blows. the wind and the birds are the servants that sow the wild seeds, just as the bees and butterflies helped to make them." "but there are some thistles," said little prue, "that are not blown by the wind. they have stickery balls, and i make baskets out of them." "those are burs, and they are carried by sheep and cows, and by people. they cling to everything that passes. i have seen a horse's mane so full of them that it had to be cut off. the burdock is a very bad weed, and there ought to be a story about it, but i suppose if there was one, it must have been so unpleasant that it has been forgotten. there are many other weeds almost as bad. there are seeds with all kinds of hooks and claws to grab and stick, and there are many that are carried in the dirt which clings to the feet of animals and men and even birds." "i should think some weeds would make their seeds look like flower seeds, to fool people." "well, that is just about what they do. there are cockle seeds in the wheat, and so nearly the same size that the threshing-machine will not take them out, and there are many little plants in the grass that have seeds so nearly like those of the grass itself that we are obliged to sow them with the grass seed. so, you see, men, too, become servants of the wise, persevering weeds. certain beans and grains have been carried by water, and have been known to be brought across stretches of the sea to be scattered and planted upon a new shore." "how many kinds of seeds are there?" asked davy. "about as many as plants, davy." "i don't mean that. i mean how many principal kinds--like flowers, you know--they are exogens and endogens." "oh, i see. you mean classes. well, i suppose we might say two, fleshy and dry. then we might divide the dry into seeds and nuts, and the fleshy into fruits and vegetables." davy and prue were both thinking. "i suppose my beans are dry," davy said at last. "yes, of course." "but we ate them green, and they were not dry then." "that was before they were ripe. there are a number of things that are fleshy when eaten green, that become pods or hulls when the fruit is really ready to gather. of course, there are fruits and nuts and vegetables that, like flowers, are hard to put in any class. take the almond--you would call that a nut, of course." "i just love almonds," said little prue. "and aren't they nuts?" asked davy. "yes, the almond is a nut, but you would hardly call the peach a nut; yet they grow exactly alike, except that the outside of the almond is tough and not fit to eat. the walnut is a nut, too, of course, but the hull is quite fleshy, even after the nut is ripe; and there are certain sorts of foreign plums that have a sweet kernel, so they are really fruit and nut in one. but i think we shall have to go nutting next week, and then we can tell more what we think about them." "nutting! oh, yes, we'll go nutting!" cried little prue. "and we'll take baskets, and mamma, and stay all day and bring home just bushels." "we must take plenty of dinner in the baskets," said davy, who remembered one time when the dinner had been less than he thought it should be. so then they ran into the house to put away their envelopes of seeds, and to tell the news. ii there are bitter nuts and sweet ones how splendid it was in the october woods. some of the trees were almost bare, some of them were a fine russet brown, and some were all crimson and gold; and the gold was so beautiful against the blue sky that it seemed to davy and prue that october, after all, might be the very best month of the year. there was a brook that wound through the woods. on both sides of it were bottom lands, and here the hickory and walnut and butternut trees grew. near the hillsides there were groves of hazel with their brown clusters, half opened by the frost, ripe for gathering. camp was made near the brook, and then all hurried to the nut-trees; the children kicking their feet through the rustling leaves that covered the ground. the chief gardener found quite a large section of a young tree which he put on his shoulder for a battering-ram. then he walked several steps, and butted one end of it against a tall hickory-tree, and down showered the nuts, clattering in the leaves--the hulls bursting and flying in all directions. then how the children scrambled and gathered. "let's clear the leaves away first, next time," said davy, "so they will be easier to find." and this they did, and so they went from tree to tree, gathering hickory-nuts, large and small, and walnuts, butternuts, and chestnuts, and these they emptied into sacks they had brought in the little wagon that was not hitched far away. by and by, davy spied a patch of hazel, and each with a basket, prue and he gathered until they were tired, and it was lunch-time. how very hungry they were! is there really anything like nutting to make a little boy and girl hungry? and there was plenty of luncheon, this time. davy ate until he did not care to get up right away, but was glad to lean back against a tree, and talk, while the chief gardener smoked and little prue and big prue put away the things, and hulled some of the hazelnuts, which little prue said seemed to be more hulls than nuts, for there was only about enough to cover the bottom of one basket when they were all hulled. "what makes all the nuts have such big, thick hulls, anyway?" she asked, as she tried to pound open a thorny chestnut-bur. "i think the hulls must be to protect the young nuts from birds and squirrels," answered her mother. "the trees do not like to have them carried off until they are quite ripe, so they hold them very tight and enclose them in a very tough shell, and the shell is very bad-tasting, too. but when the nuts are ripe and sweet they let go of them very easily, just as other seeds are dropped, and the hulls open and the harvest is ready for whoever may come to gather it." the chief gardener picked up a hickory-nut from one of the baskets. "you see, we are eating flower-pistils all the time," he said. "are we? i don't believe i ever thought about that," said davy. [illustration: three members of the acorn family] the chief gardener pointed to the little black tip on the top of the nut. "that was once the stigma," he said. "you see, it is quite like one, even now. of course, it was soft then, and the pistil below was soft, too. then as it grew it became harder and harder until the shell formed, and it was really a nut. the calyx hardened, and made the hull. the pistil and the calyx of a flower are the parts that last longest, but the stamens and the corolla are just as useful in their way. they form a separate flower on the nut-trees. we will have to come to the woods next spring when they are in bloom." "papa, don't hazelnuts and chestnuts belong to the same family?" asked little prue, who had some of each in her chubby hands. "why, yes, but why did you think so, prue?" "well, you see, they both have those white spots on them, and i thought mebbe it was a kind of family mark." "wise little head, prue. and now what else is there that has the family mark--we might call it the family seal?" the children were silent a moment, thinking. they were sitting under a big oak tree, and all at once davy's eye caught something in the leaves, just by his hand. "this!" he shouted, and held up an acorn. "right you are, davy boy! the nut that stands at the head of the family. few acorns are fit to be eaten, except by animals, but you see how round and perfect the family seal is, and though the acorn-cup is nothing like the chestnut-bur, or the husk of the hazel, it perhaps would be, if the green acorn itself was not so bitter that it does not need any other protection. the oak is one of the finest and most useful of all trees, and the hazel and chestnut and beech are probably very proud of belonging to the oak family." "and how about hickory and walnuts?" asked davy. "they are in a family together--the walnut family. there are three kinds of walnuts--the english walnuts, the butternuts, and these. there are as many as half a dozen kinds of hickory nuts, and some of them are as bitter as the bitterest acorns." "pignuts--i know those," said davy. "they're awful. i tried to eat some last year." "you gave me one, too," said prue. "i don't think that was very nice of you." davy blushed and grinned, as he recollected the round, puckered face of little prue, after she had tasted the bitter nut. "never mind, prue; we'll give him a mock-orange some day," said her mother. "the pecan is a hickory-nut, too," said the chief gardener, "a nut that has left all its bitterness in the shell." "davy is a pecan-nut," said little prue. "he's just bad outside." then the little party made ready to go home. they had a good way to drive, and it grows chilly on october evenings. how still it seemed to have grown in the woods when they were ready to go. a squirrel scrambled up a hickory-tree, and sat chattering at them as they drove away. "he is scolding us for carrying off his winter food," said big prue. "oh, let's leave him some!" said little prue, the tender-hearted. "pshaw!" said davy. "there are enough nuts in these woods to feed all the squirrels in the world." iii there are many things called fruits truly october was harvest-time in the little garden. the winter apple-tree yielded several bushels of bright red fruit, and davy's pumpkin-vine had great yellow pumpkins scattered all about. some of them davy could hardly lift, and when they were carried into the cellar, on the very last day of the month, they made a real pyramid of gold. then there were some late tomatoes, too, and peppers, which big prue made into pickles; also, a last gathering of green corn, besides several ears of ripe corn, for seed, and all the pop-corn--fifty-five ears of it from davy's little patch. there were some things to be taken up, too, and put into little pots for the window-gardens, which davy and prue were going to have all through the winter, this time. there was a good open fire in the dining-room when davy came in, after picking his pumpkins, for the nights were getting colder, and the bright blaze seemed so friendly and cheerful. "i am going to try some of my pop-corn," he said suddenly, and started for the popper. "i'll get some apples," said little prue. "i'll bring some nuts," added the chief gardener. "and i'm afraid if you have all those things now, you won't care for tea afterwards," objected big prue. "never mind tea," said davy. "these are the very best things for a fire like this, and then if we don't want tea afterwards it'll save trouble." so the pop-corn and apples and nuts were brought, and the little family gathered about the bright blaze. [illustration: the apple is a calyx. the pistil is the core inside of it] "just think," said davy, "it's only a few months ago that i planted this corn, and saw it come up, just little green sprouts, and now it's ripe and in the popper." "and just think," said his mother, "it's a little while ago that the apple-trees were all in bloom so sweet, and now the apples are ripe, and we have them here on a plate." "i like to think about the summer," said little prue. "it all seems so nice and shiny. it was hot, though, too, sometimes, in the garden." the chief gardener picked up one of the apples. "that is a pretty good calyx, davy," he said. davy stopped popping corn a minute. his face was rather hot, anyway, from the glowing coals. "why, i thought that was the pistil," he said. "the pistil is the core inside of it. it is the calyx of the apple-bloom that grows fleshy and makes the best part of the apple." the chief gardener cut the apple in half, and showed the faint line that marked the core. "that was the pistil," he said, "and at the end you see there are still the tips of the sepals and little traces of the stamens. the apple is one of our very finest fruits, and we ought to be glad that at least one of the rose family has such a fine calyx. the rose itself gives us sweet flowers, but its apples would be pretty poor eating. they are called hips." "but is the peach a calyx, too?" asked davy. "it belongs to the same family." [illustration: a raspberry is a cluster of pistils without the core. a blackberry is the end of a flower-stem with a cluster of pistils around it.] "no, the peach is just the pistil, and it is the same with the plum and apricot and cherry. in the pear and quince it is the calyx, like the apple; in the raspberry each little part is a separate pistil with one seed, as i believe i showed you once, last summer." "how about the strawberries?" asked prue. "i like those best." "i think i showed you that, too, but perhaps you have forgotten. the strawberry is still different. it is neither a calyx nor a pistil, but just the pulpy top of the stem that the flowers rest upon. it is covered with tiny pistils, though, of one seed each." "that is why strawberry seeds are on the outside," said davy. "yes, and the little pistils are called akenes, though you need not try to remember that now." "it is strange," said big prue, "how many things become fruits." "yes," said the chief gardener. "a fig, for instance, is simply a hollow stalk which grows thick and pulpy, and has a lot of little flowers inside that turn to seed when the fig ripens. a pineapple is a cluster of flower-leaves. a strawberry is the end of a flower-stem. a blackberry is the same, with a little cluster of pulpy pistils on the outside. a raspberry is the little cluster of pistils without the core; so that the blackberry is really the connecting-link between the strawberry and the raspberry. in gooseberries, grapes, cranberries, and huckleberries we eat the entire pistil, seeds and all. in peaches, plums, and cherries we eat only the outer part, and in apples, pears, and quinces we eat only the calyx, unless we eat the core." "well," interrupted davy, "i am going to eat a nice big red calyx, now, core and all, and i'm going to eat some hickory-nut and pop-corn pistils, all but the shells and cob, and i feel hungry enough to eat those, too." so then they drew closer around the bright blaze as evening gathered on the little faded garden outside. november november i there are annuals, biennials, and perennials but november was not all brown and dry. the warm days lingered. the lawn kept green, and suddenly about the house there was the most wonderful glory of yellow and rose and white and crimson, for the radiant flower of autumn, the chrysanthemum, was in full bloom. how beautiful the flowers were when the sun was bright, and when it was cloudy they seemed to have kept some of the sunlight and cheer to make the dooryard glad. "i don't remember when you planted the chrysanthemums," said prue, one bright morning to the chief gardener. "no, it was when you were a very little girl--about four years ago." "i remember," said davy. "i helped you." "why don't you have to plant them every year?" asked prue. "because they are perennials--they live on, year after year." prue did not seem to understand very well, so the chief gardener explained. "there are three kinds of plants," he said: "annuals, biennials, and perennials. the annuals live but one season. they come from the seed each spring, and when they have grown and bloomed and made seed for another year they die. sweet-pease and sunflowers and davy's corn are annuals." "and radishes and beets," said davy. "no, davy. that is where you are mistaken." "but we have to plant them every spring," said davy. "we do so to get good vegetables for our table. but if we were planting only for seed we would leave the roots in the ground, or take them up and reset them in the spring. then they would send up long stalks to bloom and bear seed. beets and radishes and turnips and most such things are biennials, which means that they bloom the second year and then die. they spend all the first year in laying up strength in the roots, to use in making seed the second summer. some biennials, like the cabbage, lay up this strength in the thick stalk. the strength which they take up from the earth and from the air, through their leaves, they do not spend in flowers and show, but turn it into food for themselves, and the food is so good that men gather it for their own use." "i don't think that is quite right," said prue, "after the poor thing has worked so hard all summer to be ready to bloom next year, for us to take it and eat it." the chief gardener smiled and shook his head. "i'm afraid we do not think much about the plant's rights," he said, "unless they happen to be the same as our own. and after all there are plenty of seeds saved every year--more than are ever planted." "and are potatoes biennials, too?" asked davy. "no, potatoes are perennials. in the right climate they would live on year after year, laying up new strength each year for the next season's growth. dahlias are perennials, too, and most of the grasses, and, of course, all trees, and shrubs. your pinks, prue, and sweet-williams, and the hollyhocks, are perennial, and live through the winter, though they bear a great deal of seed, which shows how determined they are to live on. these chrysanthemums also bear seed, and most plants have at least two ways, and some as many as four ways of producing others like them. your onions, davy, can be produced in four different ways. they can be grown from seed, from sets--which are little seed-onions taken out of the ground and kept through the winter--from bulblets--which are the little onions you saw growing on the top of the stalk last summer--and from multipliers--which are large bulbs broken into several small parts." [illustration: the seed and sets of the onion] "i should think an onion was surely perennial enough," said davy, "with four ways of keeping alive." "can you name the three kinds of plants now?" asked the chief gardener, turning to little prue. "yes," said prue, putting out three fingers. "annuals that have to die every fall, like my sweet-pease. bi-yennials, that have to die every other fall, like davy's turnips. only we don't let 'em die--we kill 'em and eat 'em just when they are ready for their best time. perennials, that have a lot of ways to live and never die at all." the chief gardener laughed. "well, that's pretty good for a little girl. i think we might almost make a poem out of it. "the annuals we plant each spring-- they perish in the fall; biennials die the second year, perennials not at all." "i've made a rhyme, too," said prue. "it's about the kinds of plants in a different way. this is it: "the kinds of plants are these-- herbs, shrubs, and trees." "why, i think we shall have to make up some more," said the chief gardener. "it will help us to remember." ii plants know how to spread it was not many days after this that the chief gardener was digging among his vines, and he called to the children, who came running. "we were talking the other day," he said, "about the many ways that old plants have of making new ones. see how this black raspberry vine is spreading." the chief gardener pointed to a long branch that had bent over until the end touched the earth. this end had taken root, and now a new little plant was there all formed and ready to grow the coming year. "there is another just like it," said davy, "and another--why, there are lots of them!" "yes, the vine sends out many of those long slender branches with a heavy little bud at the end of each to weigh it down. such branches are called stolons, and when the bud touches the earth it sends out roots. strawberries have runners which do the same thing. you will find plenty of them if you look in the patch." davy and prue went over to the strawberries and found that the vines, now red and brown from frost, had sent out runners, and made little new plants, like the black raspberries. "you see," said the chief gardener, "we pick the berries, which are the seeds, so all berry vines must have some other way of spreading. the red raspberries do it in a different way. they send out runners, too, but they are from the roots, and when the sprouts come up, we call them suckers. many kinds of plants have suckers, and there are some kinds of trees sprout so badly that they cannot be used for shade." "what a lot of ways there are for plants to start!" said davy. "suppose we try to think of as many as we can," said the chief gardener. "you begin, prue." "seeds and roots and bend-overs and stuck-ins," said prue. "that's four." [illustration: a black raspberry vine preparing to spread] davy and the chief gardener laughed. "well, that is a good start, but there are a good many kinds of roots and 'bend-overs,' and what are 'stuck-ins?'" "why, pieces stuck in the ground to grow. mamma does it with her geraniums." "oh, slips! i see. why, prue, your answer covers about everything, after all. now, davy, suppose we hear from you." "well, seeds--that's one. bulbs, all the kinds, like the three onion kinds, and maybe other kinds, roots like the red raspberries, that make suckers and other kinds of roots, like potatoes, and then all the runners and suckers that prue calls 'bend-overs,' and slips and grafts and buds." "stuck-ins," nodded the chief gardener. "prue was about right after all, for there are so many kinds of each different thing, and so many ways, that i am afraid we should never remember all the kinds and ways. 'seeds and roots and bend-overs and stuck-ins' take in about all of them, and we are not apt to forget it. if you'll come now, we'll look at some of the kinds of roots." they went down into the garden, and the chief gardener opened a hill of potatoes which had not been dug. then he picked up one of the potatoes and showed it to davy and prue. [illustration: "what are stuck-ins?--oh, slips!"] "that kind of a root is called a tuber," he said. "those little spots on it are eyes, and make the sprouts. you remember we cut the potatoes we planted into little pieces, with one eye on each." "i remember," said prue, "and i asked if they had eyes so they could see which way to grow." "the pieces we planted sprouted, and kept the sprout growing until it could send out roots. besides the roots, there were little underground branches, and a potato formed on the end of each branch. when the soil and the season are both good there will be a great many of these branches and new tubers, but when the soil is poor and the season bad there will be very little besides roots." the children followed the chief gardener, and dug up a bunch of thick dahlia roots, and he told them how these were really roots, and not tubers, like the potatoes. then he dug up some sweet-flag, and they saw how the rough root-pieces were joined one to the other, in a sort of chain of roots, and these he told them were root-stalks, and that they kept a store of nourishment for the new plants, in the spring. "there is a grass," he said, "which has such a root, and every time it is cut it sends up a new plant, so that every time the farmer tries to get it out of his grain-field he only makes more plants, unless he pulls up every piece and destroys it. you see, that grass has to fight to live, and it makes one of the very best fights of any plant i know, except the canada thistle, which does very much the same thing. and that is what all plant life is. it is the struggle to live and grow and spread. the struggle with men and animals and heat and cold and with other plants. and in the struggle the plants, and especially the weeds, which have to fight hardest, have grown strong and persevering, and have learned a thousand ways to multiply their roots and to scatter their seed." iii all thanks for the plants thanksgiving brought the usual good dinner, and upon the table and the sideboard there were many things to remind the little family of their garden and their summer-time. there was a large plate of red apples and a dish of nuts, and there was a pot of pinks, which prue had saved for her window-garden. then there was a fine little jar of pickles, made from davy's tomatoes, besides dishes of tomatoes and turnips, all from the little garden that had come and gone, leaving these good things and many pleasant memories behind. and after the dinner was over, and the pudding eaten and the nuts passed, the little family sat around the table to talk, as they often did. "i am sure we have a great deal to be thankful for this year," said big prue. "two such nice healthy children, with plenty to eat and wear, and a fire to keep us warm, and a good roof over our heads." "and all from the plants," said the chief gardener. "if we are thankful for the plants, we are thankful for almost everything we have." davy sat thinking silently about this, but little prue did not quite understand. "i suppose you mean that the plants made us healthy to work in them," she said. "i mean that, and i mean a great many other things. in the first place, plants furnish all the food in the world. not only the vegetables, but the animal-food. our turkey would not have been here to-day if he had not been fed on grain, and even the oysters must live from a sort of plant-food in the sea. every creature that walks or flies or swims lives either on plants themselves or from some creature that does live on them." "do sharks live on plants, too?" asked prue. "of course!" said davy. "sharks eat men, and men eat plants." "i don't suppose sharks live altogether on men," laughed big prue, "and the little fish they eat may live on other little fish, but if you go far enough you will find that somewhere the beginning is plant-life." "plants also warm and light us," went on the chief gardener. "every stick of wood, or bit of coal, or drop of oil we burn, comes from plant-life. the coal was vegetation long ago--very long ago--and the heat and light that come from it were stored there in that far-away time by the green leaves that drew in life and light from the sunbeams." "do the leaves really take up light?" asked davy. "they really do. with every particle of vegetable matter that is made, a portion of the sun's heat and light is laid up in it. the light is still in the coal, though it looks so black. we have only to burn it, to get back the sunlight." that was a very wonderful thought to the children, and they had to talk about it a great deal before the chief gardener went on. "every bit of clothing we wear comes from the plants," he said at last. "the cotton grows like the down about the thistle seed, and the wool that grows on the sheep's back is there because the sheep feeds on the green grass in summer and upon hay and grain in the winter-time. silk is made by worms from mulberry leaves, linen is from the flax plant, and leather from the cattle that grow in the same way that the sheep grows. [illustration: the wool that grows on the sheep's back is there because the sheep feeds on the green grass in summer] "then there is our house. a great deal of it is made from wood, and even the bricks have vegetable matter in them, while the stones are shaped by tools that have wooden handles, and the bricks and stones are hauled in wooden carts." "but the iron doesn't grow, papa," said little prue. "no, but without heat to forge it--heat that comes from wood and coal--it would be of no use." "but there is one other thing that is more to us than all the rest. plants purify the air we breathe. air that we have breathed once is not fit for us again. we have used the oxygen from it, and turned it into carbonic acid gas. but carbonic acid gas is just what the plants need, so they take our breathed air and turn it into oxygen again and give it back to us fresh and pure, so that we can keep our life and health." "don't forget the flowers, papa," said little prue. "i haven't forgotten them. if it were not for the flowers many of the plants would die out, and besides being so useful, the flowers feed the bees and make the world beautiful, and our lives happier and sweeter, by filling them with color and perfume and loveliness. no, i could hardly forget the flowers, prue. they are the crowning glory of the plants that feed and clothe and warm and shelter us. so let us be thankful for the plants, every part of them, and especially for the flowers." "we ought to be thankful for the sun that makes them grow, too," said davy. "and we must not forget the one to whom all thanks are due," added his mother. and as the november day closed in they gathered around the big open fire, and were happy and cheerful in the blaze of the same sunbeams that had shone on the great forests which had perished so many ages ago. december december i new gardens in the windows december was a month for putting things away. the envelopes of seeds which davy and prue and the chief gardener had gathered were all put into separate tin boxes, and these boxes were put in a dry place on the top cupboard shelf, where they would not be disturbed. the bulbs and roots were also put into dry boxes in the basement, and the different kinds labelled in large plain letters by davy, who could print very nicely indeed. the bulbs were quite interesting. some, like those of the easter lily, had small bulbs formed inside of them. others, like the crocus, had tiny bulbs formed on the outside, and then there were bulblets which had formed above the ground, just where the leaf joins the stalk. these were little lily bulbs. so all the seeds and bulbs and roots were put away for the winter, except a few that davy and prue planted in some pots for their window-gardens. they decided to have different things this year. instead of scarlet runners to climb on the sides of his window, davy had decided to have melon vines. his cantaloupes had not done very well in the garden, for the reason that the pumpkin had sent its long tendrils across the cantaloupe bed, and the pollen had been carried from the flowers of one to the other by the busy bees, and this caused all his cantaloupes to have a flavor of pumpkin. davy had eaten them, though, and even little prue had said they were not so _very_ bad, and had really eaten nearly all of one piece. now, davy was going to have two cantaloupe vines, and let them climb on each side of his window, and see if he couldn't raise some melons that folks would be glad to get a piece of. in the middle of his window he was going to have an eggplant, which he very much wanted to try, and in the little pots at the sides, there were to be a peanut, which he wanted to try, too, and a special little red pepper which had looked very nice in the seed-catalogue. then there were two little pots, one holding a small turnip and the other a radish, which davy wanted to see bloom and go to seed. so, you see, davy's garden was going to be quite different this year, and prue's was different, too. for prue did not have morning-glories to climb, this winter. not because she did not like them, but because she wanted her window, like davy's, to be different from the window of the winter before. she had a cypress vine planted this year, on one side, and a moon vine on the other. and in the center of her window, she was to have a cosmos flower, with a fuchsia and a hyacinth and a tulip at the sides, and one of her precious pinks brought in from the summer garden. of course, the tulip and the hyacinth were to grow from little bulbs, while the fuchsia was a small plant which she had bought at the greenhouse. and in this way both the windows were to be very different from the winter before, and many new things were to be learned in seeing the seeds and the bulbs and the roots sprout and grow and bloom. [illustration: a japanese fern-ball] and there was one thing more which was to be different, for prue and davy had put their money together and bought a japanese fern-ball to hang between the windows, and a hook to hang it on. the ball they soaked in warm water, as the directions had said, and then hung it on the hook. as often as it seemed dry they soaked it again, and one day it was sending out little green points, and soon, even before the rest of their window-garden was fairly started, there were feathery little fern leaves all over the ball, and before christmas it was very beautiful indeed. ii to the garden of sleep _december_ was not a very bright month for davy and prue. very little snow fell, so they could not use their sleds. if it had not been for their gardens and their lessons, which took several hours each day, they would have been rather lonely, looking out on brown woods and meadows. but there was the joy of christmas coming, and this thought made them happier, as each day brought it nearer. they counted the weeks first, then the days, and at last the hours. and then they had secrets. secrets from big prue and the chief gardener, and secrets from each other. sometimes little prue whispered to big prue, and did not want davy to hear. sometimes davy whispered to the chief gardener, and stopped very quick and began to whistle, if prue came into the room. packages began to be brought in after dark, or when everybody else was upstairs, and then, one afternoon--the afternoon of that wonderful eve when stillness and mystery seem to gather on the fields--there was a row of stockings along the mantel, hanging ready for somebody to fill. santa claus, of course, must do that, but there were packages hidden here and there for the good old saint to find and put where they belonged. and prue and davy were in bed almost before dark, because you see the time passes quicker if you are asleep, and the sooner to bed the sooner to sleep. but when big prue came in to kiss them good-night she told them a story--the old sweet story of the little child who was born so long ago, and to whom the first gifts were brought by the wise men. and then she told how that little baby boy in the manger had become a sweet child, with games and playmates like other children, with toys and, perhaps, a little garden of his own, something as they had made during the summer-time. and she told also a little story which, perhaps, is only a story, but it is what it would seem might have happened to the little child of bethlehem. "once," she said, "when he was playing he grew very tired and thirsty, and his playmate was very thirsty, too. so jesus ran to the well for a cup of water, and hurried back with it without stopping to drink. but his playmate was greedy, for he seized the cup and drank it all, except a few drops at the bottom. then he gave the empty cup to jesus, who took it and let the last few drops fall on the grass, when suddenly from where they fell there flowed a little clear stream of water, with lilies-of-the-valley blooming along its banks." "please sing the verse about the story of old," said davy, when she had finished. so his mother sang: "i think, when i read that sweet story of old, how jesus was here among men, how he called little children as lambs to his fold, i should like to have been with them then." and it was only a moment longer that the christmas saint had to wait on the sand-man, for presently the door closed softly on the singer. davy and prue had entered the fair garden of sleep. iii in the gardens of christmas _i cannot_ tell you all the wonders of that christmas. i can only tell you that the presents which the little family had bought for one another were all in their proper places next morning, and that there were ever so many things that nobody but santa claus could possibly have brought. there was a christmas tree, for one thing, the kind of a tree that nobody but santa claus ever raises, or brings, and there was everything upon it and about it that a little boy and girl could want, unless they wanted a great deal more than a little boy and girl ought to have, at one time. but the very finest christmas gift of all was a splendid great big snow-storm, which had begun in the night and was still going on, as fast and as thick as the big, soft, fleecy flakes could fall. every few minutes the children left the beautiful tree to look at the beautiful snow. they could hardly wait until breakfast was over, and the chief gardener had made a photograph of the tree with them in it, before they wanted to rush out with their sleds. all at once davy called prue to the window. "look," he said, "some of these flakes on the window-sash are like little white flowers!" then every one came to see, and, sure enough, some of the snowflakes that had fallen next to the glass were wonderfully shaped, and did look like tiny blossoms. the chief gardener got a magnifying-glass and they looked at them through it, when they saw how really beautiful they were. "i have heard them called 'the flowers of winter,'" said big prue. "there is a little story about how the flowers complained that they must all die when cold weather came, and never see the winter. so then their spirits were allowed to come back as snowflakes." [illustration: the kind of a tree that nobody but santa claus ever raises] that was a glorious christmas. all day the snow came down outside, and all day the big fire blazed and the christmas tree gleamed and shimmered and sparkled inside. and then, in the afternoon, there was a christmas dinner which was quite as good as any of the rest of the things, even to the snow. and after the dinner was over, and they sat around the fire, the chief gardener said: "we have had a happy year. i know it has been happy, for the time has gone so fast. it seems not more than a few weeks ago that we were keeping last christmas, and almost no time at all since prue and davy started their first little gardens in the window. yet, a week from to-day, and that will be a year ago, too. now, i have a plan. it was prue who made me think of it. she said something not long ago that i made into a little verse, about annuals, biennials, and perennials. then prue made one, too, about herbs and shrubs and trees. now i propose that we each make some rhymes for new year's day to celebrate the starting of the window-garden, and also the little garden which prue and davy had outside. the rhymes must tell something that has been learned during the year, and they must be short, and easy to remember. of course, we won't expect very much, but prue has done so well, that i am sure the rest of us can do something, too." "i never made any rhymes," said davy. "i'll help you," said prue. "it's just as easy." so they all agreed, and during the holidays, when the children were not busy with their sleds or books or gardens, they were making rhymes. iv some verses and then good-by and these are the rhymes that were read and recited after dinner on new year's day, just a year after the first little window-garden was started. i shall not tell you whose they were. of course, you will all remember little prue's: "the kinds of plants are these, herbs and shrubs, and trees," and the chief gardener's: "the annuals we plant each spring-- they perish in the fall; biennials die the second year, perennials not at all," but the writers of the others you will have to guess. the plant the parts of every plant are three-- the root, and stem, and leaf they be. the flowers are only leaves more fair, which nature makes, to bloom and bear. the root most roots are hidden in the ground, as they should _always_ be, by rights, but some in other plants are found, and these belong to parasites. the stem the stem may be a stalk or vine to stand erect, or creep, or twine-- for frailest plant, or firmest oak that's ne'er by storm of winter broke. the leaf a leaf has a stem, and of stipules a pair, though the stipules are often quite small, or not there. a leaf has a blade, and of ribs one or more; while of veins and of veinlets it has many score. a leaf may be simple, or it may be compound, and a million small pores for its breathing are found. the flower the blossom has a calyx that is very often green, and just above the sepals the corolla bright is seen. and above the pretty petals may be stamens eight or nine-- slender filaments, and anthers, to hold the pollen fine. while in the blossom's center doth the sturdy pistil grow, with stigma and with style that lead to seed-cups just below. how plants increase from seed and from runner, from stolon bent low-- from sucker and slip and from layer they grow-- from bulb and from bulblet--from tuber and root, they give us the flower and the grain and the fruit. all thanks to the plants for the clothes that we wear-- the food that we eat and the home that we share-- for the air that we breathe and the fuel we burn-- all thanks to the plants, 'tis our only return. davy rather objected to the last line of these verses. he said that it was some return to take good care of plants, especially in the hot summer-time, when it was ever so much nicer to sit in the shade. so another little rhyme was made, like this: a plant should have the sun and air and water, and the proper care. if it has these, and doesn't die, we'll reap the harvest, by and by. then to end the day they all sang a little song about the snowflakes, that jack frost sends out of his gardens of winter-time: the snowflakes jack frost, he makes the snowflakes, he paints the snowflakes white. he sent them christmas morning to make our landscape bright. for in the deepest winter the world is bleak and bare-- jack frost, he sends the snowflakes to make our winter fair. and so ends the story of a year, and of its little gardens. also of prue and davy, who owned the little gardens, and of her who was called big prue and of him who was called the chief gardener. other years will bring other gardens, and other summers. prue and davy will grow older, and learn more and more with each year that passes. but no year will ever be happier and no gardens ever brighter than those to which we are now saying good-by. * * * * * transcriber's notes minor punctuation errors corrected on pages , , , , , , , , , , . slight discrepancies in some of the titles given in the table of contents and those given at the beginning of each section have been retained here. original spellings and hyphenation have been retained except in the cases of these apparent typographical errors: page , "lovelly" changed to "lovely." (i never saw anything so lovely...) page , "no" changed to "not." (...not to look at their garden...) farm gardening with hints on cheap manuring quick cash crops and how to grow them compiled and published, by johnson & stokes, seed growers and merchants and market st., philadelphia, pa. copyright, , by johnson & stokes [illustration: hilling celery, as practised by philadelphia market gardeners.] contents. chapter i. page. making the soil rich chapter ii. choice of location chapter iii. vegetables suited to farm culture everywhere chapter iv. vegetables suited to farm culture in some locations chapter v. sashes and bedding plants chapter vi. the strawberry preface. farmers in the thickly populated eastern and middle states, or, in fact, east of the mississippi river, cannot grow grains nor fatten beeves with the same profit as before the opening of the great west. dairying still returns fair profits, but there is a widespread demand for cash crops adapted to farm culture, especially where railroads furnish quick access to towns and cities. in response to this demand, we beg to offer a short list of farm vegetables that can be grown with greater profit than grain, with hints about growing them. there is no real line dividing the vegetables of the market garden from those of the farm garden, but it may be assumed in a somewhat arbitrary way that those which do not yield at the gross rate of $ per acre per year will not pay for the intense culture of high-priced land, although they will pay handsome profits in broad-acred operations under horse culture. before offering a list of money crops to farmers we shall have a word to say in the following pages about economic manuring. larger cash receipts and smaller cash expenditures will result in better bank balances. johnson & stokes. philadelphia, january , . chapter i. making the soil rich. everybody understands that the soil becomes impoverished by continued cropping, if no return be made in the form of manure or fertilizer. this impoverishment is sometimes real, while sometimes it is more apparent than real, owing to the exhaustion of only one or two elements of fertility. farmers have learned a great deal about agricultural chemistry since the introduction of artificial fertilizers. they know that while plants demand many things for their growth, there are but three elements which are in danger of being exhausted in ordinary cropping. these three things are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. =lime.=--lime is used on the land not for its direct results as a fertilizer, but because it has the ability to break up combinations already existing in the soil and set free the plant food that previously was in an insoluble form. lime sometimes produces almost marvelous results; at other times no visible effects whatever. hence, it is not a fertilizer, though in actual practice it is sometimes a fertilizing agent of great value. land that has been much manured or long in sod is likely to be benefited by lime. artificial manures, on the other hand, furnish real plant food in soluble form, and may be expected to produce crops invariably, year after year, if the soil be sufficiently moist. when a fertilizer contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash it is said to be complete. when any element is missing the fertilizer is said to be incomplete. ground bone, wood ashes, south carolina rock, kainit, etc., are examples of incomplete fertilizers. =barnyard manure.=--barnyard manure is the best of all known fertilizers. not only is it complete in character, but it has the highly valuable property of bulk. it is rich in humus or humus-forming materials. it opens and ventilates the soil, and improves its mechanical condition to a remarkable degree. humus is a name for decaying organic matter. american market gardeners deem it entirely safe to use fifty to seventy-five tons of barnyard manure to the acre of ground in their intensive cultural operations. american farmers seldom apply more than ten or fifteen tons of such manure to the acre in the open field. the manufacture of artificial fertilizers had its origin in the fact that cultivators could not get enough manure from natural sources, and, hence, were compelled to go into the market and buy nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in other forms. =closer economy.=--with the increase of competition and consequent fall of prices a closer economy in cost of production is necessary. prices have fallen most in respect to commodities that will bear long-distance freight transit and less in respect to the more perishable products of the soil. hence, farmers have widely turned attention to small fruits and vegetables for money crops, instead of grains, and are now studying how to fertilize these crops in the most effective and economical manner. it is very evident that while great quantities of fertility are demanded by the new crops, there is no such margin of profit in their culture as to warrant wasteful methods, and no losses of home-produced fertility can be tolerated. =as to saving manure.=--a penny saved is a penny earned. a half ton of manure saved is a dollar earned; and, conversely, a half ton of manure wasted is a dollar wasted. in many american barnyards much of the manure is lost, partly by leaching and partly by escape of ammonia. it is estimated that as much as a third of the natural manure produced in this country is practically thrown away. the cornell station has announced that a pile of horse manure exposed to the weather will lose half of its value in six months. the kansas station reaches nearly the same conclusion about farmyard manure. manure stored under cover may lose from to per cent. of its nitrogen (ammonia); and as this element is the most expensive of all to buy, it is evident that the loss is a very serious one, and one that should be avoided if possible. =general principles of storage.=--having pointed out the fact that on many farms there is a loss of a large amount of excellent manure, it is now in order to name a remedy. the compass of this book is so limited that it is necessary to go straight to the point, omitting a detailed account of the chemical processes involved. the best-known method of keeping all the manure produced by farm animals is storage under a closed shed, supplemented with chemical preservatives. the shed need not cover the barnyard, but merely the manure pile. the preservatives cost little money, and eventually go to the soil in the form of excellent fertilizers. not a cent paid for them need be lost. the manure shed should be large enough to work in with comfort; large enough to permit the heap or heaps of manure to be turned, worked over and shifted from place to place. a clay or earth floor will answer every purpose, and the shed may be of the cheapest character, provided it will turn the rain. the floor of the manure shed should slope inward from all directions, and the drainage around the shed should be outward, so that no rain-water or snow-water can enter. in theory, it may be best to put fresh manure on the land as quickly as possible. all leaching is then received by the soil, and little is lost, except through the air. in practice, this plan is not always a good one. it costs more to make ten trips to the field than one trip, and valuable time is wasted. it is quite out of the question to haul out manure every day or even every week. besides, it is necessary in actual practice, especially in gardening or truck farming, to cover a whole piece of ground at one time, so that it may be plowed and seeded for the coming crop. the ground is usually available only a short time before this preparation, having, perhaps, been occupied by something else. it is desirable, moreover, that the manure when applied shall be ready for immediate service as plant food, which is not the case with the raw product. fresh manure is but sparingly digestible by plant roots. quicker cash results will be secured by applying prepared manure to the soil than by applying the product fresh from the stable. the manure shed has already been mentioned. a few dollars will build it. sometimes a half barrel is sunken in the centre of the manure shed, and the drainage from the manure heaps collected there, and returned to the tops of the heaps. it is occasionally necessary to add water, when turning manure, to secure the desired degree of dampness and a gentle fermentation. this fermentation will cause the litter to fall to pieces, and will convert it into quickly-available plant food. no one who has never tried it will expect the generous heaps which will follow systematic and persevering efforts to accumulate and stack up the available manure materials on any farm. =preservatives.=--the best-known common preservatives of manure in storage are gypsum, kainit and acid phosphate. gypsum or land plaster holds ammonia, and is thus of the highest value as a preservative. gypsum must be moist to be effective, and, hence, should be used regularly upon the fresh manure. kainit, which is a low-grade sulphate of potash, checks fermentation, and hence prevents loss of ammonia. it contains much salt, and attracts and holds moisture. it should not be used under the feet of animals. acid phosphate contains much gypsum, and unites with ammonia that would otherwise escape. the geneva (n. y.) station recommends the use of one of the following per day: per horse. per cow. per pig. per sheep. pounds. pounds. ounces. ounces. gypsum - / - / - / - / acid phosphate - / - / kainit - / - / - / the advantage of using kainit and acid phosphate are that they add potash and phosphoric acid respectively, in which barnyard manure is likely to be deficient. in some soils the potash will be preferable; in others, phosphoric acid will do more good. =value of manure of each kind of animal.=--it has been figured out that the average value of horse manure per year is $ per animal; cattle, $ ; hogs, $ ; and sheep, $ . but these are not the only sources of manure on the farm. the hen-house will annually yield manure to the value of to cents per fowl, if intelligently cared for. the outhouse will produce fertility to the amount of $ to $ per year, according to the size of the family, the precautions as to loss by leaching, and the care given. the kitchen slops, including the scraps, are worth $ to $ per year, if properly composted. the wood ashes have a distinct and high fertilizing value; but not in the hen-house, where they are worse than wasted. and even coal ashes can be turned to account. professor roberts has suggested $ per year as a conservative estimate of the value of the manure produced during seven winter months on a farm carrying four horses, twenty cows, fifty sheep and ten pigs. the estimated value may be made much higher in cases where farmers are willing to use thought and labor in preparation and preservation of home-made manures. =solid manure and liquid manure.=--the urine is the most valuable portion of the excretion of animals, according to the tables of the agricultural chemists. it is especially rich in nitrogen, and, hence, its strong odor under fermentation. it is also rich in potash. its place is on the manure heap, not in a ditch leading to a brook. if it collects in quantities beyond the absorbing power of the manure pile, it should go on the compost heap or else be diluted and at once put upon the land. =when to fertilize.=--the land is a good bank in which to deposit money in the form of manure; but there are certain portions of the year when the land bank declares no dividends. it is safe to put manure upon an unfrozen soil at any time, but the best, the quickest, and the largest results are obtained by manuring during the growing season, preferably just before planting the crop. small applications, often repeated, are preferable to large, though rare, applications. plants, like animals, consume small amounts of food each day, and cannot take a year's food at a single meal. =humus.=--humus, often referred to by agricultural writers, is a name for decaying organic matter in the soil. green crops turned under, grass roots, stubble, leaves, long manure, etc., form humus. the term is a comprehensive one. humus is a dark-colored substance, abundant in all rich ground. a lump of manure that has been lying in the ground for a year or two has become, practically, a mass of humus. =minute soil workers.=--in all good soils there are myriads of small organisms, whose duty is to destroy organic matter and convert it into soil, or into humus, or into plant food. this explains the superiority of good, moist soil as compared to coal ashes for making compost heaps. coal ashes are worth sifting, if the work can be done automatically; that is, by simply pouring the ashes upon a sloping wire screen. the coarse portion of the ashes, if not worth reburning, will at least make good walks, drives or road beds, while the fine portions make excellent absorbents to put under hen roosts. [illustration: some of the many forms of bacteria. (magnified).] hen manure and the product of the outhouse, whether containing sifted ashes or not, should go speedily into a heap of moist earth, for this earth will furnish the organisms to quickly convert the excreta into valuable soil. sifted coal ashes usually contain some fertility on account of wood, garbage, etc., burned in the kitchen stove, but have value mainly as absorbents. moist loam, on the other hand, teems with life, and has the wonderful ability not merely to hide organic matter, but to actually change its character, converting it into soil that retains none of its original characteristics. what was malodorous manure, offensive to smell and touch, is changed into an odorless, dark-colored material that leaves no stain upon the hands, and which is plant food of the best and most available character. =economy in manuring.=--true economy in manuring demands a comprehension of these simple matters. the methods are inexpensive, and are within the reach of every tiller of the soil. the whole matter may be summed up in a few words, as follows: waste nothing, permit no fermentation or leaching, use preservatives, and learn the true art of making composts, including the functions of the minute organisms just described. no better use can be made of rainy days in summer or winter than in caring for manure; turning the piles, making compact stacks, adding needed moisture and preservatives, shaking out all lumps and putting undecayed portions into the centre of the heap. ton after ton of the best kind of fertilizer can be accumulated on every farm in this manner, including not only what is now lost through careless handling, but also a large amount of good material that is now entirely overlooked on many farms. all rubbish, all litter, all dirt, has a fertilizing value. if certain waste products must go to the bonfire, the ashes can at least be saved and used during the next growing season. it is sometimes better to burn weeds and certain tough vines than to attempt to compost them; but the ashes should not be wasted. it is the saving of many little things that counts in the yearly total. labor is money, but it is better to invest labor at home than to go to the fertilizer-maker for supplies and pay out cash. =the fertilizer man.=--the fertilizer man will always be with us, because he has a true place in the economy of the farm and garden. we must go to him for the preservatives already mentioned--for gypsum, for kainit and for acid phosphate; and also for complete fertilizers. these articles are all comparatively cheap. the fertilizer man can make but modest profits upon them. the purchase of high-grade goods from well-known and honest makers is to be commended, for it is strictly economical. the thing to be avoided is the blind buying of fertilizers from unknown or irresponsible makers or agents. this is worse than buying a cat in a bag, and results in great waste of good money. =wood ashes.=--wood ashes is rich in potash, and is particularly valuable with potatoes, fruits of all kinds, etc. but it is a great error to mix wood ashes with fresh manure of any kind, especially with hen manure, as the escape of ammonia is hastened and much value is lost. =natural and artificial manures.=--where the home supply of manure is insufficient for a piece of ground, necessitating the addition of artificial manure, it is universally conceded to be good practice to stretch the natural product over the whole tract and then to go over the whole tract with an artificial fertilizer. =irrigation.=[a]--in connection with a review of the home sources of manure the item of irrigation must not be overlooked, for it is thoroughly well established that water is a carrier of appreciable amounts of fertilizing materials. in european countries large areas of pasture and mowing lands are fertilized by water alone, the irrigation being regarded as of great value on this account, aside from the fact that it supplies moisture to the grass roots. most streams in the united states contain more or less sewage, and in respect to irrigation are valuable on that account. [footnote a: the reader is referred to our new book on this subject. it is entitled, "irrigation by cheap modern methods." see illustration next page, also pages and .--johnson & stokes.] =waste products.=--many waste or by-products, available for use as fertilizers, come from time to time within the reach of the farmer or gardener, especially to those living near towns or railroads. the average market house, be it said with regret, is none too clean, and refuse in considerable amounts could be had there for the trouble of sweeping. cattle cars often contain several inches of valuable droppings, to be had for next to nothing. street-scrapings are worth the trouble of hauling, if the distance is short. the manure lost on the highways is very great in amount, and may be worth the cost of collection. there will some day be a machine for gathering this manure from the roads by horse-power, as it would amply repay the expense of driving such a machine along every much-used highway. [illustration: an illustration from johnson & stokes' new book--"irrigation by cheap modern methods."] =value of manure.=--dr. beal figures the values per ton of the several farm-made manures as follows: hen manure, $ . ; sheep, $ . ; pigs, $ . ; horses, $ . ; cows, $ . . [illustration: bacteroid tubercles on red clover root. drawn from nature.] these figures are based on the assumption that the animals are well fed, and that no leaching of the manure is allowed, with gypsum used as a preservative, and good care exercised in all respects. it must not be supposed that all manure has such value, or that any manure will retain such value under careless treatment. =green manuring.=--the system of green manuring, as formerly understood and practiced, had two purposes in view. one was to supply the soil with needed humus; the other to furnish winter protection and prevent washing. the practice is a very old one and has much to commend it. not only do plant roots draw up fertility from considerable depths, to be afterward deposited in the superficial soil when the growing crop is turned down by the plow, but the process favors chemical changes in the soil by the admission of air and sunlight and by the decomposition of leaves, stems and roots. but nothing whatever in the way of new fertility is added by turning down a rye crop, for instance. [illustration: crimson or scarlet clover, a nitrogen gatherer.] =cultivating the legumes.=--the present system of green manuring contemplates something in addition to what was formerly gained, for agricultural sciences now recognizes the fact that nitrogen, the most expensive element of fertility, can be taken from the air and added to the plant food in the soil by means of certain plants which have the peculiar habit of regularly forming little tubercles or lumps on their feeding roots. these lumps are to be found on plants in perfect health, and are not parasitical in any hostile sense. the lumps are filled with small living organisms called bacteria, and, hence, have been called bacteroid tubercles. the minute tenants slowly but surely secrete nitrogen, and put it in a form adapted to plant growth. the plants which bear these root lumps belong to a group called legumes, of which clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc., are familiar examples. curiously enough, nearly all the leguminous plants are thus fitted by nature by means of the root lumps to act as soil enrichers, and these plants have, therefore, assumed the highest agricultural significance. it is well known that such crops as cowpeas, crimson or scarlet clover, common red and pea vine or sapling clover, soja beans, vetches, etc., can be used to add nitrogen to the soil in commercial quantities. the gain of new material, expressed in money, has been estimated as high as $ per acre. this, therefore, is the avenue through which the farmer can most economically supply nitrogen to his land. if he will exercise all the economy heretofore suggested in the care of natural manures, and will grow legumes, he will not have much occasion to buy nitrogen in the market. =grass vs. clover.=--an idea of the great fertilizing value of the leguminous plants as compared with grasses may be obtained by a study of the following analyses from u. s. farmers' bulletin no. , by dr. e. w. allen, on "leguminous plants for green manuring and for feeding": fertilizing value in crop. assumed per acre. yield. per acre. nitrogen. phos. acid. potash. hay from tons. pounds. pounds. pounds. red top (a grass) · · · timothy (a grass) · · · red clover (a legume) · · · alfalfa (a legume) · · · cowpea (a legume) · · · soja bean (a legume) · · · =nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash.=--we have just noted the cheapest source of nitrogen. it can be collected by root tubercles at less than the commercial rate of to cents per pound. phosphoric acid can be best secured, if a new supply becomes necessary, in the form of ground bone or in the form of acid phosphate. either of these articles, if bought from a reliable dealer, is a good and economical thing to use. potash is to be had most cheaply, perhaps, in the manner suggested heretofore: by the use of kainit as a preserver of stable manure. the kainit performs a double purpose if used in that way, and thus gets upon the land in a cheap manner. muriate of potash and sulphate of potash are high-priced articles, but when bought from good houses are fully worth the money they cost. except for the use of kainit, just mentioned, the muriate or sulphate would be the more economical form. potash or phosphoric acid (or both), as may be determined by circumstances, are needed to aid crimson clover in its growth, and with the clover form a perfect manure. barnyard manure is a perfect fertilizer, especially when preserved with kainit or acid phosphate; and a leguminous crop, if stimulated with phosphoric acid and potash, leaves the land in fine cropping condition. =value of green manures.=--the cash value of green manuring is somewhat a matter of location. on light, sandy soils it will be found wise to turn the whole crop under with the plow, while on heavy loams this plan is of doubtful benefit. on the latter land it is conceded to be better practice to harvest the crop and feed it to stock, and return the resulting manure to the land. =maximum amounts of manures.=--nobody has yet ventured to fix the maximum amounts of natural or artificial manures that soils will bear, but these amounts are great. reference has already been made to the number of tons of stable manure per acre used respectively by market gardeners and farmers in america. as to commercial fertilizers, the quantity has been pushed up to two tons per acre, with enormous crops in consequence, and with no bad results where the constituent of the fertilizer were well balanced and where the water-supply was ample. it is quite easy, however, to scorch or burn the foliage of growing plants by the improper use of acid fertilizers in dry weather. of course, no such amount as two tons per acre would be used in ordinary farming or farm gardening, but only in certain intense cultural operations. chapter ii. choice of location. almost every farm has a choice spot for a garden, some favored location where the soil is warm and mellow, and where, perhaps, shelter is afforded by hill or woodland. such a spot, especially if it can be artificially irrigated, is capable of great things in the way of growing truck. the place of all others, if it can be had, is a rich meadow bank, on ground low enough for gravity irrigation and yet high enough to be out of the way of floods. such a location is by no means rare. there are countless acres fulfilling these conditions, and every acre thus situated is capable of yielding in vegetables twenty-fold its value as pasturage. such a meadow needs a few lines of underdrains and an irrigating ditch along the highest feasible level. deep plowing of low land will rarely bring up the sub-soil, and, after a good coat of lime, the application of manure may be carried to almost any extent, with good results assured in advance. if a meadow is not available, the farm gardener will do the next best thing, whatever that may be, in choosing a place for vegetables, trusting the rainfall and depending on manure and good tillage for satisfactory crops. =as to growing.=--the one point to be emphasized about the production of truck for market is that quick growth is necessary for quality, and, hence, for profits. good soil, good cultivation and sufficient moisture are the essentials for rapid growth. =as to marketing.=--a point of prime importance for all producers to remember is that price is largely a matter of taste and fancy. if the consumer can be attracted by the good appearance of vegetables or fruit, a sale is certain to be made. it will pay handsomely to keep at home all medium or second-quality stuff, offering nothing but the best for sale. [illustration: reproduction of a photograph taken in dock street wholesale market, philadelphia.] in the great wholesale and retail markets of philadelphia, new york and boston good stuff always moves quickly at fair prices, while poor stuff begs for buyers at rates yielding no profit to anybody. the wholesaler is frequently blamed for failure to obtain good prices when the fault is really with the producer, and is chargeable to poor stuff or poor packing. there is a good business opening everywhere for truckers who will ship only first-class stuff in new packages. such produce reaches what is known as the fancy trade, and there is more than a living in it for enterprising growers. truckers who rush their stuff to market in an unwashed, unsorted condition, in old or unclean baskets or boxes, may make expenses out of the business, but they will never do much more. there is a premium on quality and appearance. chapter iii. vegetables suited to farm culture everywhere. [illustration: loading the market wagon.] in this chapter are grouped a number of vegetables of easy culture. they may be grown with success almost anywhere. some of them are produced by market gardeners, but by reason of the amount of ground which they occupy they are more particularly adapted to horse culture by farmers. the chapter will treat briefly of asparagus, beans, beets, cabbage, carrots, sweet corn, horseradish, parsnip, potato, pumpkin and squash, salsify, tomato, turnip, etc. asparagus. asparagus demands a deep, rich, well-drained soil. its culture is profitable, and it yields ready cash at an early season of the year, when other sales are limited. the cutting term covers six weeks, beginning (at philadelphia) in the middle or latter part of april. cutting must here cease in june, in order to give the roots ample time to regain strength and make vigorous tops. the gross product per acre, near philadelphia, expressed in money, is, perhaps, $ at this time. [illustration: donald's elmira.] in selecting a situation for a bed, a warm spot should be chosen, having a deep and mellow soil, and with good natural or artificial drainage. a small area is better than a large one, as being more likely to receive sufficient manure; and it is desirable that the land should have been tilled for a year or two before the planting of the roots, and a heavy coat of manure incorporated with the soil--the more manure the better. =roots.=--the roots are set in early spring, in deep trenches, or feet apart, made with a plow. if the plow be run both ways and the loose dirt shovelled out, it is quite easy to reach a depth of or more inches. it is not material whether strong one-year-old roots or two-year-old roots be used. =varieties.=--as to varieties, it is almost as much a matter of culture as of name; still, there are better and worse kinds. asparagus varies in color from purple to green, and even to white. there are certain so-called mammoth sorts, whose shoots are larger, but less numerous than the old-fashioned kinds. there is a slight difference in flavor, also, but the preference of the local market must determine the farmer in making a choice of roots. if a green "grass" be preferred, that kind can be had from seedsmen; but, no matter how carefully the roots may be grown, there will be some slight variations in the color of the shoots, for asparagus does not always come true from seed. market gardeners usually sort their asparagus shoots at bunching time; always for size, and sometimes for color, especially when supplying a fancy trade. as a rule, it is wise to select a variety that will produce a good number of large-sized shoots, such as donald's elmira or barr's mammoth, and trust to manure and culture for the best results. quality of shoots depends on quick growth, and size depends somewhat on distance of the root under ground. the deeper the asparagus root under the surface, the larger in diameter will be the shoot, provided the plants are not crowded; a fact of which gardeners often take advantage by heaping soil up over the crowns of the plants during the growing season. asparagus.--donald's elmira is one of the best for the north. palmetto is the asparagus generally grown in the south. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =setting out.=--the young roots should be set carefully, crowns up, at intervals of - / to feet, in the deep furrows or trenches heretofore mentioned. a few inches of manure can be put in the bottom, covering slightly with soil and about inches of soil put upon them. the spaces between the rows may be cultivated during the first year, and some quick crop grown there. the working of this crop will gradually fill up the furrows about the stems of the young asparagus, which, during the first year, is quite small and insignificant in appearance. by fall, the furrows will be entirely filled and the surface of the patch level. the asparagus slug, the larva of the well-known beetle, may be kept down by occasionally dusting with slacked lime containing paris green. the following year the asparagus will show up to some advantage, but should not be cut. the third year (second after planting) will yield some marketable shoots; but cutting should not continue more than two or three weeks. the fourth year the bed may be said to be in full bearing. =treatment.=--the spring treatment of an asparagus bed in profit begins with a light plowing parallel with the rows, great care being observed to use a wheel on the plow so that not more than a few inches of soil may be turned, lest the crowns be cut and injured. the bed then lies until the cutting season is well advanced, when the plow may be again used. the first plowing was merely to break the surface of the ground and turn under the winter coat of manure, leaving the land level. the second plowing (if given) is to be toward the rows, for the purpose of throwing them further under the surface, so as to get larger shoots as warm weather advances. another plowing, very shallow, followed by harrow or cultivator, should be given at the end of the cutting season, in june, to destroy all weeds and to encourage summer growth of the asparagus. the patch should be kept clear of weeds during the summer, and growth encouraged by cultivation. in the late autumn the tops are mowed off and burned, as there seems to be no economic way of composting them, for, if moved to the compost heap or barnyard, they will seed the whole farm with asparagus. there should be a good coat of manure for winter protection, to be turned under in early spring, as already mentioned. =marketing.=--the preparation of the crop for market involves some time and trouble. the shoots are cut every day. some growers do the work early in the morning, and carry the bunches to market the same day. others cut and bunch one day, put in water over night and carry to market the following day. circumstances must decide which is best. [illustration: acme asparagus buncher, with knife guard.] if asparagus is to be shipped long distances, it must either be packed in open crates (like strawberry crates), or else thoroughly chilled by ice before starting. otherwise, it will heat and spoil. the usual asparagus bunch is just about the size of a dry-measure quart in diameter, and from to inches in length. in fact, a quart cup or tin fruit can is frequently used in shaping the bunch. home-made wooden bunchers are also in common use. the acme asparagus buncher is the best, coming in two sizes. the asparagus is tied in two places with raphia or soft string, and thus makes a neat and attractive package. the butts are cut off square with a knife after the bunch is finished, and in this shape asparagus will remain fresh for a long time, if kept standing in shallow water. in tying up the bunches the shoots are separated into two or three sizes. the small shoots are quite as good for food as the larger ones, but the latter always bring more money in market, which warrants the additional trouble involved. =salt.=--salt is frequently used on asparagus beds, but not always. salt is sometimes an indirect fertilizer, acting upon fertility already in the soil, and having a distinct tendency to attract and hold moisture, but it has no direct fertilizing influence. it has a beneficial effect in helping to check the growth of weeds. =fertilizers.=--kainit is an excellent thing for asparagus beds, as it contains a considerable percentage of sulphate of potash, which is a direct fertilizer. it also contains a fourth of its bulk of salt. ground bone, which contains nitrogen (ammonia) and phosphoric acid, is also a good thing to use on asparagus. it is very lasting in its action, and with the kainit makes a complete manure, especially in connection with the winter coat of stable manure. asparagus is a gross feeder, and will take almost any amount of fertilizer. market gardeners, who raise the most and best asparagus, depend mainly on enormous quantities of first-class stable manure; and this is probably the best fertilizer of all for this succulent and valuable vegetable. =tools.=--no special tools are demanded in asparagus culture, though such tools are on the market. any long knife will do for cutting the shoots, although a very good knife is especially made of solid steel, and can be bought for cents. the cut should be made just below the surface of the ground, care being taken not to injure other shoots just coming up. crooked shoots often make their appearance, resulting from injury done by the cutting knife. other causes, such as insects, hard soil, etc., produce crooked or deformed shoots. asparagus bunchers, made of wood and metal, mentioned in the seed catalogues, are sometimes used, the acme, heretofore referred to, being the best and cheapest. [illustration: solid steel asparagus knife.] any light plow with a wheel will answer for the asparagus bed. a light-weight harrow is also desirable. where asparagus trenches are laid out and dug by hand of course a garden line must be used, in order to have them straight and uniform. the practice of digging deep trenches for asparagus still prevails to some extent in private gardens, but the farm gardener must use cheaper methods. =roots per acre.=--with rows feet apart and plants feet apart in the rows, it is evident that each plant represents just square feet of space. hence, about , asparagus plants would be required for an acre of land set at these distances; they are, however, often set closer than this, sometimes at the rate of , roots and over per acre. an asparagus bed containing roots will supply an ordinary family. beans. bean-growing in a small way is fully warranted in every garden, but on a large scale it is a different question, being somewhat a matter of soil and location. =food value.=--the bean is one of the most excellent of human foods. its botanical kinship is close to the pea, and both are legumes. the leguminous plants, it will be remembered, have the rare ability of obtaining nitrogen through the tubercles on their roots, taking this expensive element partly from the air, and not greatly impoverishing the soil by their growth. something of the food value of the bean may be learned by comparing its chemical analysis with that of beef. in pounds of beans there are pounds of protein (nitrogenous matter), while in pounds of beef there are but about to pounds of protein. peas are almost as rich as beans in protein, which is the tissue-building element of all foods, and, hence, it is easy to realize the fact that both beans and peas are foods of the highest economic value. they are standard foods of the world, entering into the diet of soldiers, laborers and persons needing physical strength. it is generally safe to grow beans for the retail market of any town or centre of population, but to compete in the open wholesale market demands experience and good equipment on the part of the grower to insure profits. [illustration: improved round green pod extra early valentine bean.] =varieties and types.=--the varieties of beans are well-nigh endless. some demand poles, while some are dwarf, being called bush beans. the influence of man has developed the bean into a vast number of different forms, which frequently show a disposition to revert or go back to some ancestral type, no matter how carefully the seeds may be kept. the pole beans, in general terms, yield larger crops and bear through a longer season than the bush beans. the green-podded beans, as a rule, are more prolific and more hardy than the yellow-podded or wax beans. the climbers demand a whole season, and bear until frost. the bush beans are mostly employed where two or more crops are demanded per year from the ground. the so-called cut-short or snap-short beans are those in which the whole pod, in its green state, is used for food. they are of both types, climbing and bush. the lima forms include a number of distinct beans, differing greatly in size and shape and also in habit of growth. bush beans (green pod).--we recommend improved round pod extra early valentine; also, new giant stringless valentine. bush beans (yellow pod).--wardwell's kidney wax and davis' white wax are largely grown in the south for shipment north. valentine wax is recommended for the north. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." white field or soup beans.--we recommend day's leafless medium and new snowflake field. for descriptions of these and other varieties, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." pole lima beans.--we especially recommend ford's mammoth podded lima and siebert's early lima. pole snap beans.--golden andalusia wax is one of the best yellow-pod pole beans, and lazy wife's one of the best green-pod sorts. dwarf lima.--dreer's, burpee's and henderson's represent three distinct types. for full descriptions of beans, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =location.=--in choosing a spot for bean culture the farm gardener should select good mellow soil that has been manured the previous year. fresh manure produces an excessive growth of vine at the expense of pods. =making ready.=--much stable manure, which is rich in nitrogen, should be avoided. in good ordinary soil, with some rotted manure from the previous crop, the bean plant will do well. it will obtain nitrogen, in great part, from the air, as already explained. old manure is very favorable as a starter, as it contains the minute organisms mentioned in the preceding pages. complete fertilizers or those containing phosphoric acid and potash must be supplied. only nitrogen is derived from the air. =soil inoculation.=--the soil of a new bean patch is sometimes inoculated with soil from an old patch, to get quick action of the bacteria (little organisms), which form the lumps or tubercles on the roots. the scattering of a little soil over the surface is all that is required. care should be taken to avoid the transfer of soil for this purpose from a patch affected with rust or blight, as diseases are carried from place to place with only too much ease. =when to plant.=--beans may safely be planted when the apple is in bloom, in may; not so early as peas, as beans are less hardy. the ground should be dry and warm. beans of all kinds demand shallow planting, as the seeds must be lifted from the ground in the earliest process of growth. the seed swells, bursts, sends a shoot (radicle) downward, and the two parts of the seed, called the seed-leaves, are pushed up into the daylight. small round beans can take care of themselves, as they turn easily in the soil, but lima beans often perish in the effort to get above ground. this is why lima beans should always be planted eye down, and less than an inch deep. a half inch is deep enough for most beans. if lima beans are wanted extra early, they should be started on small squares of inverted sod, under glass. the earliest bush beans yield marketable pods within forty to fifty days from planting; the pole beans in from seventy to ninety days from planting. there should be successional plantings made of the bush beans from the first date to within fifty days of frost. the different types of beans are fully and carefully described in the seed catalogues. =distances.=--poles for beans should be set about feet apart each way; or, in single rows, about feet apart. not more than three or four plants should be allowed to a hill. wires stretched between posts, with strings down to the ground, are sometimes used. the bush beans are planted in rows feet apart for horse culture, or half that distance where a hoe or hand cultivator is to be used. the plants in the rows should stand or inches apart for best yield. [illustration: plant of the new valentine wax bean. the earliest wax or yellow podded snap short.] =on a large scale.=--in large field operations, where the dried bean is the object in view, a clover sod is a favorite location. the ground is enriched by or pounds of complete fertilizer, and the beans are planted with a grain drill, using every fourth tube. the culture is by horse-power, and the vines are pulled by hand or by means of a bean-harvester, and threshed with a flail or grain thresher. these white grocery beans are sold everywhere in large quantities. =cultivation.=--all bean cultivation should be shallow. nothing is gained by cutting the feeding roots. the climbing sorts twine "against the sun;" that is, in a contrary direction to the apparent motion of the sun. the shoots must be tied up several times, to keep them on their own poles. =diseases.=--the worst bean enemies are rust and blight. in new soil, with good weather, these troubles seldom appear. during prolonged wet weather there seems to be no help for them. spraying with bordeaux mixture is a preventive. the spraying should be done in advance of blossoming. the seed is sometimes soaked in bordeaux mixture for an hour where rust is anticipated. prevention is better than cure, and new soil and fresh seed are the best precautions. diseased vines should be burned. =insects.=--the weevil which attacks the bean is closely allied to the pea weevil. some practical people say there is no remedy known; others recommend heating the beans to ° for an hour; others use bisulphide of carbon in a closed vessel, along with the beans. =profits.=--by far the largest cash receipts per acre are obtained by selling beans in their fresh state; preferably in the pods. the production of bush beans (pods) may run up to or bushels per acre, or even more. lima beans are more profitably sold in the pods than shelled, though some markets demand the shelled article. the consumer gets a fresher and better article in the pods, and the producer is saved much trouble, and this method should be encouraged. beans should be cooled, if possible, before shipment in bulk to distant markets, thus avoiding danger from heating, moulding and spotting. beets. beets are produced in enormous quantities by market gardeners near all large cities, both under glass and in the open ground. they also have a place in the farm garden, as they are of easy culture. [illustration: crosby's improved egyptian, the earliest blood turnip beet.] excellence in the table beet depends partly on variety, but mainly on the quickness of growth. sweetness and succulence result from high culture in rich, mellow soil. mangels and sugar beets, of course, have a place on every farm, for stock-feeding purposes, and table beets may also be grown, if good soil is available, for market purposes. the winter-keeping sorts are frequently in demand, and may be included among the farmer's cash crops. no amount of stable manure is excessive in beet-growing. partially rotted manure is best. for horse culture the rows should be feet apart. five to six pounds of seed will plant an acre. planting.--planting may be done as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring, as the beet is hardy, and not injured by a little frost; and successional plantings may be made until june. the june sowing will produce autumn beets, which can be stored for winter use or sale. it is well to soak the seed in tepid water before planting; it should be scattered thinly in the rows and lightly covered. in dry weather the soil must be pressed firmly on the seed, to insure sufficient moisture for germination. the plants in the rows should be thinned out to or inches. it is very important to remember that the more space each plant has about it the sooner will it reach a marketable size. beet plants standing inches apart in the row will be ready long before plants standing only inches apart. beets vary in shape very considerably. some are round and some are long, with intermediate grades. the turnip-shaped beets are the earliest, while the half-longs and longs are the heaviest. for market purposes, if sold in bunches, the round ones are the most profitable. [illustration: ford's perfected half-long beet. the best winter keeper.] the color of the foliage varies greatly; but the color of the leaf is not always typical of the root. some of the blood beets have green leaves. there are many shades and colors of the roots, from deepest blood red to white, with zones of pink. the beet is an excellent and highly esteemed article of food, and is always in demand. beets.--for earliest, we especially recommend crosby's improved egyptian and surprise; for winter, ford's perfected half-long. please see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =marketing and storing.=--a bunch contains five, six or seven beets, with tops tied together and superfluous leaves cut off. the bunching and topping may be done in the field, and the bunches afterward washed in a tub of water, by means of a scrubbing brush. it always pays to send roots to market in a clean and attractive condition. winter storage in cellars, under sand, is often practiced; or the beets may be kept in pits in the open ground, covered with straw and earth. =enemies.=--the beet is remarkably free from enemies of any kind. the root sometimes cracks, and is occasionally attacked by insects, but the farmer or gardener has little to fear if soil be good and weather be favorable. all farmers attending market should have a few beets to help make up the weekly load for the wagon. cabbage. early cabbage is not a farm gardener's crop at the north, though in the southern states the early varieties can be grown by farmers for shipment to the great northern markets. the northern farmer, unless provided with glass, usually finds more profit in the later and larger sorts, which mature in autumn. =soil.=--rich, loamy soil, containing much clay, is best for this vegetable, which is a rank feeder. large amounts of manure are demanded. the manure is best applied in a partially rotted form, as fresh manure of any kind (especially hog manure) is liable to produce the disease or deformity known as club-root, the spores of the disease apparently being in the fresh manure; though land too long cropped with cabbage is likely to produce the same disease without the application of fresh manure of any kind. [illustration: early jersey wakefield cabbage.] =seed.=--it is of especial importance that good seed be planted, as cabbage varies so much and shows such a disposition to go back to undesirable types that great dissatisfaction and loss attend all experiments with poorly-selected seed. the choice of seed not infrequently determines the size and success of the crop. expert cabbage growers are well aware of this fact. [illustration: johnson & stokes 'market gardeners' no. , valuable for early summer or winter cabbage.] =planting.=--the manure should be broadcasted, and an ample amount used, with a high-grade fertilizer in the row. the young plants, previously started in a seed-bed, should (at the north) be set out in july. the seed for late cabbage is planted in may. a quarter pound of seed will give enough plants for an acre. the rows should be feet apart, and the plants - / feet apart in the rows. these distances favor good cultivation and quick growth. in some parts of new england the seed is sown in the open field, in rows where the cabbage is to grow, but the practice of transplanting from seedbeds is found most satisfactory. the rainfall here usually insures a fair crop of cabbage, but any crop which requires transplanting in midsummer is liable to delay or injury in case of protracted dry weather. hence, irrigation is desirable. at the distances just recommended for planting ( � - / feet) there would be , plants to the acre. in the case of such varieties as johnson & stokes' earliest and jersey wakefield cabbage, where the number of plants per acre would be perhaps , , the michigan experiment station obtained , more marketable heads per acre under irrigation than where water was not used upon the growing crop. (this fact is mentioned in a book on irrigation just issued by the publishers of this book). =varieties.=--the earliest varieties of cabbage have small, conical heads; the midsummer sorts mostly round heads; and the late or drumhead sorts have large, flat heads. there are cabbages which never head; as, for instance, the collards of the south; and there are varieties of crinkled-leaf cabbages, known as the savoy types. the kales are closely related to the cabbages. both cabbages and kales have purple-colored forms, sometimes called red forms. cabbage.--for early varieties for the south, we recommend johnson & stokes' earliest, early jersey wakefield and charleston wakefield; for both early and late in the north, johnson & stokes' market gardeners' no. , louderback's all the year round; for late varieties for the north, new rock head winter, johnson & stokes' matchless flat dutch, danish ball head. the johnson & stokes' hard heading savoy cabbage is of rare excellence. for descriptions of the many varieties of cabbage, please see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =cultivation.=--thorough horse cultivation between the rows should be supplemented by a hand-hoe between the plants in the rows. the cultivation must be good and continuous until the heads begin to form. =diseases and insects enemies.=--club root has been mentioned. it is a fungous trouble. the best remedy is new ground. the black flea on very young plants can be conquered with air-slacked lime or wood ashes. the cut worm is troublesome only in spring; not with late cabbage. the root maggot is sometimes very destructive, both with cabbage and cauliflower. new ground is the most satisfactory remedy. green aphides or lice often follow lack of strength in the cabbage. pyrethrum powder, air-slacked lime, kerosene emulsion, etc., are used as remedies for lice. the pyrethrum may be used dry or in water, at the rate of a tablespoonful to two gallons. the green cabbage worm, one of the worst of all enemies, can be pretty effectually checked by means of air-slaked lime dusted over the leaves. other caterpillars yield to the same treatment. =bursting.=--bursting of cabbage heads is caused by a second growth, the result, perhaps, of continued wet weather, or warm weather following cold weather. the best remedy is to cut part of the feeding roots, either by close cultivation or with a hoe. =selling.=--cabbage prices vary between extremes that are far separated. early cabbage usually sells at a good profit. summer and autumn prices may be low. winter and spring prices are almost always fair, and occasionally extra. pennsylvania farmers sometimes ship to wholesalers in the cities and sometimes sell at public sale in the open field, in the autumn, just as the crop stands. the latter plan is an excellent one, where auction prices warrant it. it avoids the cost and risk of storage, as each buyer removes and stores his purchase. =storage.=--cabbage will bear much freezing without injury. the art of winter storage is to put it where it will have the fewest changes of temperature, and where it will be cool and damp without being wet. the most common practice is to cover two or three rows of inverted heads, with roots attached, with from to inches of soil, making provision for good drainage by ditches on both sides of the wedge-shaped heap. [illustration: cutting johnson & stokes' earliest cabbage for market. photographed june st, in the field of messrs. myers & bowman, the well-known philadelphia market gardeners. this was the first home-grown cabbage in philadelphia markets.] this system may be modified so as to include six or more rows of inverted cabbage, the heap being flat instead of wedge-shaped on top. it does not turn water so well, but in practice is usually satisfactory. a good plan is to use about inches of soil, and to add straw or litter as the cold increases. under a steady low temperature it is no trouble to keep cabbage through the winter, but it is hard to provide against the many changes of our variable climate. [illustration: johnson & stokes' matchless late flat dutch cabbage.] where heads are to be carried over for seed, or where it is intended to head up soft cabbages during the winter (a feasible thing) the roots are set downward instead of upward. if care be taken to remove the roots without much injury, they may be set in furrows or trenches, and the earth heaped over the cabbages just as in the several ways above mentioned, and they will make decided growth during their life under ground. in fact, a cabbage with any sort of immature head in november will, under proper management, be in good marketable condition in march or april. solid freezing in the trenches is not necessarily destructive, but if the temperature falls much below ° (at the point occupied by the heads), there is danger that they will perish. they may be in good edible condition after such severe freezing, but the chances are that they will fail to grow if set out for seed. the cabbage decays with a strong, offensive smell when its tissues finally break down after repeated changes of temperature and moisture. a uniform temperature is favored by the use of earth in storage, and though storage in buildings and cellars is quite feasible, there is nothing better or cheaper than the soil of the open field. if the crop is not all to be marketed at one time, it is well to make a number of separate trenches, so that each can be wholly cleared of its contents at a single opening. these trenches and ridges must be made upon dry ground, where there is no standing water. =for stock.=--cabbages make good food for cows, but should be fed after milking; and frozen cabbages should never be fed in any considerable quantity, as they are liable to cause hoven or bloat. carrots. a sandy soil or light loam is best for carrots, but they will grow anywhere under good culture. enormous quantities are grown by the market gardeners, both under glass and in the open ground, for use in soups and for seasoning purposes. the short or half-long varieties are demanded by this trade. [illustration: average specimens of rubicon half-long carrots.] farm gardeners will do best with half-long and long kinds, unless a special demand calls for the smaller carrots. the large half-long and long ones are suited to both culinary and stock-feeding purposes. it requires from three to four pounds of seed to the acre, depending on the distance between the rows. the plants should be from to inches apart in the rows, and the rows as near together as is feasible for horse work. clean culture is demanded. the seed must be planted shallow, and may go into the ground as early as it can be worked in the spring, and from that time until the middle of june. the only danger about late planting is the possibility of dry weather. the carrot is quite free from insect or other enemies, as a rule, and its culture is not difficult. it demands thinning and hoeing after the plants are well above ground, but no extra attention of any kind. the winter storage is the same as for beets or turnips, either to be put away in earth-covered heaps or preserved in a cool, non-freezing root cellar. the so-called belgian carrots (both yellow and white) are used only as stock food; though the other sorts, such as rubicon, danvers and long orange, if in excess of market demands, are equally good for stock. cows and horses are fond of them, and they are most wholesome. the farm gardener should raise them, however, for their cash value in the produce markets. the carrot is in high favor with good cooks everywhere. the carrot does not demand excessively rich ground; in fact, too much manure tends to stimulate the growth of the top at the expense of the root, and fresh manure makes the root rough. the smaller carrots are bunched and sold like radishes or early beets. the larger kinds are sold by measure--about cents or more per basket at this time (january, ). this is at the rate of $ . per barrel, or about $ per acre. the crop is a good one, if near a market where carrots are demanded. carrot.--we especially recommend rubicon half-long for market or stock. see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." sweet corn. there is no money crop more available to the farm gardener than sweet corn. it will grow anywhere, and the young ears are always in demand. any sod land plowed shallow will yield a crop of sweet corn. it is easy in this latitude to have an unbroken succession of marketable ears from july st to october st, or even somewhat earlier and later. shallow plowing and the use of a little fertilizer or compost in the hills will put the ground in order. a complete fertilizer is best. a compost containing hen manure is excellent. =planting.=--eight or ten quarts of seed are required to plant an acre of corn in hills, allowing for replanting of what is injured by grubs or other causes. the larger varieties should be planted feet by ; the rows feet apart and the hills feet apart, with not more than three stalks in a hill. the smaller varieties may be grown much closer-- feet by . any method may be used in laying out a corn field that will give each stalk (of the large kinds) the equivalent of square feet of ground space. the dwarf sweet corns demand about half that space. =varieties.=--the sweet corns require from sixty to eighty days to produce ears fit for boiling. the earliest varieties are small, and are lacking in sweetness as compared to the best intermediate types. still, the early prices are so much better than midsummer prices, that the early varieties will always be grown for market. indeed, the best profits of the business are from the extra early and extra late sales. sweet corn should not be grown by shippers who are distant more than twenty-four hours from market, as the ears lose quality and flavor soon after being pulled from the stalks. forty-eight hours from market is an extreme distance, but is feasible if the ears can be chilled in a cold storage house previous to shipment; otherwise, they will heat and spoil. even when designed for a near-by market a load of sweet corn ears may heat and spoil during a single night. it is best to scatter them upon the grass, if pulled during the afternoon for shipment the following morning. the most profit to the grower will be found in ears which are not too large, as corn is often sold by the dozen, the large sorts being too weighty. the early kinds, though small, can be planted closely, and a large number of ears secured; and they are out of the way so soon that the ground can be used for celery or other late crop. celery can be set out between the rows of corn, and thus be shaded to some extent during the critical period following transplanting. the evergreens, early and late, and the shoe-peg types, such as country gentleman and zig zag evergreen, are among the sweetest of all. the grains are of irregular shape and arrangement, and the appearance of the ears is not altogether prepossessing. when once known, however, they are in demand by consumers. the red-cob corns should be cooked by dropping into boiling water. if cooked slowly, the red color of the cob affects the appearance of the grains. sweet corn.--for first early, we recommend burlington hybrid and mammoth white cory. the former closely resembles a true sugar corn in appearance. for second early, early champion and new early evergreen; for late, original stowell's evergreen, country gentleman, zig zag evergreen. see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual" for descriptions of varieties. =cultivation, enemies, etc.=--shallow culture, frequently repeated, is demanded by sweet corn. the growth at first is timid and slow; afterward, if well cultivated, the stalks grow with great rapidity and vigor. [illustration: new early evergreen sweet corn.] to make the most of the stalks, they should be cut as soon as possible after the last ears have gone to market and fed to stock. sweet corn stalks when dry make excellent fodder. the main enemies of corn are the cut worm, which is only troublesome in spring; a fungus which attacks the ears and which is always most prevalent on the small, early sorts; and a worm which cuts and injures the grain while the corn is in milk. crows sometimes pull up the seeds, but can be disposed of by scattering a little yellow corn on the surface of the ground around the edges of the field. as the crow destroys many cut worms, it is better to feed him with corn than to shoot him. the prevalence of fungus-troubled or smutty corn is probably a symptom of weakness, the result of planting too early, or of too much wet weather. all plants that are weak are liable to fungus attacks, and it is the early corn that suffers most. this corn is often planted before the ground is sufficiently warm, and there is a consequent weakness of growth. indian corn, at philadelphia, should not be planted before may th, and yet it is not uncommon to see gardeners planting sweet corn two weeks earlier. they say they are "going to risk it." the result may be a good crop of corn, or it may be a crop of worms and fungus. of course, the high price of the first corn in market is the excuse for the unseasonable date of planting. but it is not quite fair to blame the seed or the variety of corn for what is partly the result of the gardener's impatience. all traces of smut on corn stalks should be burned, and not allowed to be fed to cattle. =the corn worm.=--far more destructive and disastrous than smut is the corn worm (heliothis armiger). this is the cotton worm of the south, there called boll worm. it is also sometimes called the tomato worm. it is the larva of a day-flying moth. the difficulty in dealing with it is that when in the corn ear it is out of the reach of poisonous applications of any kind. its depredations are extensive, especially in early corn. it prefers corn to all other foods, and cotton planters protect their crops by planting early corn in the cotton fields and then destroying the corn and the worms within the ears. the best remedy at the north is to feed all wormy ears to pigs; and to plow the corn land in autumn, when the insects are in the pupa or chrysalis state. if turned up by the plow, it is believed that they mostly perish. the worms are said to be cannibals, eating each other to a great extent. this worm is, perhaps, the greatest enemy with which the grower of sweet corn has to contend. the plan of feeding wormy ears to pigs offers the double advantage of destroying the enclosed pests, while at the same time fattening the pigs. =successional planting.=--the skillful farmer will arrange successional plantings of corn, beginning (at philadelphia) may th and ending about july th. the first and last plantings should be of the early sorts; the intermediate plantings of the full-sized varieties. =profits.=--profits depend on location. the size of the crop should approximate , dozens of ears per acre, and the gross receipts should be $ to $ per acre, more or less, above the value of the fodder. =suckering.=--time is often spent in pulling the suckers from the stalks of sweet corn. such time is wasted. if the suckers are let alone they will not reduce the number or quality of the marketable ears. horseradish. farmers who have soil that is both rich and deep can find profit in growing horseradish on a large scale, in connection with early peas, beans or sweet corn. the sets are planted in may, in the rows between crops, and after the crops are removed the horseradish makes its main growth. it is perfectly hardy, and comes on rapidly during the late summer and autumn months. where the ground is not strong enough to produce large roots the first year, the business will not prove very remunerative. =the sets.=--horseradish sets are made by cutting small roots ( / to / inch in thickness) into pieces or inches long. the upper end is cut square off; the lower end with a slope. this is to get them right end up at planting time. the small roots are available in quantities in the autumn, when the large roots are trimmed for market. the sets are kept in sand during the winter, or buried in the open ground, in a carefully-marked spot, where they can be easily found in the spring. if planted feet apart in rows feet apart, each plant will represent square feet of space, and, hence, about , sets will be needed for an acre. the method of planting is to strike out rows, and with a long dibber or crowbar make holes or inches deep. a set is dropped into each hole and the earth pressed about it. [illustration: ideal hollow crown parsnip.] shoots will soon appear above the surface, and when the early crop has been removed from the land, the horseradish should be well cultivated once or twice. little further attention is needed. the roots should be lifted the same year, in december, and stored in an earth-covered heap or pit, or else in sand in a root cellar. the small lateral roots should be saved for the next year's sets. there is a good demand for horseradish, both wholesale and retail; but prices should be ascertained before going into the business in a large way. good roots, after trimming and washing, should weigh half a pound or more each. parsnip. the cultural requirements of the parsnip are quite similar to those of the carrot. any soil that is deep mellow and moderately rich may be used for parsnips. fresh manure is to be avoided, as it makes the roots rough. [illustration: mammoth sandwich island salsify as bunched for market.] the seed should be planted in early spring, while the ground is moist, as it germinates very slowly. it should be covered to a depth of half an inch, and the soil pressed down firmly. the plants must be thinned out to stand or inches apart. the parsnip is a vegetable of a perfectly hardy character. it may remain in the ground, just where it grows, all winter. the flavor is said to be improved by hard freezing, and no amount of freezing will hurt it. it has a high value as human food, and is demanded in large quantities in some markets. it also has a high value as a stock food, especially for cows. it should be fed after milking, in quantities not sufficient to taint the milk. the price is variable, but about the same as the carrot. parsnip.--we recommend ideal hollow crown. for description, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." salsify or oyster plant. salsify, oyster plant or vegetable oyster is a root of easy culture and of high food value. in shape it resembles the carrot and parsnip, and is as perfectly hardy as the latter. the seed should be sown an inch under the surface, in spring, in rows - / to - / feet apart, and the plants thinned to stand inches apart in the rows. the culture is the same as for parsnips. fresh manure must be avoided, as it makes the roots ill-shaped. the roots, under good treatment, will exceed an inch in diameter, and may attain a size of inches or more. they may remain in the ground over winter, to be taken up whenever the frost permits or they may be taken up in late autumn and preserved in sand in a cellar. good salsify is in demand where its merits are known. the potato. the cultivation of the potato is so well understood by every american farmer and gardener that it seems unnecessary to discuss the details of cutting the tubers, planting, cultivating, harvesting, etc. the weak points of potato culture are most commonly the fertilizing and the treatment of diseases. these will be briefly discussed. as to lack of moisture, to be remedied by artificial watering, the reader is referred to our new book, entitled, "irrigation by cheap modern methods," in which a case is mentioned where water alone made a difference of bushels per acre in the crop. potatoes.--best for the south, bliss triumph, pride of the south, crown jewel, early thoroughbred. general crop in the north--houlton early rose, table king, late puritan, rural new-yorker no. . for descriptions of these and other varieties, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =fertilizing.=--a ton of potatoes ( - / bushels) contains · pounds of nitrogen (equal to · pounds of ammonia), · pounds of phosphoric acid and pounds of potash. this shows that nitrogen and potash are the elements mainly abstracted from the soil by a crop of potatoes. an analysis is not an infallible index of what must be applied to any soil, for that soil may be naturally rich in some one fertilizing element and deficient in the others. only experiment will determine what is best. but a knowledge of the analysis of the crop is necessary to intelligent experimentation. nitrogen and potash will evidently be demanded in most cases, yet the ohio station recently reports that "phosphoric acid has been the controlling factor in the increase of the potato yields" in the trials made there. this shows how greatly soils vary in their requirements. [illustration: harvesting seed potatoes near houlton, aroostook county, maine.] barnyard manure would answer all purposes and would be an ideal potato fertilizer, except for the fact that it so often carries with it the spores of such diseases as blight, scab and rot. still, barnyard manure in a partly rotted condition is very widely used by potato growers. clover sod is an excellent source of nitrogen, as heretofore explained. the clover is, perhaps, the best of the leguminous crops for green manuring purposes. many successful potato farmers depend largely upon clover, supplementing it with a small amount of high-grade complete fertilizer in the rows. where phosphoric acid is necessary, it can be had in the form of ground bone or acidulated rock, and potash can be had in the form of sulphate or as kainit. where the scab is prevalent, it may prove better to use kainit, on account of the salt which it contains, as will be presently explained. =planting.=--it requires from seven to ten bushels of tubers to plant an acre. some growers use as much as fifteen bushels. the date of planting, depth, distance between rows, etc., are details for individual determination. flat culture is better than ridge culture, so far as conservation of moisture is concerned. it is important that good northern-grown seed be planted; tubers which have not lost their strength by excessive sprouting. storage in a cool, dark, dry place is best for potatoes. whether planted early or late, or at successional dates, must be determined by the market requirements of the grower. =varieties.=--the varieties of potatoes are many, and while it is wise to experiment in a small way on new kinds, it is best to depend for business purposes on standard sorts that have been fully tested. =irrigation.=--after the farmer has exhausted his best efforts in the preparation and fertilization of the soil, and after good seed has been planted and the best possible culture given, there may come a season of prolonged drouth that will defeat his purpose of securing a large crop. this result is not common, but neither is it rare; and where farmers are looking toward the high culture of certain special crops, it would be well for them to consider the matter of artificially watering their potato fields. [illustration: an average tuber of table king, one of the best all around potatoes.] =diseases and enemies.=--not counting dry weather, which sometimes robs the farmer of two-thirds of his crop, there are four diseases which exert a disastrous influence on the potato, and which are liable to occur any season. two of these diseases are of the leaf and stem and two of the tubers. the two leaf troubles are respectively known as blight or downy mildew and the macrosporium disease. the two tuber troubles are scab and rot. =leaf blights.=--no attempt will be made here to separately describe the two leaf diseases. both destroy the foliage and check the further growth of both vine and tuber. the leaves turn brown or black, and the stem quickly wilts and falls. there can be no growth of tuber without vigorous health of vine. spraying with bordeaux mixture, in advance of the occurrence of any disease, is recommended. bordeaux mixture for this purpose is made by using six pounds of copper sulphate and four pounds of quick lime, dissolved in separate wooden vessels, and the lime water poured into the dissolved blue stone. this should be diluted with water sufficient to fill a forty-five gallon barrel. paris green to the amount of from one-quarter to three-quarters of a pound to the barrel should be added, to destroy beetles and other insects. the vines should be sprayed five or six times, beginning when they are inches high, at intervals of ten days or two weeks. during rainy weather the spraying should be more frequent than during clear weather. the object is to prolong the life and vigor of the vines. the cost of the five or six sprayings, including labor at $ . per day, is put at not above $ per acre, while the crop at stake may be affected to the extent of scores of bushels. =scab and rot.=--the evidence about scab and rot is still contradictory, but it is likely that these diseases will presently be under control. at the new jersey station, professor halsted completely conquered scab with an application of pounds of flowers of sulphur per acre scattered in the rows, while the same treatment at the ohio station was less successful. at the latter station benefit was found in the use of salt, kainit, sulphate of potash, etc. the various experiments and observations on potato scab and rot seem to indicate that scab flourishes best on a soil inclined to be alkaline, while rot is most prevalent on a soil inclined to be acid. the use of lime increases scab, while the use of kainit diminishes it. the best practice, therefore, under present knowledge, would be to use clean seed on new ground, avoiding fresh stable manure. clean seed can be had by treating tubers with corrosive sublimate. this substance is dissolved to the amount of - / ounces, in two gallons of hot water, and (after standing a day) diluted with water so as to make fifteen gallons. in this solution the uncut seed potatoes should be soaked for an hour and a half. all unplanted seed potatoes should be destroyed, as the corrosive sublimate is highly poisonous. the use of sulphur, as recommended by professor halsted, will prove entirely satisfactory in some soils. in others, the use of kainit or sulphate of potash or acid phosphate would no doubt be found preferable. where soil is badly affected with disease germs, it is unquestionably better to seek a new field than to attempt to disinfect the old one. a rotation of crops will probably restore diseased land to health more cheaply and more thoroughly than any other process. =profits.=--of potato profits it is not necessary to speak, except to remark that it costs but little more to produce bushels to the acre than bushels. there can be no doubt whatever that it pays handsomely to spray potato vines with the bordeaux mixture. pumpkins and squashes. [illustration: mammoth golden cashaw pumpkin, one of the best for market or stock feeding.] there is no clear dividing line between pumpkins and squashes, as they belong to the same botanic family--the cucurbita. some members of the group are clearly pumpkins, and others just as clearly squashes, but when an attempt is made to draw a sharp line between them, we get into difficulty. in general terms the pumpkin has a soft rind or shell and the squash a hard rind. but even this thumbnail test is not infallible. these vegetables belong on the farm, on account of the large ground space occupied by the vines. pumpkins may be economically grown in corn fields, the seeds being planted along with the corn--one pumpkin seed to every fourth hill. no special care is needed besides the cultivation given the corn. farmers should give far more attention to growing squashes, as they are much superior to pumpkins in food quality, both for the table and for stock. there are numbers of excellent squashes now catalogued by the seedsmen which many farmers have never tried, but which are worthy of cultivation for market purposes. when a farmer by experiment has found a high-quality squash adapted to his soil, he has put himself in possession of a product of permanent market value. pumpkin.--we especially recommend mammoth golden cashaw and winter luxury. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." squash.--early varieties--mammoth white bush scalloped, giant summer crookneck. winter-keeping varieties--sweet nut, faxon, chicago warted, hubbard, early prolific orange marrow. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." tomatoes. tomatoes may justly be rated among the leading crops available to farm gardeners. there is always a brisk market for selected, carefully-washed tomatoes, packed in new baskets. such produce is seldom offered in excessive quantities. any good corn land will produce good tomatoes. excessive manuring is likely to stimulate the vines at the expense of the fruit. a little complete fertilizer or compost in the hills is desirable. tomato seed of early varieties should be started under glass. the seed is sown on heat and the plants once or twice transplanted, and put in the open ground as soon as danger of frost is over. little is gained by setting out too early, when the ground is cool. the tomato is of tropical origin, and makes rapid growth only at a temperature of ° or upward. indeed, it is suspected that one of the worst diseases to which the tomato is liable, the blight, is encouraged, if not wholly caused by too early planting in the open ground. =varieties and planting.=--at feet apart each way, it will require about , tomato plants for an acre of land. in open field culture the tomato is always allowed to lie upon the ground. in garden culture, it is often tied to stakes or supported on trellises. three ounces of seed will raise sufficient plants for an acre. there are many varieties of tomatoes, including the early and late market sorts, the yellow kinds, and the little pear-shaped and plum-shaped tomatoes, both red and yellow, used in pickling. the ideal market tomato is one of medium size and smooth shape. it must have firmness and depth, and the quality of ripening evenly all over. there should be neither greenness nor wrinkles around the calyx, nor should the fruit be of irregular shape. as to color, it is a matter of taste and neighborhood preference. some markets demand red and some purple fruit. tomato.--we recommend, for earliest, atlantic prize and money maker; for second early and main crop, brinton's best, new fortune; for late, brandywine, cumberland red, stone. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =successional planting.=--if the first tomato plants be set in the open ground (at philadelphia) may th to th, there should be at least one and preferably two later crops, because young, vigorous plants yield the most and best fruit. it is good practice to sow tomato seed in the open ground, say about middle of may, and again somewhat later. these out-of-door plants will come forward very rapidly, and will be ready to produce late summer and autumn crops. [illustration: atlantic prize tomatoes, as they appear for sale on fruit stands, etc., during the spring months.] =cultivation.=--the tomato is of the easiest cultivation, and will grow even under neglect, but it so abundantly repays attention, that no farmer can afford to be careless about the matter. the nights of may are cool in the north, and the newly-set plant at first makes little growth. cultivator and hand-hoe should both be kept in motion during this period, and in june also. in the latter month the tomato will make a sudden leap toward maturity, and will yield ripe fruit in july. the out-of-doors cropping season lasts for three full months. the tomato is now grown under glass almost everywhere, and is to be had in the market during all the months of the year. [illustration: the great b. b. (brinton's best) tomato, best for main crop.] the out-of-doors season is profitably prolonged by picking all the mature or nearly mature fruit when the first frost comes, in october, and placing these unripe tomatoes on straw in a cold frame. covered with straw and with the sash to keep out frost, the fruit ripens in a satisfactory manner for several weeks. such a frame must be well ventilated or the tomatoes will rot rather than ripen. [illustration: new fortune, one of the best second early tomatoes.] =diseases and enemies.=--tomato diseases, fortunately, are not numerous. blight sometimes sweeps off a whole field of early-set tomato plants, on farms where later plantings are quite healthy. this favors the theory that blight results from weakness caused by early planting in cold ground. it is a fungous disease, and may sometimes be prevented by the use of bordeaux mixture. the same remedy is the best known preventive of black rot. potato bugs may be either hand-picked or poisoned with paris green. the tobacco worm sometimes causes much damage to the tomato. all diseased or blighted tomato vines should be promptly burned, and the crop carried to new soil the following year. =marketing, profits, etc.=--as already stated, choice tomatoes in clean baskets are always in demand, and a new basket will usually pay for itself on a single sale. the sum of $ per acre may be quoted as the average gross receipts from tomatoes at present prices. this estimate is based on the low yield of a half-peck of fruit to each vine at cents per basket. if sold retail, the tomatoes would command more money, while if sold in bulk to a canning factory the gross receipts might be larger or smaller, depending on the size of the general crop and other circumstances. turnips and ruta bagas. turnips and ruta bagas are closely related. the latter are turnips in fact, and are frequently called swedes. the common method on many farms is to sow turnips broadcast, but it is a far better practice to sow both these and the ruta bagas in drills, so that they can be kept clear of weeds and worked by horse-power. not only are these advantages secured, but the row system makes it possible to take out the superfluous plants, and secure roots of uniform size and shape. turnips and ruta bagas have high economic value as foods, both for humanity and for live stock. =turnips.=--turnips are grown for market purposes both in spring and in fall. in the spring the seed should be sown early, in mellow soil. for the fall crop the seed may be sown either in july or august. the rows in garden or field may be as close as can be conveniently worked. turnip.--for earliest, we recommend purple top and white milan. for fall crop, mammoth purple top globe and golden ball. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." [illustration: budlong or breadstone turnip.] =ruta bagas or swedes.=--the seed of ruta baga or swedish turnip should be sown (in the latitude of philadelphia) in july, a little earlier than the seed of the common turnip. the ground should be well enriched with rotted manure, the rows - / to feet apart, the seed covered to the depth of half an inch, and the plants afterward thinned out so as to stand or inches apart in the row. the crop is almost always large and satisfactory. ruta baga.--we recommend myer's purple top beauty and budlong. for descriptions, see our "garden and farm manual." [illustration: myer's purple top beauty ruta baga.] =storage.=--turnips of all kinds sell well in the winter markets, to say nothing of their high value as stock foods. they are easily preserved in root cellars, covered with sand, or in pits in dry soil, covered with straw and earth to prevent freezing. [illustration: distribution of water through home-made hose pipe. an illustration from our new book--"irrigation by cheap modern methods." no gardener should miss reading this work. see page .] chapter iv. vegetables suited to farm culture in some locations. in this portion of the book are grouped a number of vegetables not adapted to every farm or location. the list includes celery, water cress, cucumbers, egg plants, kale, lettuce, melons, mushrooms, onions, peas, radishes, rhubarb, spinach, sweet potato, etc. where favored locations for their production exist on farms they may be grown with profit, if markets are accessible. celery. on very many farms there are meadows with deep, rich soils that are now lying under grass; or, worse, under tussocks and swamp weeds. some locations are subject to disastrous overflow during freshets, but innumerable spots exist where such meadows could with safety be converted into celery gardens, capable of easy irrigation, either situated above the level of floods or susceptible of artificial protection by means of cheap embankments. such situations are entirely too valuable to use for pasturage. they are the truck gardens of the future. =perfect celery.=--the object in celery-growing is to produce thick, robust, tender, solid, crisp, sweet leaf stalks, free from rust or insect attacks. the essentials are rich land and plenty of water, and skill is required in the two points of bleaching and storing. but there are no mysterious processes to be learned. the kalamazoo growers have, it is true, a rare advantage in their deep muck soil, with a permanent water level only a few inches or feet below the surface, but their success depends on accuracy of working detail almost as much as on perfection of soil. it is not necessary to go to michigan for good celery ground. =fertilizers.=--the best known fertilizer for celery is thoroughly rotted barnyard manure. fresh manure is to be avoided for several reasons. it is less available for plant food, more likely to produce rust, and more liable to open the soil and render it too dry. commercial fertilizers are not infrequently used, but there is a decided preference among many celery growers for the rotted stable product. shallow plowing ( inches) is practiced, as celery roots do not go deep. =planting.=--it requires from , to , celery plants to the acre, according to their distances apart. in the intense culture at the great celery centres two crops (and even three crops) of celery are grown upon the land per year, by a system of planting between rows, but in the operations of farm gardeners not more than one crop per season is grown. this may follow an earlier market crop, such as peas, beans, onions or sweet corn, though where the farmer is hard pushed with other work, the celery may be grown without any other crop preceding it, but not upon newly-turned sod land, as the earth should be loose and mellow. seed for early celery must be started under glass, but the farmer will find his best celery market in the autumn. april will, therefore, be ample time for sowing the seed, which should be scattered thinly in rows in finely-raked mellow soil in the open ground, and covered lightly. the seed is very slow to germinate, and the bed should be copiously watered until the plants are well started. in small operations, it is well to transplant at least once. in large operations, the plants are thinned out in the original rows, and carried from thence direct to the field. the upper leaves and the tips of the roots are cut off, and the plants are set firmly in the soil by means of a dibber. [illustration: j. & s. golder self-blanching celery prepared for market.] =dates and distances.=--july is a proper time for setting out celery; preferably after a rain or during dull weather. the rows may be from to feet apart, depending on the purpose of the planter, and the plants or inches apart in the rows. if the celery is to be stored for blanching, -feet rows may be used. if it is to be blanched in the field, the distance between the rows should be greater, so that more loose soil will be available for hilling. one ounce of celery seed will furnish , to , plants. a half pound is sufficient to furnish plants for an acre. even on good ground celery should not be set out later than august th (in the latitude of philadelphia), and preferably earlier. the system of level planting is practiced by large growers everywhere. trenching is still followed in some private gardens, but is too expensive for commercial operations. =varieties.=--the so-called dwarf and half-dwarf varieties have pushed the larger kinds out of the market almost entirely, though seed of the giant sorts can still be obtained. the dwarf kinds are large enough for all purposes, however, and are in best favor everywhere. they are about inches high, as compared to twice that height in the old-fashioned giant types. the favorites of late years for early celery are the self-blanching sorts, such as white plume and golden self-blanching, which are the result of the continued selection of individual plants or sports showing a tendency to blanch easily. for winter keeping, the perle le grand, winter queen and perfection heartwell are the best. these varieties are beautiful as well as highly palatable. there are also red or pink sorts, of high table merit and good keeping qualities. celery.--we recommend golden self-blanching and white plume for early, perle le grand for both early and late and winter queen for late. the latter is the very best keeper. see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =cultivation.=--the proper culture of the celery has already been suggested in the allusion to its need for water and its shallow feeding habits. the surface soil should be highly enriched, the stirring of the soil very shallow, and the water supply copious, either by capillary attraction from below (as at kalamazoo) or by rainfall or artificial irrigation. =blanching.=--the first step in the process of blanching or bleaching is what is known as handling. this operation consists in grasping all the leaves of a celery plant in one hand, while with the other the soil is drawn together and packed so as to hold the stalks in an upright, compact position. this single operation will fit some of the early-planted sorts for market in the course of two weeks; though a second operation, called hilling, is usually considered desirable, even with the self-blanching sorts. see photograph on first page. the kalamazoo growers depend on muck for field blanching, though they also use boards. muck is merely a dark soil, containing or consisting mainly of vegetable matter. they first "handle," as just described, and about five days later draw inches more of the muck about the celery stalks. again, three days later, they draw an additional inches about the stalks, and in two weeks from the start the celery is ready for market. these operations are frequently done by two men working together, one holding the stalks and the other drawing the soil to them. the first operation puts the stalks in an upright, compact position, so that little or no soil can get into the heart of the plant. the second draws about the plant all the soil that will conveniently remain there. the third merely supplements the second, as the hill has had time to become somewhat firm and has settled away a little from the upper leaves. boards are used for summer blanching, as they are less heating than soil. ordinary lumber, free from knot holes, is employed. the boards rest on their edges, one board on each side of the row, the tops being drawn together until within - / inches of each other, and the lower edge of the board held in place either by stakes or by soil. the work of handling or hilling must be done only when the celery is dry and unfrozen. in fact, celery must never be handled when wet (except when preparing it for market), or it will surely be rusted and spoiled. the same practices of blanching celery as here mentioned in connection with the kalamazoo operations are in vogue near philadelphia and other eastern cities, and are not new. the real reason that kalamazoo is so celebrated is her possession of that wonderful black muck soil, underlaid with standing water. this has attracted the best celery growers of the country; men who have small places of from one to three acres, and who work out every detail to perfection, employing little labor outside of their own families and concentrating their efforts on the production of perfect celery crops. there are extensive celery growers at kalamazoo, with tracts of thirty or more acres devoted exclusively to this vegetable, but the majority of the gardens there are small, and much hand-work is done. =winter storage.=--the art of the winter storage of celery, as practiced by large growers, is not hard to learn. both at kalamazoo and here in the eastern states there are two methods in vogue. one is the use of especially-built houses, and the other is the open-field plan. [illustration: blanching celery with boards.] [illustration: winter queen, the best late winter keeping celery.] the celery house or "coop" is a low frame structure, half under ground, generally or feet wide, and as long as may be desired. there is a door in one end and a window in the other. the sides, ends and roof are double and filled with sawdust. there are wooden chimneys or ventilators at intervals of feet along the peak of the roof, and sometimes there are glass windows in the roof, provided with wooden shutters. the celery stands upon the floor, which is of loose soil. there is a narrow walk lengthwise in the middle of the building, and boards extending from the central walk to the side walls separate the packed celery into narrow sections. no earth is placed between the celery stalks as they stand. they are, in fact, rooted in the soil of the floor, and are thus able to make the slight growth demanded for complete blanching. the various doors, windows and ventilators make it possible to keep the air fresh and wholesome, and during cold weather a stove may afford heat to the storage room. artificial heat is not commonly required. another method, cheaper and quite as satisfactory, especially on farms or in market gardens, is to trench the celery in the open field. the situation of the trench must be a dry one, where there will be no standing water. the trench must be nearly or quite as deep as the height of the celery, with perpendicular sides, and a foot or less in width. the stalks are set upright in the trench, with all decayed or worthless leaves removed, as closely as they will stand, without soil between them. to keep them in that condition is purely a matter of care. if they are buried deeply and the weather proves warm they will rot. but if the covering be decreased in warm weather and increased in cold weather, the celery can be kept in perfect condition. in private gardens celery is often planted in double rows, a foot apart, and wintered where it grows by covering deeply with soil. an excellent plan is to make an a-shaped trough of two boards to turn the rain, on top of which a greater or less amount of straw, leaves or litter may be piled, if needed. mice sometimes do considerable damage to stored celery, but are more easily controlled in short trenches than in long ones. small amounts of celery may be stored in cellars, in boxes a foot wide and a foot deep, with damp sand in the bottom. no soil is needed between the plants. the coolest and darkest part of the cellar is best for storage. =diseases.=--celery diseases are preventable and insect attacks are few. for blight, kainit is recommended, both in the seed-bed and open field. for rust, the bordeaux mixture is advised. hollow-stemmed or pithy celery is the result of poor stock or improper soil, and can be avoided by the use of more manure and more water. =new process.=--the method of growing celery in highly enriched soil, with plants set or inches apart both ways, is quite feasible. the plants stand so close as to blanch each other to some extent, but the system has never attracted general favor. a great deal of water is required. cultivation is possible only when the plants are small. =profits.=--the use of celery is obviously on the increase, but the demand is for a first-class article. the cash results may be set at anywhere from $ to $ per acre. the actual net profits of well-conducted operations are considerable. water cress. water cress, a vegetable closely allied to several other edible cresses, is used in very large quantities in all city restaurants. it is a much-esteemed winter relish, and is mostly served with every one of the thousands of beefsteak orders daily filled in the great eating houses and lunch rooms. the demand for it seems to be on the increase. [illustration: water cress.] water cress is of the easiest culture. it can be grown in the soil of a forcing house under glass, and is extensively produced in this way by market gardeners. the cheapest method is to grow it in running water, preferably near a spring head; and many such situations are available to farmers. flat beds, made of loam, gravel, or sand, covered with or inches of warm, spring water, will yield great quantities of water cress in early spring; and the use of a few sash will keep the cress in growth during the winter. the cress should be cut frequently, as the young shoots are most succulent and tender. for market purposes the water cress is tied in bunches, and retailed at from to cents per bunch, or packed in pint boxes, leaves uppermost, and retailed for about cents per box. these are winter and early spring prices. water cress culture is profitable in favored locations. cucumber. the cucumber market is not easily over-supplied, but the pickling tub should stand ready to receive all cucumbers not sold in a fresh condition. for field culture, good ground must be selected, and marked out with a plow, � feet; or, a little wider, if the soil is strong. at least one shovelful of well-rotted manure is dropped in every hill, and mixed with the soil, and a dozen seeds planted, to be thinned out finally to three or four plants. it is better to have extra plants, on account of the attacks of the striped beetle. the cucumber belongs to a botanic family which is naturally tender, and the seeds should not be sown until the soil is quite warm. for farm work, the planting season is the latter part of may and the whole of june; and even july is a suitable month, if the soil can be irrigated. it will require two pounds of seed for an acre. the variety sown should depend on the purpose in view; but in all commercial operations, well-known and thoroughly tested sorts should be chosen. shallow cultivation is recommended. if an early market is to be supplied with cucumbers, the seeds may be started under glass, on bits of inverted sod or in small boxes, and set in the open ground on the arrival of settled warm weather; but the farmer will usually find it most profitable to sow the seeds where the plants are to remain. the most serious enemy of the cucumber vine is the striped beetle, which attacks the young plant and frequently ruins it. the remedy is air-slaked lime, or soot, or sifted coal ashes, or wood ashes diluted with dry road dust. the best preventive is salt or kainit, used in the hills. the true plan is to have strong, vigorous plants, which, as a rule, will resist and outgrow the striped beetle, and be not greatly injured by its attacks. there is a blight which sometimes destroys the cucumber vine, apparently the result of weakness following a prolonged drouth. the vine of the cucumber must be kept in vigorous growth, not only by cultivation and a sufficient water-supply, but by care in removing all the fruit as soon as formed, for, if the seeds be permitted to mature, the vine will quickly perish. it is the purpose of the vine's existence to produce ripe seeds, and it will make repeated and long-continued efforts to accomplish this end. in gathering the cucumbers, it is important to avoid injuring the vine. some growers use a knife; others break the stem by a dexterous twist, without injuring the vine in the least. [illustration: johnson & stokes' perfected jersey pickle cucumber.] it requires cucumbers (more or less) of fair pickling size to make a bushel, and it is estimated that an acre will produce from to bushels, or even more. when the pickles are pulled while quite small, the number runs up to , per acre; and the pickle factories in some cases make their estimates on a yield of , per acre. the price is variable, but often quite profitable. cucumber.--for planting in the south to ship to northern markets use improved arlington white spine. giant of pera is a fine table sort. for pickling, plant johnson & stokes' perfected jersey pickle. for description see our "garden and farm manual." =downy mildew.=--a disease which lately threatened to destroy the business of growing pickles in new jersey and elsewhere, the downy mildew of the cucumber, can be fully overcome by spraying the vines with bordeaux mixture. it requires six or seven applications, at intervals of a week or ten days, to conquer this comparatively new disease. downy mildew is a fungous trouble affecting the leaves and destroying the further usefulness of the vine. a recent new york experiment showed a yield of $ worth of pickles per acre under spraying as against complete failure where the bordeaux mixture was not used. the cost of spraying was $ . per acre, leaving $ . per acre as the value of the crop saved by the operation. egg plant. the advisability of growing egg plants in farm gardening operations is a question of location. on a suitable soil, near a good market, the operation will be a profitable one, if rightly managed. the egg plant is a tender vegetable, botanically allied to both the tomato and the potato, but less hardy than either, especially when young. for this reason it is best to delay sowing the seed, even in hot-beds, until cold weather is past, for the tender seedlings never fully recover from a chill or set-back. indeed, for the farm gardener the month of may is early enough to sow the seed under glass, for this plant grows with great rapidity in a warm soil, and may-sown seed not infrequently yields plants that outstrip those sown a full month earlier. [illustration: new jersey improved large purple smooth stem egg plant.] the egg plant demands a richer soil than either the potato or tomato. it also asks for more water. it is a rank feeder. a good stimulant, if rotted manure cannot be had, is nitrate of soda at the rate of pounds to the acre. the farm gardener will do well to consider his market before engaging in the production of the egg plant on an extensive scale, for it is a perishable product. it bears shipment well, but its use is mainly limited to consumption while fresh. it may command a very high price at some seasons of the year and at other times be practically unsalable at any price, owing to an over-supply. if egg-plant seed be sown under glass in early may, and carefully protected against cool weather (especially at night), the young plants will be ready to transplant before the end of the month and large enough for the open field in june. they should be set in rows feet apart, and about feet apart in the row. set at these distances, an acre of ground would accommodate about , plants. the enemy of the egg plant, in growth, is the potato bug, which must be hand-picked or poisoned. there is a rot which causes the fruit to drop from the stem before reaching maturity. this rot is a fungus, and the bordeaux mixture is recommended for it. the blight which sometimes affects the foliage is in part at least caused by cold weather, and for this there is no remedy, except late planting. every healthy plant should produce from two to six or more full-sized fruits, and it is therefore easy to calculate that an acre's product under favorable circumstances may be very large. egg plant.--there is nothing equal to the new jersey improved large purple smooth stem for the use of farm gardeners. for description, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." [illustration: johnson & stokes' imperial, or long standing kale.] kale or borecole. kale, of which there are many varieties, is a headless cabbage, closely allied to such vegetables as brussels sprouts, collards, etc. it is one of the most hardy of vegetables, and in this latitude it will live over winter in the open ground, with only straw or litter as a protection. if cut for use when frozen it should be thawed out in cold water. the kales are among the most delicately flavored cabbages. some of them are of such ornamental shape as to be full worthy of cultivation for decorative purposes. the height varies from to feet, and the colors include both greens, dark purples and intermediate shades. kale demands a rich, deep soil. the seed should be sown in a border or seed-bed, and transplanted to the open field and set in rows, after the manner of cabbage. it is largely and profitably grown in the south for shipment to the great northern markets. where farmers are situated near centres of population where kale is in demand, its culture will be found profitable, as it requires even less labor than cabbage. it is planted both in spring and autumn. the former crop is for autumn consumption and the latter crop is carried over winter after the manner of spinach, protected by a light covering of some sort of litter. kale.--for the south, we recommend extra dwarf green curled scotch; for the north, johnson & stokes' new imperial. see our "garden and farm manual" for descriptions. lettuce. in some sections, especially in the south, lettuce can be grown with profit by farm gardeners. depending on the latitude, the seed may be planted from autumn until spring. the plants are usually sheltered and headed under glass, or under muslin-covered sash, and are sent north in ventilated barrels. the lettuce is naturally a cool-weather plant, and its culture is easy. the seed is cheap and it germinates quickly. well-grown lettuce always commands good prices. it is usual to start the seeds in a border or under a frame, and to prick out the plants into more roomy quarters as soon as they are large enough to handle. in a few weeks after transplanting, in good growing weather, they are headed ready for market. good soil, abundance of moisture and free ventilation are essentials in lettuce production. [illustration] in some parts of the north lettuce culture would be found profitable by farmers in the summer season, for there are varieties well adapted to high temperature, provided good soil and sufficient water be furnished. there is not a month in the year when lettuce is not demanded for use in salads, and this demand is likely to increase. lettuce.--for the south, we especially recommend reichner's early white butter, big boston and new treasure; for the north, new sensation, mammoth salamander and hornberger's dutch butter. please see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." melons. melon culture belongs on the farm rather than in the small market garden, on account of the large space occupied by the growing vines. an acre of ground will accommodate only about watermelon hills (at feet each way) or about , muskmelon or cantaloupe hills ( feet each way), and hence the necessity for large areas of ground for the cultivation of these crops. the requirements of the various melons are quite similar. broken sod ground or any green crop turned down favors their growth, and well-rotted stable manure in the hill is the best known stimulant. all the melons are tender, and are suited only to warm-weather growth, and this fact must be remembered in sowing the seed. light alluvial soil near rivers or streams is adapted to melon growth, and many an old meadow now weedy and unprofitable might be used to advantage for one of these crops. [illustration: new black-eyed susan watermelon.] =the watermelon.=--for cash-producing purposes the best watermelon is a large one, with a hard rind. it must have a dark pink or red centre and must be a good shipper. it should weigh thirty to forty pounds, and there should be to , first-class melons to the acre. the best melon for family use or for a strictly retail trade is a medium-sized variety, which has a thin rind, pink or red flesh and extra sweetness, weighing from twenty to thirty pounds. the preparation of the ground has already been suggested. two shovels of manure should go into each hill. the planting date is may in this latitude; or as soon as the ground is thoroughly warm. four pounds of seed per acre will be required. but one plant per hill is allowed to grow. the end of the main shoots should be pinched off, to encourage branching and flowering. [illustration] cultivation should be thorough. fungous diseases can be controlled by means of the bordeaux mixture, except that it is difficult to reach the under side of the leaves. to prevent sunburn on melons, some growers sow buckwheat when the vines are in blossom, and thus secure a partial shade by the time the fruit is large enough to be injured by the sun. generally, no protection is necessary. at $ or $ per hundred, the average wholesale price at philadelphia, watermelon culture is profitable. early prices are higher. water melons.--for shipping--johnson's dixie, blue gem, duke jones, sweet heart. for home market--black-eyed susan, florida favorite, kentucky wonder, mciver's wonderful sugar. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =citron.=--this small round melon is cultivated in all respects as the watermelon, but being smaller the hills may be closer. it is used in making preserves. the name citron is frequently applied to certain of the cantaloupes. =cantaloupes or muskmelons.=--it is a matter of choice whether the green-fleshed or red-fleshed sorts are grown; or whether the variety be large or small. the sorts covered with strongly webbed or netted markings are in high favor for shipping to distant points, as they carry well. flavor is in part at least a matter of temperature and sunshine. cantaloupes may be nicely ripened by removing them from the vines and storing in dry, warm rooms. the usual planting distance is from - / to feet, in hills containing rotted manure. compost, made of hen manure, is sometimes used in the hill, well mixed with the soil. good cantaloupes are always in active demand. musk melons.--early sorts for shipping--mccleary's improved jenny lind, netted beauty, the captain, champion market, improved netted gem, anne arundel. late sorts--the princess, johnson & stokes' superb, etc. see "garden and farm manual" for descriptions. [illustration: mccleary's improved early jenny lind muskmelon.] =enemies.=--in addition to the fungous diseases of the watermelon and cantaloupe, which are best treated with bordeaux mixture, all melons are sometimes badly troubled with an aphis called the melon louse. the remedy is whale-oil soap--a pound in six gallons of water; or kerosene emulsion. the latter is made by dissolving half a pound of soft soap in one gallon of water; then adding two gallons of kerosene, churning violently; then diluting with ten or twelve gallons of water. this emulsion is put upon the melon vines in the form of a spray, and is one of the best insecticides known. it is to be used on all sucking insects, like lice and squash bugs. biting insects are easily killed with paris green--one pound in pounds of flour or plaster, or in gallons of water. [illustration: improved early netted gem muskmelon (rose gem strain).] where the land is suited to melon culture, in any part of the country, the farm gardener will find no more satisfactory or remunerative crop. mushrooms. under certain favored circumstances the mushroom may be grown as a farm gardener's crop. the requisites are horse manure and a dark cellar, cave or vault. if the manure be available and a suitable apartment at hand, the growing of mushrooms may be taken up for winter work. [illustration: a bed of mushrooms from english milltrack spawn.] there are many ways of growing mushrooms, and they can be produced in any situation where a steady temperature of ° can be maintained. a simple method is to prepare a bed consisting of horse manure and loam, three parts by measure of the former and one of the latter, the manure having been somewhat fermented and sweetened by allowing it to heat and turning it several times. a compact bed a foot deep is made. this bed will first heat and then cool. as it cools, when at ° or ° an inch below the surface, bits of brick spawn the size of a hen's egg are inserted about inches apart. the bed must not be immediately covered, or the temperature will rise sufficiently to kill the spawn. in ten days, more or less, as shown by a thermometer, this danger will be past, and the bed should receive a coating of good loam an inch deep. no water is to be applied until after the bed is in full bearing. it is assumed that the temperature of the room or cellar has been uniformly °, day and night; that the bed has not been made where it could become water-soaked; that it is sufficiently moist, yet not wet; and that no draft of air has passed over the surface in a way either to reduce the temperature of the bed itself or to dry the soil upon the surface. if these conditions cannot be maintained, either by a specially favorable place or by means of covering the bed with litter, it is better to let mushrooms alone. the crop should appear in six or eight weeks, and should last two months, the total product being from one-half to one pound per square foot. the cash price is from to cents per pound in the large cities; and the crop is sufficiently profitable to warrant the losses which beginners so commonly experience. these losses are the result of carelessness or ignorance in the matter of details. the usual sources of failure are poorly prepared beds, the medium being either too wet or too dry; frequent changes of temperature; improper use of water; and, lastly, poor or stale spawn. mushrooms are packed in small baskets lined with paper, and carefully covered to prevent evaporation. a five-pound package is a favorite shipping size. onions. the onion is a national crop; as widely though not quite as extensively grown as the potato. it is available as a money crop for the farm gardener. =choice of soil.=--heavy, stiff clay land is to be avoided. sand and gravel dry out too quickly. stony land renders good culture difficult. the best soil for onions is a deep, rich, mellow loam. soils which afford natural advantages for irrigation should not be overlooked, as the rainfall is often lacking when greatly needed. =fertilizers.=--onion culture demands high manuring. no amount of rotted stable manure is likely to be excessive. a ton per acre of high-grade, complete fertilizer is not too much, if moisture can be supplied. hen manure is a good top dressing for onion-beds, furnishing the needed nitrogen. nitrate of soda is a good source of nitrogen, if nitrogen must be purchased. the clovers and other leguminous crops yield the cheapest nitrogen. wood ashes, kainit, etc., furnish potash. either ground bone or acid phosphate will give the needed phosphoric acid. an analysis of the onion shows that it carries away fertility in just about the proportions furnished by stable manure. it is a singular fact that onions can be grown year after year on the same ground, if well manured. rotation is necessary only in case of the occurrence of disease or insect attack. the onion loves cool weather. =planting.=--to grow onion sets, the seed is sown in close rows, at the rate of from fifty to sixty pounds per acre. to grow large onions direct from seed, five pounds of seed per acre will be required. to plant a field with onion sets will require twelve to fifteen bushels per acre, according to size of the set. [illustration: a list of the most popular american onions.] an onion set is merely an immature bulb. sets vary from the size of a large pea up to that of a walnut. when the seed is sown thickly the bulbs have no chance to grow, and the summer weather quickly ripens the tops, completely suspending the growth of the bulb. in some parts of the country onion sets cannot be grown with profit, as the tops refuse to die and the bulbs or sets do not ripen properly. in nearly all parts of the united states onions can be grown direct from the seed the first year; especially from seed grown around philadelphia, which is earlier than western-grown. it is quite customary in the south to sow onion seed in late summer or autumn; in august or september. this will give early spring onions of marketable size. in the north, within quite recent years, it has become the practice to sow onion seed in frames, in fall or early spring, and transplant the young onions to the open ground. this is sometimes spoken of as the new onion culture. onion sets or young plants should be placed or inches apart, in rows a foot apart, if to be cultivated by hand; the rows farther apart if for horse work. the onion is hardy. many varieties will live in the open ground over winter, if covered (at the north) with light litter. it is in this way that shoots for bunching are obtained early in the spring. the seed should be sown for sets when the apple is in bloom. sets may be put into the ground earlier; in fact, as soon as the ground can be worked. the set should not produce seed the first year, though it often does so. it should, on the contrary, grow to the size of say inches, and then ripen for winter storage. excessively large onions are not desirable. to hasten maturity, the tops may be broken down or the roots may be cut by running a knife or sharp plow or cultivator along one side of the row. the onion, under favorable circumstances, will produce a crop of bushels (fifty-six pounds to the bushel) per acre; though bushels is nearer the average product. [illustration: weeding a field of onion sets on our bucks county seed farm near philadelphia.] =storage.=--the storage of onions and onion sets is simple. the bulbs should first be ripened on the ground, by a brief exposure to wind and sun. this completes the wilting of the tops. they should then be spread out on ventilated trays or racks, or a few inches in depth on a floor, in a dry, shady place, where the air is good, preferably a loft; not a damp cellar. freezing will not injure them, but they must not be handled when they begin to thaw, or they will rot. they must not be bruised during the operation of gathering or during the process of storage. a popular and excellent method of wintering onions in cold climates is to spread straw to the depth of inches on a dry floor or scaffold, and put on a layer of onions from inches to a foot deep, and cover with feet of straw. this will not always prevent freezing, but it checks all sudden changes. onions not fully cured should never be kept in barrels, but spread out so as to be perfectly ventilated. onion sets shrink greatly in storage; sometimes as much as one-half between fall and spring. =varieties.=--there are many varieties of onions, some of american and some of foreign origin. the former are better keepers, but the latter are of milder flavor. the american sorts (danvers, southport globe varieties, wethersfield, extra early red, silver skin, strasburg, etc.) are usually considered to be the most profitable; but the foreign kinds (prize taker, prize winner, pearl, bermuda, giant rocca, victoria, etc.) are profitable in those parts of the country where soil and climate warrant their growth from seed in a single season. the so-called tree onion is a perennial, of american origin, living out over winter. it is sometimes called egyptian or top onion. it produces bulbs or sets at the top of the seed-stalk. the potato or multiplier onion divides its large bulb into numerous small ones, which in turn produce large onions the next year. onions.--for farm gardeners' purposes, we especially recommend philadelphia yellow globe danvers, mammoth yellow prizetaker, white prize winner. earliest onions are--extra early red globe danvers, american extra early white pearl, rhode island yellow cracker. the best for sets--extra early red, philadelphia yellow dutch and white silver skin. for descriptions of varieties, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =diseases and enemies.=--to prevent maggot, the use of kainit is recommended; pounds per acre. for onion smut, which may in part be cured by the kainit, the best known remedy is a change of soil. thrip, which causes the cuticle of the leaves to become covered with whitish or yellowish spots, is best treated by means of kerosene emulsion, used as a spray. the onion fly may, in part, at least, be abated by the use of equal parts of wood ashes and land plaster dusted very thoroughly on the young plants. stiff-necked onions, often called stags, are the result either of improper growth or poor stock. they are sometimes planted in autumn for use as scallions (scullions) the following spring. =marketing.=--onions are sometimes sold in the open field; a good plan when a fair price can be secured. after curing, as already described, they are usually sold by the bushel or barrel. they are always in demand, as the onion is a standard article of human food. in the green state they are sold either by measure, by the bunch, or by the rope. the latter method consists in tying the onions along wisps of straw. =scallions.=--no small amount of money is expended by housekeepers in the early spring markets for scallions (scullions), or bunched onion shoots. these tender shoots are washed, tied and sold for to cents per bunch, retail, or half those figures wholesale. scallions are produced from either sets or large onions planted the preceding autumn, and sheltered either by frames or litter, so as to encourage early spring growth. peas. it will require one and one-half to two bushels of peas to seed an acre, and no crop finds a more ready sale than fresh peas in the summer and autumn markets. farmers who are near centres of population, or who enjoy good shipping facilities, will find peas a quick money crop. any good soil will produce a crop of this excellent vegetable, but it must not be assumed because the pea is a legume, with nitrogen-collecting roots, that it will not well repay the application of manure to the soil. peas and beans need less assistance than some other things, but they give good returns for the application of rotted manure or artificial fertilizer. the seed should be put into the ground in early spring, as soon as the soil is dry enough to receive it, beginning with the smooth, extra-early sorts, which are more hardy than the wrinkled varieties. a little subsequent frost will do no harm. the smooth, early sorts should be sown in rows, about feet apart, the intermediate or half-dwarf sorts in rows feet apart, and the tall, late varieties, in rows feet apart. in field operations no sticks are used, and large pickings are taken even from the tall-growing vines while sprawling upon the ground; and the labor is vastly less where no sticks are employed. the early peas should stand closer in the rows than the later and larger sorts. the extra early kinds mature in fifty to fifty-five days from germination; the intermediate kinds in sixty-five to seventy days, and the tall and late kinds in seventy-five to eighty days. for autumn planting, the extra early varieties are used, and are planted until sixty days before frost. [illustration: plant of new giant podded marrow pea.] mildew is a field enemy of the pea, resulting from unfavorable weather. the weevil often attacks the seed, but does not injure it for market purposes. the canning of green peas is now an industry of enormous extent in america. the peas are shelled and sorted by machinery, and thousands of bushels are annually disposed of in this manner. the wholesale market price of peas in the pod varies from cents to $ per bushel at philadelphia. the latter price is for the early product. the usual retail price is to cents per half peck. the crop of green pods per acre may be rated at bushels, more or less. peas.--earliest for the south--johnson & stokes' new record extra early, alaska; second early--johnson & stokes' second early market garden; late--giant podded marrow, improved stratagem, crown prince, sugar marrow. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." rhubarb. in some parts of the united states rhubarb or pie plant is grown in very considerable quantities for market purposes, and with profit. its culture is extremely simple. it is merely necessary to plant seed or roots, and to have the plants about feet apart each way in a permanent bed. the plant is a perennial, lasting for many years. it is a rank feeder, and the more manure given it, the larger and more succulent will be the young shoots. the roots should be divided every five years, as they finally become too large. the demand for rhubarb continues through the spring and into summer, and large quantities are canned for pie-making. five leaf stalks make a large bunch. it is worth $ to $ per bunches, wholesale. radish. farmers who retail their produce should raise radishes. rich ground and abundant moisture are the requisites for quick growth, and upon quick growth depends good quality. slow-growing radishes are hot and pithy. the early sorts are best for spring, but the so-called summer radishes are best for warm weather, as they are not so liable as the early kinds to become pithy. enormous quantities of winter radishes are grown in autumn, for use and sale during the winter months. they are kept in sand, like other roots. [illustration: johnson & stokes' olive scarlet, the earliest radish.] the early kinds mature in twenty to twenty-five days from sowing. nitrate of soda in small quantities is one of the best known stimulants. rotted stable manure is good, but hog manure and night soil are not in favor among radish growers, tending to produce insect attacks. the free use of lime, salt or kainit is recommended as a preventive against insects. sometimes it is necessary to avoid manure of any kind, on account of maggots, depending wholly on artificial fertilizers. as a last resort the radish-bed must be removed to new ground, as the maggot renders radishes wholly unsalable. [illustration: china rose winter radish.] the green seed pods of radishes are sometimes used for pickling. the plant is closely related to the mustard. it is wrong to wait for radishes to grow large (except the winter sorts), as they are sweetest and most succulent when comparatively small. crisp, sweet radishes always command ready money. radish.--early, for the south--scarlet turnip white tipped, johnson & stokes' olive scarlet, philadelphia gardeners' long scarlet. summer radishes--red and white chartier, white strasburg, improved yellow summer turnip. all seasons, radishes which are equally good for summer or winter--new celestial, new round scarlet china. for winter use only--china rose. for descriptions, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." spinach. spinach (or spinage) is grown for its leaves, which are cooked in winter and spring for use as "greens." the leaf is sweet and palatable even when raw, but it is always stewed for table purposes. it is a cool weather plant, almost perfectly hardy. it may be sown in spring, for immediate use, or in the autumn for fall cutting, or for carrying over winter. [illustration: plants and roots of parisian long standing spinach.] it is of the easiest culture, requiring ten or twelve pounds of seed per acre, either broadcasted or sown in rows. in small gardens it is usually grown in rows, but in open field culture it is more commonly broadcasted. patches of many acres in extent are seen near the large cities. it is also grown quite extensively in some parts of the south for shipment to northern markets during january and february. to prepare it for market the leaves are cut before the seed stalk appears, and after washing are barrelled or crated for shipment. growers receive from $ . to $ . per barrel in philadelphia and new york in the winter and spring. where accessible to market, spinach is a profitable crop. blight is the main enemy. the remedy is removal to another soil. of spinach there are many types; some smooth and some with savoy or wrinkled leaves. the property of standing a long time before going to seed is desirable, especially when sown in the spring, as it increases the length of the cutting season. at the north a slight protection of litter or straw is necessary in winter. south of latitude of washington no protection is needed. spinach is cut even when frozen; in fact, at any time when there is no snow on the ground. by throwing it into cold water it quickly thaws, and affords a palatable and healthful food in midwinter. the dead or yellow leaves should be removed before sending it to market, and if carefully prepared it has an attractive green appearance during cold weather when other vegetables are scarce. the winter crop is larger than any other, but much is also grown for spring sales. it is admirably adapted to farm culture. spinach.--for spring planting, we recommend parisian long standing; for autumn, american savoy or bloomsdale. see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." the sweet potato. the cultivation of the sweet potato affords profitable employment to thousands of american farmers. it is pre-eminently a farmer's crop, on account of the ground space occupied. it demands a light or sandy soil, well drained and well manured. it has wonderful drouth-resisting qualities; though, on the other hand, it is quite unable to withstand continued cold, wet weather. its territorial range may be said to include nearly the whole of the united states, where the soil is suited to its growth, and it is even cultivated in canada. it will in all probability increase in favor as it is better known and the manner of preserving or storing it is better understood. sweet potato.--we recommend and endorse the hardy bush or vineless sweet potato. for description, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual." =fertilizers.=--there is wide diversity of practice in the matter of enriching the land for sweet potatoes, and most of the standard manures are used, either in one place or another. there seems to be an almost universal endorsement of well-rotted stable manure, and next in favor is wood ashes. high-grade fertilizer of any kind, thoroughly incorporated with the soil, may be used. =young plants.=--sweet potatoes are propagated by sprouts obtained by laying tubers on their sides, not touching each other, covered with soil, in specially prepared heated beds. these sprouts produce abundant rootlets while still attached to the parent tuber, and by pulling them with care, great numbers of young plants can be obtained. a second and even a third crop of young plants may be pulled from the same tubers. in the south no artificial heat is needed. =growing the slips or sprouts as practised in new jersey.=--the fire-bed, so-called, is quite generally used in southern new jersey for obtaining slips or sprouts for spring planting. it is necessary to have bottom heat and a uniform temperature of about °. [illustration: plant of new hardy bush or vineless sweet potato.] the fire-bed consists essentially of a pit about by feet in size. it is floored with boards laid upon cross pieces. beneath the boards there is an air chamber. on top of the boards the bed is made. at one end is a furnace, with flues running out into the air space beneath the bed, but not reaching the chimney or smoke-pipe at the opposite end of the bed. at the hottest end of the bed the soil is over inches deep. at the cool end a depth of inches is quite sufficient. the whole bed is covered either with canvas muslin or with glass sashes, there being a ridge pole above the bed, running lengthwise with it, thus giving a double pitch to muslin or to glass. after the soil has been heated somewhat, the tubers are laid on the bed, about an inch apart, and covered with about inches of good soil, and the soil, in turn, covered with leaves or hay, to increase the warmth of the bed. in a week, more or less, the sprouts will show above the surface of the soil, when the leaves or hay must be removed. the object in not connecting the flues from the furnace with the chimney is to economize heat. the air chamber under the entire bed becomes evenly heated, and the smoke escapes finally by the chimney. this chimney may be made of wood, and a height of or feet will afford ample draft. either wood or coal may be burned, but preferably wood. the planting distance in the field is about feet by , the young plants being set upon ridges. it requires about , plants to the acre. the work must not be done until the ground is warm. the crop is ready in from sixty to ninety days. =cultivation.=--shallow cultivation is all that is required. the vines at the north are not permitted to take root along their length, but in the south they are sometimes allowed to do so, and additional tubers thus secured. at the north the vines are lifted and turned, to clear the way for the cultivator and to prevent rooting. =enemies.=--black rot is one of the worst of sweet potato diseases. stem rot is another serious enemy. the best treatment for these and other fungous troubles is prevention, and the best prevention is a healthy soil. it is, therefore, best to go to new land occasionally. =harvesting.=--the common practice is to plow the sweet potatoes out of the ground just after the first frost has touched the vines. the tubers must be exposed to the air for a time, and partially dried. they are prepared for market, if wanted immediately, by rubbing off the soil and sorting into two sizes. =storage.=--at the south one of the several methods of winter storage is to build a light wooden flue of lattice work, and pack about it a conical-shaped heap containing about forty or fifty bushels of sweet potatoes. straw is used as a covering, with earth upon the straw, the earth to be increased as the weather becomes colder. over the entire heap a rough shed is erected to turn the rain. the top of the flue or ventilator is closed with straw in really cold weather. the spot must be a dry one. the new jersey sweet potato house is a stone building, say � feet on the inside, with walls feet high, and a good roof. the building is half under ground, and the earth is banked up around it. there is a passage way through the centre, and the bins for the sweet potatoes are to feet square and to feet deep. there is a door on the south side, with window above, and a stove is placed inside the building, for use when required. the walls are plastered, and the under side of the roof is also covered with lath and plaster, and the place is thoroughly weather-proof. a house of this kind will afford storage room for , or more bushels of sweet potatoes, and will keep them in excellent condition, if all details receive proper attention. the requirements for successful storage are that the tubers shall not be too hot, nor too cold, nor too wet, and that sudden changes of temperature shall be avoided. the sweet potato crop may be said to vary from to bushels per acre, under ordinary management, with higher results under good conditions. chapter v. sashes and bedding plants. [illustration] the cost of a hot-bed sash, glazed and painted, is somewhere about $ ; and such a sash can be made to earn its cost every year. the farmer who has, say, a pair of sashes for hot-bed work and another pair for cold-frame work, can turn them to very good account in the early spring, not only in starting such bedding plants as may be required in his own operations, but in producing plants for his neighbors. it costs but little more to grow , than cabbage, tomato or egg plants, and the surplus above the home requirement can be converted into dollars. =the hot bed.=--the hot-bed is merely a board-lined pit, containing fermenting manure, with a few inches of soil on the manure, and covered by a sash. the ordinary sash is about � feet. a board shutter, the exact size of the sash, or a mat of straw, completes the outfit. the depth of manure, depending on the purpose in view, should be from to feet, the depth of soil from to inches, and the distance from soil to glass about inches at the start. as the manure ferments the soil will sink. =the cold frame.=--the cold frame is merely a piece of rich, mellow soil, enclosed by boards and covered with glass. there is no bottom heat of any kind, but it is a great deal warmer than the open soil, and serves a variety of purposes. in the hot-bed, made in february or march (in the latitude of philadelphia), all tender things may be started. the usual seeds sown here at that date on heat are cabbage, cauliflower, radish, lettuce, onions, etc., followed by tomato, pepper, celery, egg plant, etc., including flower seeds, if desired. the cold frame is used through the winter for lettuce, onions, carrots, corn salad, spinach, etc., and in spring for the reception of the things started on heat, when the time arrives for transplanting and hardening them. properly-managed sashes will do a great deal toward the production of early market crops, and profits not infrequently depend upon the item of earliness. the one thing for inexperienced persons to learn about sashes and their uses is the imperative necessity of free ventilation whenever the sun shines on the glass. chapter vi. the strawberry. in addition to the several vegetables enumerated in the preceding pages, there is one of the small fruits that has taken such a prominent place in what may be termed farm horticulture as to deserve mention here. it is the strawberry. this berry is, perhaps, the most popular small fruit in america, and because of its perishable character, is one that requires strictly local production. it cannot be shipped long distances without loss of character and flavor, and hence the local grower will never be crowded out of his own market. the culture of the strawberry is simple and easy. there are many ways of setting out plants, and the after-treatment also differs widely. there will always be controversy concerning the respective merits of the hill system and the matted row system. each cultivator must decide for himself which is the better. for the farmer, whose acres are many and whose duties are pressing, there is, perhaps, no better way than to set strawberries in rows feet apart, with plants feet apart in the row, and to allow the plants to run together in the rows, giving sufficient attention to keep the alleys well stirred and the whole bed clear of weeds. to set an acre will require about , plants. the winter covering of litter should be raked into the walks or alleys as soon as winter is over and allowed to remain there as a mulch for keeping the soil cool and damp and for the purpose of keeping the berries clean. [illustration: new twice-bearing french strawberry "mammoth perpetual." for description, see "johnson & stokes' garden and farm manual."] as soon as the crop is off, the bed should be plowed, turning strawberries and litter under, and sweet corn or other quick crop at once planted. this will insure the gathering of two crops in two years; otherwise a strawberry crop means a two-years' use of the soil. the setting out of a new strawberry bed every spring is good practice; and it is altogether advisable for farmers to occasionally introduce new varieties of strawberries on their farms, to replace old or enfeebled sorts. the profits of strawberry culture are quite large, the gross receipts not infrequently running to $ per acre. new boxes and crates are advisable, and are distinctly profitable. index. page. asparagus bacteria , barnyard manure beans bedding plants beets bordeaux mixture borecole cabbage cantaloupe carrot celery citron cold frame crimson clover corn worm corrosive sublimate cucumber egg plant glass green manuring , , horseradish hot bed humus irrigation , , , kale kerosene emulsion legumes lettuce lime location, choice of marketing manure, storage manure, value of , melon louse melons mushrooms muskmelons onions oyster plant parsnip peas potato potato blight potato scab potato rot preservatives of manure pumpkin radish rhubarb ruta baga salsify salt sashes soil inoculation spinach squash strawberry swedes sweet potato tomatoes turnip waste products water cress whale-oil soap wood ashes =everybody should read our new book= =irrigation by cheap modern methods= =double the crops--water will do it. strictly up-to-date. fully illustrated.= =tells you just what you want to know in just the way you want to be told.= there is something here for every farmer and gardener. that thing is a sufficient water-supply. irrigation makes deserts to rejoice and gardens to blossom. nature often withholds needed moisture at critical times. millions of dollars are lost annually through the uncertainties of the weather. after reading this work you will be surprised at the cheapness and practicability of irrigation, which will double the production at an expense of from $ to $ , , just according to what you want to spend, while it reduces soil culture to an exact science and enables the tiller of the soil to work on schedule time. for terms on which this book can be had, see our "garden and farm manual," which is sent free to all who write for it. compiled and published by =johnson & stokes= =..seed growers and merchants..= = and market street philadelphia, pa.= [illustration: the largest seed warehouse in the east nos. and market street, philadelphia, pa.] floracroft seed gardens and trial grounds in order to get the best results from our efforts, and make sure that customers shall receive from us the best seeds that the world produces, we have for many years maintained and carried on extensive trials at our floracroft seed gardens and trial grounds, located about nine miles from our city warehouses. all operations are under the personal direction and management of one of our firm, who resides there. here are planted each season, for thorough trial, samples of all "novelties" offered by other seedsmen both in this country and europe, as well as anything which may be sent us, claimed to be new and superior, by our amateur or market garden customers. by this means we are enabled to satisfy ourselves of the true character and value of any novelty before it can find a place in our catalogue. many acres are also devoted to the production of pedigree stock seed, from which the seeds we offer are grown. we plant the best seeds obtainable; then go over the crop, plant by plant, carefully "rogueing" and destroying the inferior and selecting and saving only the best. this stock seed from selected plants is sent to be grown on our farms in localities where the conditions of soil and climate are best adapted to the perfect development of the particular variety. it is the product of such stock seed only that we offer for sale. here are also located our seed testing houses, where a sample of every lot of seed, whether grown by ourselves or grown for us under contract, is thoroughly tested, in mother earth, for vitality and purity of stock, and only those of satisfactory quality and germinating power are sold. in fact, we leave no stone unturned to gain and hold the confidence of all customers and secure them from disappointment. =johnson & stokes= =..seedsmen..= = and market street, philadelphia, pa.= [illustration] that grow into dollars for the professional market gardener will also grow the choicest vegetables and flowers in the home garden. =our garden and farm manual tells all about them= _it is sent free to seed buyers_ =johnson & stokes and market street philadelphia, pa=. transcriber's note * obvious punctuation and spelling errors repaired. * footnote moved to the end of the appropriate paragraph. * notes moved to the end of the appropriate section. * text enclosed between equal signs was in bold face in the original (=bold=). harper's a-b-c series a-b-c of vegetable gardening. by eben e. rexford a-b-c of correct speech. by florence howe hall a-b-c of architecture. by frank e. wallis a-b-c of housekeeping. by christine terhune herrick a-b-c of electricity. by william h. meadowcroft a-b-c of gardening. by eben e. rexford a-b-c of good form. by anne seymour mo, cloth harper & brothers, new york a-b-c of vegetable gardening by eben e. rexford harper & brothers publishers new york & london a-b-c of vegetable gardening copyright, , by harper & brothers printed in the united states of america published february, contents chap. page foreword i. getting the garden ready ii. laying out the garden iii. planting the garden iv. seeds that give best results v. early garden work vi. vegetable plants in the house vii. standard varieties of vegetables viii. small fruits and their culture ix. hotbeds and cold-frames x. small gardens xi. left-overs xii. health in the garden. a chapter expressly for women readers a-b-c of vegetable gardening a-b-c of vegetable gardening foreword not everybody has a garden. some deny themselves the pleasure and the profit of one because they have never had any experience in gardening, and have somehow got the impression that special training is necessary to make a success of the undertaking. here is where they make a mistake. there is no special "knack" about it. any one who owns a bit of land, and has some time that can be given to garden-work, and an inclination to do so, can make a gardener of himself in a season--and a successful one, too--if he allows himself to be governed by the advice of some one who has had some experience along this line. after the first season he will not be likely to ask or need advice, for the practical knowledge which comes with one season's work among vegetables will not only be sufficient to enable him to go on with his gardening operations on his own responsibility, but it will have made him so enthusiastic over them that he will be eager to enlarge his knowledge of "the green things growing," and in doing this he will find a pleasure that will make him wonder how he ever came to consider gardening something to dread. others, who have but a small piece of land, may think it not worth while to attempt to grow vegetables on it. they labor under the impression that a garden, in order to prove a success, requires more land than is at their disposal. here is where _they_ make a mistake. of course one cannot grow a large quantity of vegetables on a small piece of ground, but the one who undertakes to make the most of a small piece will be surprised at the amount that can be grown on it. in a garden that is not more than twenty-five feet square a friend of mine grows all the summer vegetables required by his family of four persons. this calls for what the scientific people call "intensive gardening," and makes it necessary to plant and plan for a succession of vegetables; but that twenty-five feet square of ground enables him to get a good share of the summer living of his family. another notion is, that in order to have a good garden a large amount of time and labor must be expended on it. not so. a very small amount of systematized labor will be demanded by even a good-sized garden, if it is planned in such a manner that labor-saving tools can be used in its cultivation. if we look back to the gardening days of fifty or even twenty-five years ago, when everything was done at the hardest and the hand had to do a good share of the work that we now do with helpful implements, it is not to be wondered at that the old-time care of a garden discourages many from undertaking to have one. happily those days are over, and with the gardening facilities of the present it is an easy matter to accomplish more in an hour than could be done then in a day. there is really no drudgery in gardening as it is done to-day. on the contrary, there is positive pleasure in the operation of the machinery which inventive genius has furnished for the up-to-date gardener's use. those who have never had a garden of their own, but have bought vegetables in the ordinary market, are not in a position to understand the wide difference between the article we buy and the one which is taken directly from the ground and eaten at once. while it is possible to keep most vegetables looking fresh for a considerable time by the use of water and ice, it is not possible to make them retain that delicacy of flavor known only to those whose vegetables go straight from the garden to the kitchen. if you want any vegetable _at its best_ you must grow it in your own garden. the general impression seems to be that gardening is essentially man's work, and that women and children are not equal to it. this is another mistake that will rapidly be done away with, for the woman of to-day is no longer a housed-up woman. she is rapidly learning the value of fresh air, and the tonic of outdoor life is fast taking the place of the doctor's prescriptions. the writer knows of many women who have found work in the garden not only a healthful occupation, but one so delightful that they look forward to spring with most pleasurable anticipations, and long for the time to come when they can get to work out of doors. when we have tried both we learn that work in the vegetable-garden is no harder than that in the flower-garden, and that neither demands more strength or time than the average woman is able to give it if she makes use of labor-saving tools. what is true of the woman is equally true of the children. a child ten years of age can do a good deal of the work that a good-sized garden calls for. i would not be understood as advocating the giving up of garden-work to women and children. i would not deny man the pleasure of sharing in it. but i would urge the importance of interesting women and children in it, and of encouraging them to take part in it from the viewpoint of health. benefit in other respects will become so apparent, after a little, that further encouragement will not be necessary. most women who have some leisure--especially if they are of the housewife class--will be so pleased with the results of gardening that they will be glad to supplement the labors of the man of the family by what they can accomplish in it, if he is employed in work that will not allow him to devote much time to the garden. and they will find that the boys of the family--and the girls as well--can be made to take an active part in the good work with but little encouragement from their elders. it is natural for both boys and girls to dig in the soil, and it is well to encourage them to dig to some purpose. it is natural work, and healthy work, and work that will do more to keep the average child out of mischief than any other influence that can be brought to bear on it. but i would not allow the child to get the impression that i gave it garden-work to do as a mischief-preventative. that would spoil everything. aim to interest the boys and girls in the mysterious processes of nature. encourage them to plan and execute as much of the work as can safely be trusted to them. in a short time you will find that most of them are equal to all the requirements of the ordinary garden. i have often been told by those who have had years of experience in garden-work that at least half one's living for half the year can be obtained from the garden, even if it happens to be a small one, and my own experience bears out the truth of this statement. if we grow our own vegetables we are quite sure to have a greater variety to add to the daily bill of fare than would be the case if we were to buy them. we have them when we want them without making a trip to the market for them, or depending on the uncertainties of telephone orders which grocers so frequently fill by sending vegetables of a quality that would not satisfy us if we gave them personal inspection before purchasing. the entire family will be delighted with the frequent changes that can be made in the bill of fare, and no one more so than the housewife who often finds it a difficult matter to plan for a variety of food when the family income does not warrant a liberal outlay. no owner of a bit of ground that can be made into a garden can afford to let it remain unused. if he does so he does it in disregard of the economy which most of us are obliged to consider and practise in these days of high prices and the increasing cost of daily living. have a garden if you can. i getting the garden ready the amateur gardener will almost invariably be in too great a hurry to begin gardening operations in the spring. but a few warm days are not sufficient to put the ground in proper condition for seeding, or even for plowing and spading. the frost must be allowed to get out of it, and after that an opportunity must be given for surplus water from melting snows and spring rains to drain away before work can be done to any advantage. as a general thing not much can be done in gardening at the north before the first of may. it is an old saying that "haste makes waste," and the gardener who is in too great a hurry often learns the truth which underlies the saying by the failure to germinate of the seed he puts into the ground very early in the season. another old saying that should be kept in mind is that "one swallow does not make a summer." read "warm day" for "swallow" and you will get the force of the statement. it is not advisable to do much at gardening until you are reasonably sure that warm weather has come to stay. even if early-planted seed comes up, spells of cold weather, and often of frost, which we are likely to have at the north until about the first of may, will have such a debilitating effect on comparatively hardy plants that those grown from later sowings, when all conditions are favorable, will come to maturity ahead of them. therefore it will be seen that it is poor policy to be in too great a hurry, and good policy to wait for what the farmer calls "growing weather" before doing much work in the garden. if very early vegetables are wanted it will be necessary to start them in the hotbed. in another chapter i will give some directions for the making and management of this very important adjunct of gardening. the first thing to do in making a garden is to plow or spade it. plowing is not admissible on small grounds, but where there is room enough to allow a team and plow to operate i would advise it in preference to spading, because it will save a good deal of hard work, and greatly expedite matters. before plowing some system of manuring should be decided on, as whatever fertilizer is used should be worked well into the soil, and this the plow can do most effectively. barn-yard manure, if old and well rotted, is better than anything else i have any knowledge of for all kinds of vegetables, but unfortunately it is seldom obtainable by those who do not live in the country. there are many commercial fertilizers on the market, but not all kinds of them are adapted to all kinds of soil. in order to secure the best results it is advisable that the amateur gardener should consult some dealer in these fertilizers in his immediate vicinity, or some one who has had personal experience in their use, with a view to making sure that he is getting just the kind best adapted to the soil in his garden. it is absolutely necessary that he should do this, in fact, for if he buys at random he runs the risk of getting something that will fail to answer his purpose. while it is always advisable to apply whatever fertilizer is used before plowing, commercial fertilizers can be applied later with good effect; but it will be necessary to apply them in such a manner that they do not come directly into contact with the seed, as many of them are so strong that they kill it. plow the garden deeply, for by so doing you bring to the surface a stratum of soil in which there is more latent fertility than in that close to the surface. after plowing, allow the soil to remain as thrown up from the furrow for two or three days. sunshine and warm air will have a disintegrating effect on it, which will make it easy for you to reduce it under the application of hoe and iron rake to that mellow condition so necessary to the welfare of the plants you propose to grow. it should be worked over and over until not a lump is left in it. you cannot expect to grow good vegetables in a soil that has not been well pulverized before seed is planted. large grounds, or those of a size that admit of the use of horses, can be speedily mellowed with the harrow, which should be run over the ground from all directions until it is thoroughly pulverized. in the small garden the rake and hoe will have to take the place of the harrow. small pieces of ground should be spaded. let the soil remain as thrown up by the spade for two or three days before attempting to work it. i have been told by some amateur gardeners that they did not use much manure because trees and shrubs that grew in close proximity to their gardens were so thrifty without manuring that they felt confident that the soil must be quite rich enough for vegetables without resorting to the use of any fertilizer. these persons lacked the experience which would have enabled them to understand the wide difference between tree and vegetable growth. a tree or a bush sends its roots deeply and widely into the soil, and applies to its uses food that the vegetable cannot send its roots in search of. the roots of most garden plants do not extend far in any direction, nor go very deep; therefore food must be given directly to them if we would secure the best possible result. there are very few gardens in which the natural soil has a sufficient amount of nutriment to produce the effect we aim at without the addition of some kind of plant-food. a rich soil is absolutely necessary in order to hasten development. unless a vegetable makes a quick growth it is pretty sure to be lacking in tenderness and flavor. of course it is possible to apply a greater amount than a plant can make use of, thus forcing an unhealthy growth, but this is not likely to happen if we consult the wise old gardener who knows his garden and the plants he grows in it as a mechanic knows the machine he uses. ii laying out the garden there will be little "laying out" to do in the small garden. here the chief aim will be to make use of every available bit of soil; the beds will be narrow, and the paths between them will be just wide enough to walk in, and these will be the only portions of the ground in which something is not grown. not much chance for planning, you see. in the larger garden it will be not only possible, but advisable, to do considerable planning. if a garden-cultivator is used--and this should be done whenever possible--plan for rows that will enable you to run it the entire length of the garden without turning. beds are no longer in favor with gardeners who aim to reduce the work to be done to the minimum, for in them the cultivator cannot be used to advantage, and weeding cannot be done with the facility which characterizes row-planting, nor can the hoe be used as effectively. there is really no argument that can be advanced in favor of the old bedding system for gardens in which we propose to use labor-saving implements. if possible, have the rows run north and south. this enables the sun to get at the ground lengthwise of the rows, and between them, which it could not do if they ran east and west, as the plants in them would shade all the ground except that in the first and most southerly row. it is not enough that the sun should get at the tops of the plants. the soil needs its vivifying effect. plant with regard to the height and habit of the vegetables you propose to grow. give corn a place at the side of the garden. then peas which grow tall enough to require bushing, and then beans, working down through potatoes, tomatoes, and beets and other low-growing kinds to onions, radishes, and cucumbers. if the garden-cultivator is to be used, leave a space about eighteen inches wide between the rows to work in. this implement can be adjusted to fit any width desired. its teeth can be set to throw the soil toward a plant or away from it. it can be made to do deep or shallow work, as the case may require. as a general thing, after a plant has attained some size we throw the soil toward it. if the teeth are set to do this we go down one side of the row and back on the other, thus throwing the soil about the plant alike on both sides. it will probably be necessary to remove some weeds _in the row_, which cannot be reached by the cultivator. this can be done most effectively by the use of a hoe which is triangular in shape, with the handle-socket in the center of it. one side is a blade like the ordinary hoe. the other comes to a sharp point, with which it is possible to work close to a plant without running any risk of injuring it--something that cannot be done with the ordinary wide-bladed hoe. weeds that grow up side by side with vegetable seedlings can be picked away from them so easily, and without disturbing them in the least, that no hand-pulling will have to be resorted to in cleaning the rows. where the garden-cultivator is used there will be very little work to do with the hoe, as this implement stirs the soil and uproots weeds at the same time. but in the small garden either hoe or weeding-hook will come into daily use. the weeding-hook is a most important tool, though its cost is but ten or fifteen cents. it enables one to do a good deal of weeding in a short time, does its work well, and does away entirely with hand-pulling, which has heretofore been one of the chief arguments that men have advanced against gardening. iii planting the garden most persons make the serious mistake of covering garden seed too deeply. very small seed needs hardly any covering. indeed, it does its best, as a general thing, when simply scattered on the surface and pressed down into the soil by a smooth board. this embeds the seed in the soil, which is made firm enough under the pressure of the board to retain a sufficient amount of moisture to assist germination. very fine seed often fails to sprout if covered too deeply. but most of the seed of garden vegetables is not fine enough to admit of this method of planting. if a seed-sower is not used, little furrows should be made by drawing a stick through the soil, into which the seed should be dropped as evenly as possible. it should then be covered lightly and the soil should be pressed down with the hoe to make it comparatively firm. the probabilities are that many more plants will come up than it is advisable to let grow. these surplus seedlings should be removed from the rows as soon as the plants get a good start. nearly all gardeners make use of the seed-sower. this is an implement that can be adjusted to sow all kinds of seed more evenly than it can be sown by hand, and it can be sown thickly or thinly, as desired, and at any required depth. it cannot be used to much advantage in the very small garden, where only a small quantity of each kind of seed will be made use of, but in large gardens it will be found as much a labor-saver as the garden-cultivator. it is always advisable to plant for a succession if the garden is large enough to admit of it. by planting at intervals of ten days or two weeks it is possible to have fresh vegetables throughout almost the entire season. where this is done it will not be advisable to plant very much of any one kind. among almost all vegetables there are early, medium, and late varieties. some of each of these should be planted in all gardens of a size to warrant so doing. in the small garden i would advise the choice of the later varieties, as these are almost without exception superior in flavor to the earlier kinds, which are grown more on account of earliness than quality. iv seeds that give best results it is very important that seed of only the best kind should be used, if we would grow vegetables of superior quality. every gardener of experience will indorse the truth of this statement. said one amateur gardener to me when i gave him this advice: "why should one be so particular about the seed? it's the culture that you give the plant that counts. plant any kind of seed that happens to be handiest and take good care of the plants that grow from it and you'll have good vegetables." to some extent what he said was true, but he had yet to learn that there is a vast difference between ordinary seed and seed that has bred into it by careful culture the superior qualities which characterize the choicest varieties of all our garden plants. there is such a thing as aristocracy of seed, and no seed that is lacking in this feature can be expected to afford the satisfaction that results from the use of the best. no amount of culture can make a superior vegetable from plants grown from inferior seed. bear this in mind, and buy only the best seed on the market, be your garden large or small. the smaller it is, the greater the importance of using only the best. "but how are we who know very little about such things to know which _is_ the best?" some one may ask. the only answer i can make to this question is this: we have in this country many seed firms that have been in existence for years--some of them over half a century--and these have built up for themselves a reputation for handling only seed of the very best varieties of garden vegetables that it is possible to grow. inferior sorts have been discarded from time to time as those of superior merit have been produced. these firms, proud and jealous of the reputation they have gained, cannot afford to deal in anything that is not up to their standard of "the best." from these dealers you can be sure of getting seed that can always be depended on to give the highest degree of satisfaction. the seed they sell you may cost a little more than some of the newer dealers ask for theirs, but the certainty of getting _what you want_ makes it well worth while to invest some extra money in it. cheap seed--that which is advertised as being "just as good as higher-priced seed for a much smaller amount of money"--is likely to prove as cheap in quality as in price. v early garden work after planting the garden there will be a little interval of leisure while the seed that has been put into the ground is germinating. then will come the time of early warfare with the weeds. here is where the weeding-hook of which i have spoken will come into play in the small garden. this little implement is in the form of a claw, with five or six fingers, each about an inch long, and shaped so that they reach into the ground and take a firm hold of whatever plants they are placed over. it can be so operated that these fingers, working close to plants which it is not desired to uproot, will tear away the weeds without disturbing the other plants, and the soil will be left in light and mellow condition, as if a tiny rake had been drawn through it. with this tool the work can be done with great rapidity. no owner of a garden, large or small, can afford to be without it. it should be used to supplement the work of the cultivator, which can be depended upon to take care of all the weeds between the rows, but which cannot be worked among the plants _in the row_. weeding should be begun as soon as the plants are of a size that makes it possible to tell which is seedling and which is weed. by beginning the work of clearing the garden at this period, and doing it thoroughly, and continuing it at intervals thereafter, it will be a comparatively easy matter to keep weeds under control. but if they are allowed to get a strong start--as they will in an incredibly short time if let alone--it will be a difficult matter to subdue them and keep the upper hand during the rest of the season. it is very important that they should be given to understand, at the outset, that they will not be tolerated in your garden. this will necessitate early work and careful and regular attention thereafter, but it will not be the laborious work that so many persons think it is if it is begun at the right season and always carried on on the offensive. it is when weeds have been allowed to intrench themselves firmly in the garden that this work becomes disagreeable. nor is it work that will require a good deal of one's time. in the cultivation of a garden it is the little attentions, given when needed, that count, rather than the amount of labor and time expended there, as you will find when you come to have a garden of your own. if there are any vacant places in the beds or rows, fill with plants taken from places where they stand too thick. in the small garden there should be not one vacant spot. every bit of soil should be made to do its share of work in the production of some vegetable. if weeds are kept down during the early part of the season there ought not to be many during the latter part of it. but there will be no time when there will not be _some_ to wage warfare against, and every gardener should make it a rule to destroy every one that gets a start as soon as discovered, for, by preventing it from developing seed, we can save ourselves a good deal of work next season. one weed will bear seed enough to fill the whole garden with its progeny if allowed to do so. if the soil was properly fertilized at planting-time it will not be necessary to apply more fertilizer, if any, until the latter part of the season, and then only a small amount will be required--just enough to enable the soil to do its share in ripening off the plants that are growing in it. but if, at any time, the plants seem to lag or come to a standstill enough should be given to stimulate active growth. careful watch should be kept of everything in the garden, and prompt advantage should be taken of any tendency toward slow development by making fresh applications of whatever fertilizer was used at the beginning of the season. in order to attain the success that the gardener aims at in the cultivation of vegetables it is absolutely necessary to keep them going steadily ahead from start to finish, and this can only be done by supplying them with a generous amount of plant-food. there should be no alternations of liberal feeding and lack of feeding. vi vegetable plants in the house many persons would like to grow early vegetables. with a view to "getting the start of the season" and, incidentally, of their neighbors, they sow seed in pots and boxes in march and april and attempt to get an "early start" for plants that will form a basis of supply for family use while they are waiting for the development of the general crop from seed sown in the garden after the weather has become sufficiently warm to warrant outdoor gardening. in some instances comparative success has resulted from plants started into growth in the house, but nine times out of ten, it is safe to say, the result has been entire failure. the seedlings grow fairly well at first, but soon become weak and die. if, by chance, a few survive until conditions warrant putting them in the ground, they are so lacking in vitality that the change from indoors to outdoors is pretty sure to be the end of them. i would never advise trying to grow plants from seed, in the house, unless the grower understands beforehand the drawbacks to plant-growth which prevail in the average dwelling, and is willing to do all he can to overcome them. simply filling boxes or pots with earth, putting seed into them, and supplying water will not insure success. one of the unfavorable conditions which seedling plants must struggle against is too much heat, if they are kept in the living-room. an undue amount of warmth forces them into abnormal development in the early stages of their growth, and a little later on there comes a reaction from the weakness thus brought about, and this reaction is almost invariably death to the tender plant. another unfavorable condition is the result of indiscriminate watering. the soil is either kept too wet or too dry. to grow good plants there must be an even supply of moisture. a third unfortunate condition is the result of failure to give the plants a liberal supply of fresh air. it is possible, however, to overcome these conditions and grow really good plants from seed in the living-room, but it cannot be done unless the amateur gardener is sufficiently interested in the undertaking to give his plants all the attention they need. instead of keeping them in the living-room--which in most instances will have a temperature of or °--i would advise giving them place in a room opening off the sitting-room, where the temperature can be so regulated that it will not go above ° at any time. there is far less danger of plants suffering from a low temperature than of their being injured by an excess of heat. if the room in which they are kept has snug windows, in most instances it will get all the warmth that is needed by leaving open at night the door which connects it with the living-room. if the weather is very cold, the plants can be removed, temporarily, to the living-room, or they can be covered with newspapers. thick paper shades at the windows will do much to keep out cold and prevent draughts. storm-sash will do this most effectively, but it interferes with giving the young plants the fresh air they need. therefore i would prefer the shades, and depend upon removal to a warmer place on extra-cold nights. fresh air will be found a most important factor in the growth of seedling plants indoors. unless it can be given it will be almost impossible to grow any plant well in the ordinary dwelling. it should be admitted to the room on every pleasant day by opening a window at the top, or a door at some distance from the plants. the fresh, cold air should be allowed to mix with the warm air in the room before it comes in contact with the plants, as a chill will often do about as much damage as a touch of frost. watering these plants is a matter of prime importance. generally water is applied carelessly and irregularly--too much to-day, and none at all to-morrow. we saturate the soil with it while only enough is required to make it moist. an over-supply of water at the roots, combined with too much heat and lack of fresh air, will undermine the constitution of any plant, because such a combination excites unnatural development, and this means a lowering of the vital force to the danger-point. i have devised a method by which i have succeeded in controlling the supply of moisture in the soil to my complete satisfaction. i use boxes about four inches deep to start my plants in. in the bottom of these boxes i put sphagnum moss. there should be at least an inch of it after it has been pressed down by the weight of the soil above. the bottom of the seed-box is bored full of small holes. each box sets in a shallow pan of galvanized iron, on a layer of coarse gravel, which raises it enough to allow water to circulate freely under it. water is poured into the iron pan, using enough to come up about half an inch above the bottom of the seed-box, or in contact with the moss in it, and it should be kept at this height at all times. the moss absorbs the moisture like a sponge, and the soil above constantly sucks up all that is needed to keep it in a sufficiently moist condition to meet the requirements of the plants growing in it. the absorbent qualities of the moss are such that an excessive amount of moisture is never communicated to the soil above. thus i secure a steady and even supply, which does away entirely with the danger resulting from the application of water to the surface of the soil from watering-pot or basin. if the temperature can be controlled in such a way that it will not vary much from to °, if the soil can be kept moist but never wet, and fresh air can be given in generous quantity regularly, it will be found a comparatively easy matter to grow plants satisfactorily from seed in the house, and have them in such healthy condition by the time it is safe to put them out in the garden that they will average up well with the plants the professional gardener raises in hotbed and cold-frame. by the use of such plants, and such plants only, can we expect to grow early vegetables successfully. vii standard varieties of vegetables the amateur gardener will find it extremely perplexing work to make a satisfactory selection of _varieties_ of vegetables to grow in his garden. he knows quite well, as a general thing, what _kinds_ he wants to grow, but when he comes to a consultation of the seedsmen's catalogues he discovers that of each _kind_ of vegetable listed therein there are so many _varieties_ mentioned that he is bewildered. most of them are described as being so desirable that he cannot help getting the impression that if he rules out this or that one he is likely to deprive himself of the very thing from which he would obtain the highest degree of satisfaction. nine times out of ten he finds, after going through the catalogues and marking the kinds and varieties that appeal to him most forcibly, that he has a list which would furnish enough seed to supply an average-sized market-garden. i would advise the amateur gardener to attempt the culture of only a few of the many varieties described in the catalogues, and these of the very best. but what constitutes "the very best" is a hard matter for him to decide where all are described by adjectives in the superlative degree. he will find, by comparing the catalogues of the various seed firms, that there are described in most of them certain varieties of each kind of vegetable that seem common to all, along with many other varieties whose names differ greatly, though the descriptions of them indicate that there is not much difference in quality, or in other general respects. if he confines his selection to such varieties of each kind as the various dealers list _under the same names_ in their catalogues he will be making no mistake, for the fact that all leading dealers carry these varieties in stock is sufficient proof that they are standard varieties, and of such superior merit that no up-to-date dealer can afford to exclude them from his list. take, for instance, stowell's evergreen sweet-corn, and champion of england pea. _all_ dealers handle these, because they _are_ standard, and always in demand because their superior qualities have made them universal favorites wherever grown. but they have other varieties of the same vegetable of which each makes a specialty, under names which will be found in no catalogue but their own. many of these are doubtless possessors of all the good qualities claimed for them, but this we cannot be sure about. but the sorts which are common to all are those of whose merit there can be no two opinions. these are the varieties the inexperienced gardener can select with the assurance that he is getting the best thing of its kind on the market. in this chapter i propose to make mention of only such kinds of vegetables as i have grown in my own garden. i do this because so many beginners in gardening prefer to depend on the advice of some one who has familiarized himself with the merits of the various vegetables adapted to ordinary gardening. and i propose to give with each such brief cultural directions as seem of most importance, thus making it possible for the amateur to avoid some of the mistakes that might be made if he were wholly ignorant of the requirements of his plants. after having experimented with many kinds i have pinned my faith to the kinds i shall make mention of, and i have no hesitancy in recommending them to the attention of all gardeners, feeling confident that a trial of them will bear me out in the statement that no better list can be made. there _may_ be others of equal or superior merit, but if there are i have still to find out what they are. _asparagus_ taking the list alphabetically, the first vegetable to consider is asparagus. conover's colossal seems to combine all the merits of the several varieties on the market in such a degree as to give it a place at the head of the list of desirable kinds for ordinary garden culture. it is tender, fine-flavored, and very productive. a dozen plants, after becoming well established, will furnish all that will be required by a family of four or five persons. in order to secure good crops of this delicious vegetable it will be necessary to dig up the soil in which it is to be planted to the depth of two or three feet, and fill the bottom of the excavation with strong manure. pack this down firmly, and then return to the trench the soil thrown out from it, fertilizing this well as you do so. while asparagus will grow in a soil that is not at all rich, and will live on indefinitely under all kinds of neglect and abuse, it must be given plenty of strong food and good care in order to enable it to do itself justice. i would not advise attempting to grow it from seed, as it takes a long time for seedling plants to reach maturity. i would get two- or three-year-old plants. set them about eighteen inches apart and at least four inches below the surface. keep weeds and grass away from them. give the asparagus-bed a place in the garden by itself, preferably along a fence or in some location where it will not interfere with other plants which call for the frequent use of the garden-cultivator. on no account plant it in that part of the garden where it will be necessary to use a plow, for it is a plant that must be left undisturbed if you would have it do its best. cover the beds with coarse manure in the fall, and work this into the soil about the plants in spring. _beans_ mammoth stringless green pod matures early, and is very tender, fine-flavored, and productive. it is a general favorite for the home garden. golden wax is later than the green-podded variety mentioned above. it is valuable as a string-bean, and for shelling. beans are quite tender, therefore they should not be planted until the weather becomes warm and settled. plant in rows two feet apart, and about four inches apart in the row, or in hills of three or four plants each. cultivate frequently during the early part of summer, throwing the soil toward the plants. do not work among them while they are wet from dew or rain. if a pole-bean is wanted, improved lima will be found extremely satisfactory because of its productiveness and its fine, buttery flavor. this class supplies the table with shelled beans only, its pods being too tough to use as a string-bean. plant in hills of six or eight, setting a pole six or seven feet tall in the center of each hill for the plants to climb by. _beet_ i would advise two varieties of this vegetable where the garden is large enough to warrant the use of more than one. crosby's egyptian stands at the head of the list as an early variety. it is remarkably tender, and has a sugary flavor that is most delicious. as a second variety i would advise crimson globe. this is very sweet and fine-flavored, and comes to perfection during the latter part of summer. it is a good keeper, and a quantity of it should be stored in the cellar for winter use. sow seeds in rows sixteen to eighteen inches apart. sow thickly, and use the surplus plants as greens while young and tender, making use of both top and root. thin to three or four inches apart. _cabbage_ unless the garden is of considerable size i would not advise planting this vegetable, because it takes up so much room that might better be given to other kinds which the housewife will find more useful. the plants should stand at least two feet apart. seed can be put into the ground about the first of may, or plants can be started in the hotbed if wanted for very early use. seedlings can be transplanted as soon as they have made their second leaf. for a very early variety i would advise jersey wakefield. for late use late drumhead or stone mason marblehead--both excellent in all respects, and fine for winter use. care must be taken to prevent insects from injuring the plants during the various stages of their development. spray with an infusion of the tobacco extract known as nicoticide. this will effectually prevent the pests from doing harm if applied thoroughly and frequently. if cabbage is to be wintered in the cellar, it must be kept cool and dry. some prefer to bury the heads in trenches, in dry locations in the garden. the trench should be about two feet deep. spread straw in the bottom of it, and place the cabbage on it, head down, with the large leaves folded well together. then cover with three or four inches of hay, and bank up with soil. put a board over this to shed rain. the cabbage will freeze, but if left in the ground until the frost is gradually extracted from it it will be found crisp and brittle, and much more satisfactory for table use than that which is wintered in the cellar. care must be taken to exclude rain. if water gets to it it will be ruined. it is a good plan to cover the trench with oilcloth or tarred paper, both being waterproof. _cauliflower_ this is a favorite vegetable when well grown and properly cared for. it requires a rich soil, a location well exposed to the sun, and frequent applications of water if the season happens to be a dry one. cultivate as you would cabbage. for early use the plants should be started in the hotbed, and transplanted to the cold-frame as soon as they have made their third leaves. put into the open ground as soon as the soil is in good working condition. set the plants about two feet apart. when heads have formed they should be bleached by drawing the large leaves together and tying them with strips of soft cloth. for a late crop, to mature during the pickling season, start plants in open ground in may. the best early variety is dwarf erfurt. autumn giant is an excellent late variety. _carrot_ this plant likes a deep, warm, sandy soil. early short horn matures by midsummer. it is rich and sweet in flavor. red intermediate is a later variety, excellent for fall and winter use. comparatively few persons give this plant a place in their gardens, but it richly deserves a place there because of its value as an article of food, as well as because of its health-giving qualities. it adds greatly to the variety of the bill of fare, and where it appears frequently on the table a liking for it is soon developed, and thereafter it becomes a standard vegetable in the housewife's list of "must-haves." it adds a delightful flavor to vegetable soups. _celery_ the seed of early celery should be sown in the hotbed. transplant the seedlings to the cold-frame and allow them to remain there until may. then set in the richest soil at your disposal, six inches apart in the row. blanch by setting up boards a foot or more in width each side the row, allowing an opening about three inches wide at the top through which the plants can get a little light. for late and winter use, sow the seeds in open ground in may. bleach by earthing up gradually, as the stalks develop, until you have the plants buried to within a few inches of the tip of their leaves. use clean, dry soil in banking the plants. sawdust is good, but care must be taken to make use of a kind that does not have a strong odor. pine-dust will give the plants a disagreeable flavor. for winter use, take up plants, root and all, and pack close together in boxes and store in a cool, dark cellar. white plume is the best early variety. giant pascal is probably the most satisfactory winter variety, but winter queen is a favorite with many. both are so tender and have such a rich, nutty flavor that it is not an easy matter to decide between them. _cucumber_ for very early cucumbers plant the seed in the hotbed in march or april, but do not put the plants into the garden until all danger of frost is over. this plant requires a rich and mellow soil. it should be set in hills at least four feet apart. it is a good plan to start the seed in pieces of sod placed grass-side down. this enables one to move them from the hotbed without any disturbance of their roots. the cucumber- or squash-beetle often destroys the plants when they are put in the open ground if close watch is not taken and prompt effort made to rout the enemy. spray with nicoticide infusion, taking pains to have it reach the under side of the leaves. dry road-dust sifted thickly over the plants is often found quite effective, but because of the inability to apply it to the under side of the leaves the liquid insecticide will be found more effective. improved early white spine is a favorite with all who like a crisp, tender-meated, finely flavored cucumber. ever-bearing is an excellent sort for pickling as well as for use on the table during the fall, as it continues to bear until frost kills the vines. _corn_ sweet-corn is one of the most delicious of all garden vegetables, and every garden that is large enough to admit of its culture should give place to two or three varieties of it. because of its tall growth and the distance required between rows it is not adapted to culture in the very small garden, though i would willingly go without some of the other vegetables generally grown there in order to give place to a few hills of it. golden bantam produces ears only four or five inches in length, but what they lack in size they make up for in tenderness and sweetness. country gentleman is a medium variety, very tender, sweet, and juicy. but the ideal sweet-corn is stowell's evergreen. no other variety equals it in tenderness, sugary sweetness, and rich flavor. it does not come to maturity until quite late in the season, but it remains in excellent eating-condition until the plant is killed by frost. do not plant until the weather and the ground are warm--generally about may th at the extreme north. sweet-corn seed often decays if put into the ground as early as field-corn. have the soil rich and mellow, and cultivate frequently and thoroughly. if a dry spell comes along make use of the cultivator daily until the drought is broken. _endive_ this plant ought to be grown far more extensively than it is because it is one of the best salad plants we have for fall and winter use. some should be sown in april for use during the summer, and some in july, for late use. when the plants are two or three inches high transplant to rich soil, setting them about ten inches apart. when nearly full-grown, gather the leaves together and tie them with strips of cloth, thus excluding the light from the central part of the bunch. it must be blanched before it is fit for table use. this part of the work must be done while the plants are perfectly dry. if done when they are wet or even moist, they will be quite sure to rot. _lettuce_ this plant should be started in the hotbed if there is one. the seedlings should be transferred to the cold-frame before they have attained much size, and left there until the ground becomes warm. very fine lettuce, however, can be grown from seed sown directly in the open ground about the first of may, if the soil is warm and rich. a fertile soil is quite important, as it is necessary to bring on a rapid growth in order to have the plant crisp and tender. slow development gives a comparatively worthless article. the all heart variety is excellent for spring and early summer use. it forms a solid head, and is very crisp and tender, with that rich, buttery flavor that the lover of this plant insists on. mammoth salamander is one of the best late-season kinds. _melons_ these, like corn and cabbage, are not adapted to culture in the small garden because they require more room than it is possible to give them without giving up other vegetables which the housewife cannot well afford to go without. but in good-sized gardens i would advise their culture, because there is nothing else quite equal to them in delicacy of flavor and luscious sweetness. they require a light, rich soil. plant when the ground is warm, and not before, in hills four feet apart. it is a good plan to put a generous quantity of manure from the henhouse in each hill, working it well into the soil before seed is planted. put at least a dozen seed in each hill, for some of the seedlings will doubtless be destroyed by the beetle that works on cucumber- and squash-vines. spray all over with nicoticide infusion as soon as the first beetle is seen, also shower with dry road-dust. if a fungous disease attacks them spray with bordeaux mixture. rocky ford is the standard variety of muskmelon at present. it has a thick greenish-yellow flesh, is smooth-grained, is very sweet, has a most delicious flavor, and is so tender that it fairly seems to melt in the mouth. netted gem is another standard variety. among the watermelons ice-cream is a general favorite. mammoth ironclad grows to a very large size, is solid-meated, and has a peculiarly sweet and luscious flavor. _onion_ this should be sown in light, sandy soil, if possible, as it seldom does well in a heavy soil. yellow danvers is the leading variety for the home garden. silverskin has a mild flavor, and on that account it is a favorite with many. it is fine for pickling. it also keeps well in winter. _parsley_ sow this plant thickly, in april, in rows of mellow soil. as the seed germinates very slowly, it is well to soak it in warm water before sowing. if you have a light cellar, plants can be potted in fall and stored there for winter use. the cellar window is a good place for them. every housewife who prides herself on the attractive appearance of her roasts and other meat dishes and many kinds of salad will not be willing to be without this plant. dwarf perpetual is the standard variety for the home garden. its leaves are charmingly crimped and curly, and of beautiful dark green that makes them very ornamental when used as a garnish for the table. _parsnip_ this vegetable is not grown as much as it ought to be. one does not care for it until winter sets in. then it affords a much-appreciated change from other vegetables. it is an excellent keeper when stored in the cellar in winter. or the roots can be left in the ground until spring, when they will be found delightfully fresh and tender. sow in april or may, in deep, rich soil. hollow crown is the standard variety. _pea_ this vegetable is so extremely hardy that it can be planted with entire safety quite early in spring. there are varieties that come into bearing a few weeks after sowing, followed by medium early kinds, which give place, a little later, to such varieties as champion of england and telephone. champion of england is the most delicious of all peas. unless the garden is a very small one, one should plan for a succession. if this is done it will be possible to enjoy this vegetable during the greater part of the season, with possibly the exception of the very hottest part of summer. best results are secured by planting the seed two or three inches deep in furrows. the soil should be rich. if there is a little clay in it, all the better. low-growing varieties require no support, but the tall kinds must be bushed or trained on coarse-meshed wire netting. bushes suit this plant better than anything else. if the vines are allowed to crinkle down and come in contact with the ground their pods will almost always decay, and the vines will mildew and become so diseased that an end will be put to their bearing. american wonder is one of the best very early kinds. gradus is next in order. advancer i consider the best medium variety. telephone is a most excellent late variety, second only to champion of england, which is everywhere conceded to be the ideal pea so far as productiveness, size, rich flavor, and sweetness are concerned. _potato_ anybody can grow the potato, _after a fashion_. but in order to grow it _well_ it must receive more attention than is generally given it. it must have a rich and mellow soil--a sandy one is preferable--and the best of cultivation. this is one of the vegetables that require considerable room, therefore it is not adapted to small-garden culture. but when space will admit of it it should always be grown, because it is one of the garden products that can be used in so many ways that the housewife finds it one of the things she cannot well get along without. seed is obtained by cutting old potatoes in pieces, each piece having an "eye" or growing-point. the pieces should be planted in hills, four or five pieces to a hill, with hills two feet apart. cover to a depth of four inches. if plants are not watched while small, insects are likely to attack them. spray with nicoticide infusion. later in the season the colorado beetle will be quite likely to put in its appearance. then use paris green, either in infusion, or mixed with land-plaster, and applied in a dry state while the plants are moist from dew. if any fungous disease is discovered, spray with bordeaux mixture. all these insecticides can be procured from druggists or dealers in agricultural goods, or they can be obtained from the dealer from whom you buy seed. it is well to plant this vegetable for a succession. one of the best early varieties is beauty of hebron, which matures in eight to ten weeks from planting. early rose is everywhere a favorite, as is early ohio. rural new-yorker is a standard late variety. burbank's seedling is excellent as an intermediate sort. all the varieties named are of superior flavor, very productive, and sure to give complete satisfaction. _radish_ this most toothsome vegetable should be sown early, either in the hotbed or the open ground. if you have a light, warm soil and a location that is fully exposed to the sun you can raise almost as fine radishes outside of the hotbed as in it, though of course not as early in the season. a crop will develop in five or six weeks from sowing. plant at intervals of two or three weeks for a succession. cardinal globe is the standard early variety. crimson giant is a little later. both have that crisp, tender, and juicy quality which makes the radish so universal a favorite. icicle is a long-growing white variety, very crisp and brittle. this has the merit of remaining in condition for use longer than any other variety. _rhubarb_ this plant likes a deep, rich, and rather moist soil. it should be planted in permanent beds, about three feet apart. i would not advise attempting to grow it from seed. get roots one or two years old. victoria is a standard variety. _salsify_ a vegetable that ought to be grown a great deal more than it is. its popular name of "vegetable oyster" is not a misnomer, for it has a distinct oyster flavor. many persons prefer it to the bivalve, when it is cooked properly. being hardy, it can be left in the ground over winter, or it can be dug and stored in the cellar along with parsnips and carrots for use in winter. sow early. _squash_ probably the best variety of summer squash for home use is giant crook neck. for winter use the hubbard stands at the head of the list. these favorite vegetables require a rich soil. they should be planted in hills about three feet apart. have the soil rich. keep watch of them, for they are liable to attacks from beetles. it is well to sprinkle a handful of tobacco-dust about the young plants. as they become larger they can be sprayed with the nicoticide infusion heretofore spoken of. _spinach_ desirable for "greens." sow as early in the spring as the ground is in good working condition. have the soil quite rich to force a tender, succulent growth. sow for succession, a month apart. the long-season variety is the best i have any knowledge of. _tomato_ start this plant in the hotbed if you have one. if not, sow in the open ground as soon as it has become warm. to secure a very early crop the plants must be started as early as march. when three or four inches high transplant from hotbed to cold-frame, but do not put into the open ground until all danger from frost is over. if you are without hotbed facilities i would advise purchasing plants from the gardener, who tries to supply his customers with strong and healthy plants very early in the season. plants from seed sown in the open ground will be so late in ripening a crop, as a general thing, that they will not afford satisfaction. standard varieties are stone, very solid and firm-fleshed and of fine quality, and ponderosa, very large, fine-flavored, and almost seedless. viii small fruits and their culture quite as important as garden vegetables is the small-fruit department of each home that is living up to its privileges. of course there will be no room for raspberries and blackberries on the little home lot, but one can have a row of strawberries there, in almost all cases, and a few currant-bushes can be tucked away in nooks and corners where quite likely nothing else would be grown if the tiny space were not given up to them. there are places all over the country where a collection of small fruit ought to be grown, but which are without it. why? there are several answers to the question. one is: neglect to live up to the possibilities of the place because of carelessness, or possibly because the owner is distrustful of his ability to grow them successfully. another is: the impression that these plants are so exacting in their demands that none but skilled gardeners are warranted in undertaking their culture. and a third one is: the uncertainty of being unable to take them through our severe northern winters safely. the first objection is met with the argument that the man who is obliged to work for a living, and has a family to support, has no excuse for neglecting to avail himself and those dependent on him of all the good things that can be grown from the plants named, if he owns a piece of ground large enough to accommodate a small collection. the second objection is not justified, because it is an easy matter for any man to learn how to care for small fruits if he sets about it with the intention of mastering its details. there is really no basis in fact for the third one, for we have, to-day, varieties of each kind of small fruit that are entirely hardy at the north if properly cared for in the fall. there should be a strawberry-bed, large or small, in every garden, if i had my way about it. here i suppose some reader will meet me with the objection that "strawberries don't pay. they require too much care, and the beds soon run out, and then everything has to be done over again." now i claim that strawberries _do_ pay if they get the right kind of treatment. no one has a right to expect much from them if he simply sticks a plant into the soil and leaves it to take care of itself thereafter. strawberries cultivated in this manner _don't_ pay, i admit. and it is well that they do not, for no one has a right to expect much, if anything, from a plant of any kind that he isn't willing to take good care of. while the strawberry will not take care of itself, it really requires no more attention than most other crops. and as to "running out," that cuts no figure, when you come to think about it, because "doing things all over again" amounts to no more than planting vegetables each season. this has to be done yearly, and strawberries will demand only annual attention, thus putting the two classes of plants on practically the same basis. i am aware that some writers on strawberry culture have ventilated a good many far-fetched ideas of their own in print relative to the culture of this plant, and so elaborate and complicated are some of these theories that many an amateur has, after reading them, abandoned the idea of having a strawberry-bed. but it is a fact susceptible of proof by any man who gives it a trial that strawberry culture may be made a success without adopting the views of persons who seem to think that theory is more important than common sense. the simplest method of strawberry-growing that i know anything about is what is called the "one-crop system." set the plants in rows three feet apart, to allow the use of the cultivator between them. let the plants be a foot apart in the row. keep the ground between the rows well cultivated, and in the second summer, when the plants are bearing their first crop of fruit, allow them to send their runners into the space between the rows and take root there. when these young plants have fully established themselves--which will be by the end of august, as a general thing--take a spade and cut down between them and the old plants. then dig up the old plants, making the place where they grew a space between rows. next season train runners from the bearing plants back into the old row. by thus alternating the location of the plants you keep the garden supplied with one-year-old ones from which you get but one crop of fruit. this method is so simple that any one can understand it, and it has the indorsement of some of our most up-to-date gardeners who recognize the fact that one full crop of berries is about all that can be expected from the strawberry. of course older plants will bear fruit, but never of the quantity and quality which is obtained from strong, healthy young plants whose vitality has not been drawn upon by the production of a heavy first crop. this one-crop system makes it possible to grow fine berries without giving the plants more care than is required by ordinary vegetables. the soil for strawberries should be rich and mellow, and should be kept entirely free from weeds. it is a good plan to spread clean straw between the rows before the crop ripens, to keep the fruit from coming in contact with the ground or having sand washed upon it by heavy rains. the best variety of strawberry that i have ever grown is brandywine. it is very productive, bears large berries, has a most delicious flavor, and is never hollow-hearted. it ripens in mid-season. the best late variety, allowing me to be judge, is gandy. this kind requires a very rich soil. where it can be given this, no more satisfactory late-cropper can be grown. the two varieties named above combine all the best qualities of this most popular fruit. several times in the last few years the announcement has been made that a fall-bearing strawberry has been produced, but as it was of european origin it did not prove satisfactory under american conditions. of late, however, some of our most progressive small-fruit growers have succeeded in growing two varieties that promise to be really good fall-croppers. these produce, if allowed to do so, their main crop at the same time as other varieties, and keep on bearing until frost. but in order to secure a good crop late in the season it is advisable to cut away all buds that appear in june, keeping the strength of the plant in reserve for the fall crop. it is well to mulch these plants during the hot, dry weather of summer. these fall-bearing varieties are on the market under the names of superb and progressive. * * * * * the blackberry responds generously to good treatment, bearing enormous quantities of large, juicy berries of most delicious flavor when given proper care. it prefers a rather sandy soil. in order to secure a fresh stock of wood for each season's crop the old canes should be cut away as soon as they have ripened their fruit, thus throwing all the strength of the plant into the production of new canes from which fruit is to be expected next season. while the two leading varieties, kittatinny and snyder, are quite hardy, it is well to take the precaution of giving them some protection to guard against the possible loss of some of the unripened growth of the season. this is done to the best advantage by removing two or three spadefuls of soil from the base of each plant, close to its roots, and then tipping the bush over until it lies flat on the ground. this could not be done without running the risk of breaking some of the stiff and brittle canes if the excavation were not made. when the bushes are spread out on the ground, where they are held in place by laying boards across them, throw some coarse litter over the base of the plant, and scatter a covering of straw over the branches. as soon as the frost is out of the ground in the spring, lift the bushes and replace the soil that was taken away in the fall. * * * * * raspberries are second only to strawberries in deliciousness of flavor, and should have a place in all gardens where there is room for them. they do well in almost all soils, if well drained. a sandy loam, however, is the soil that seems to suit them best. their old canes, like those of the blackberry, should be cut away at the end of the fruiting season. cuthbert is the leading red variety. cumberland is the favorite black kind. i notice that one of our most prominent growers of small fruit offers an ever-bearing raspberry this season, under the name of red ranere. i have no knowledge of its merits other than that which i gain from the grower's announcement in introducing this sort to the market, but from intimate personal acquaintance with the man i am quite confident that the plant must possess real merit, for he is not a person given to exaggeration. i quote from what he has to say in reference to this variety in a leading horticultural magazine: this is not only the earliest red raspberry, but it is a perpetual fruiting one. its main crop is greater than that of any other variety i grow. it continues to bear on its old canes until late in august, at about which time the canes of the season's growth come into bearing. these produce a large amount of fine fruit until late in the fall. the berries are very attractive, being a bright, rich crimson. they are of good size, and of very superior quality, with a rich, sugary, full raspberry flavor. i would advise the amateur gardener to give this variety a trial. raspberries late in the fall would be thoroughly appreciated by those with whom this fruit is a favorite. * * * * * the currant is one of the garden's indispensables. it furnishes us with fruit of just the right degree of tart acidity to fit the season in which it is at its prime, and who does not get a deal of enjoyment out of a green-currant pie? no kind of small fruit is easier to grow successfully. worms frequently attack the bushes in spring, and often ruin the crop unless steps are taken to put a prompt end to their depredations, but spraying with nicoticide infusion will rout them in most cases. application of this insecticide should be repeated at intervals during the earlier part of the season. fay's prolific is a standard variety for home use. this is a dark, rich red, most beautiful to behold. white grape is an ideal white variety. combine the two and you have a table decoration quite as colorful as that furnished by any flowers, and almost as attractive. the currant is one of the housewife's most valued fruits for jam- and jelly-making. one enterprising dealer has recently introduced to this country a french sort known as bar-le-duc, or preserving currant. this variety has a flavor that no other variety can lay claim to, and another feature of merit peculiar to it is that it is almost seedless. for a good many years the entire output of this currant was under the control of a french fruit company who manufactured it into jam which has been extensively sold in this country under the name of confiture bar-le-duc. so superior has it been considered to home-made as well as imported jams, that it has readily sold at double the price of them. i would advise the amateur to procure a few plants of this variety and experiment with it. * * * * * the gooseberry must not be overlooked in this connection. many persons claim that the bush mildews to such an extent that the crop is oftener than not a failure. this can largely be prevented by planting the bushes farther apart than the currant, and thinning out the branches so that there will at all times be a free circulation of air about them. it is well to give a heavy mulch of coarse manure in the hot weather of summer. spray with the infusion recommended for currants to prevent injury from worms. if mildew of an apparently fungous nature attacks the plants, spray with bordeaux mixture. * * * * * this hardly seems the place in which to say much about the culture of the apple, plum, pear, and cherry, for that is a phase of gardening quite distinct from that which this little book aims to interest the homemaker in. however, the writer would urge having all these fruits when conditions are favorable to their culture. the more fruit we eat the healthier we will be. all kinds of small fruit can be planted in spring to better advantage than in fall, though the nurseryman will tell you, if you consult him, that it makes little difference whether you plant in spring or fall. the writer has tried both methods, and he has always been most successful when plants were put out in april and may, provided they were sent from the nursery that spring. if they are sent in fall they should be "heeled-in" over winter. "heeling-in" consists in burying the roots in a place where they will be kept dry during the winter. it will not be necessary to cover all the top, though there is no objection to this if the owner thinks it safer to do so. care should be taken to keep the plants well protected from storms. this can be done very effectively by spreading tarred paper over them, pains being taken to weight it down with stones or something else equally heavy to prevent its being blown out of place. plants that have been "heeled-in" over winter should be set out as soon as possible in spring. ix hotbeds and cold-frames in order to have vegetables early in the season it will be necessary to give them a start some weeks before the ground is in proper condition for the reception of seed. sometimes this is done by sowing the seed in pots and boxes in the living-room, as advised in chapter vi, but here conditions are not very favorable to healthy growth, unless great care is taken to follow the directions given in the chapter mentioned, and even then success does not always attend our efforts. in order to give our plants the early start that they must have if we want vegetables at a time when most gardeners are getting the garden ready for planting, we must make use of the hotbed. if this is done we can gain from six weeks to two months in time, and have lettuce and radishes before our neighbors who are without hotbed facilities consider it safe to put seed into the ground. at the north the first of march is quite early enough to get the hotbed under way. i am aware that many young gardeners have the impression that a hotbed is, in some respects, a mysterious thing, and because of this they do not undertake to make one. now there is nothing simpler than a hotbed when you come to a study of it. it is simply making a place in which summer conditions can be imitated by supplying it with steady, gentle heat, and in confining this heat within an inclosure. the heat is generated by the use of material which ferments, and the inclosure is nothing but a combination of boards and glass so arranged that the temperature inside it can be regulated to suit the requirements of the plants you undertake to grow in it. the heat-generating material is generally fresh manure from the horse-stable, or a mixture of that and coarse litter. because the heat from rapid fermentation is quite intense, at first the material from which it is obtained should be prepared before the hotbed is brought into use. a quantity of it should be spread on the site selected for the hotbed--which should be one that is high and dry--covering a space larger than the hotbed frame is to be. spread it in layers four or five inches deep, tramping each layer down well. when there is a foot and a half of it, cover it with something that will shed rain, and wait for fermentation to take place. a warm moisture will rise from it like steam. after two or three days fork the material over, and remove all straw, and make another heap similar to the first one, taking great pains to have it firm and compact. it is very important that it should have considerable solidity, as a heap of loose litter will never give satisfactory results. there should be at least a foot and a half of this heat-generating material. while waiting for fermentation to take place in the manure-pile, prepare the frame for your hotbed. let it be about a foot and a half in depth at the back, and eight or ten inches deep in front, with sides that slope from the wider boards to the narrower ones. cover it with glass set in sash. if possible have the sash hinged to the back-board, so that it can be lifted for ventilation without removing it. the best location for a hotbed is one facing the south, that all possible advantage can be taken of sunshine, and against a building or fence that will protect it on the north from cold winds. some persons prefer to make an excavation a foot or more in depth for the reception of the heating material, but this is not a matter of much importance. as a general thing it will not be possible to do this in a satisfactory manner while there is frost in the ground, as there will be at the north until after the first of march. when the first stages of fermentation are over, set the hotbed frame in place, and fill in with five or six inches of very fine, rich soil. this is what your seed is to be planted in. the young gardener will be surprised at the amount of heat contained in an inclosure like the one described. it will be very similar to the weather conditions of early or middle may out of doors. in it plants will grow healthily and vigorously, provided they are given plenty of fresh air. this is a matter of the greatest importance. unless your seedlings are aired daily, if the weather is pleasant, they will make a rapid but weak growth, and when the time comes to put them in the cold-frame or the open ground--provided they are alive then--they will be so lacking in vitality that the change will be pretty sure to put an end to them. on every sunny or warm day the sash should be lifted an inch or two, about ten o'clock, and left in that condition until about two. care must be taken, however, to see that the wind does not blow from a quarter that will drive the cold air in upon the plants. the admission of a cold blast will often be fatal to the tender plants. great caution must be exercised in regard to ventilation. the aim should be, at all times, to admit pure, fresh air without allowing cold to enter with it. this may seem a somewhat paradoxical statement, for at first thought it will seem impossible for air from without to come in without taking along with it the cold air which is in circulation outside, but when one takes into consideration the fact that the warm air inside the hotbed meets the air from out of doors at the point of entrance it will be understood that it repels or counteracts it to an extent that makes it safe to open the sash slightly when the outside temperature is nearly down to freezing-point. the hotbed-owner must study existing conditions and be governed accordingly. it is impossible to lay down any hard-and-fast rules to apply in this case. on cold nights the hotbed sash should be covered with blankets or old carpeting to prevent the formation of frost on the glass. if you find, in the morning, that the glass is covered with moisture on its under side, raise the sash a trifle and leave it so until the moisture clears away. if at any time you have reason to think that the warmth inside the frame is decreasing too rapidly, bank up about it with fresh fermenting material. after constructing the hotbed and putting the frame and sash in place, test the heat inside by an accurate thermometer before venturing to sow any seed. when it registers ° or ° the bed is ready for seeding. in making the frame for a hotbed care should be taken to see that all joints fit snugly. a great deal of cold can be admitted through a very small crevice. a few cracks will let out the heat faster than it is generated, therefore see to it that in constructing the frame a good piece of work is done. some persons tell me that they always bank up a hotbed with earth. this enables it to retain the heat better than it is possible for it to do without banking. a hotbed will be of no particular benefit unless supplemented by a cold-frame. this is simply a snug inclosure of boards covered with glass, into which plants from the hotbed are to be set for the purpose of hardening them off before they are put into the open ground. in other words, it is a hotbed without heat. the temperature in it ought to register from ° to °. raise the sash an inch or two on sunny days before the rays of the sun striking on the glass raise the temperature inside to a degree too intense for the good of your plants. it will be readily understood from what i have said above that in order to attain success in the management of a hotbed great care will have to be exercised at all times and frequent attention given. it is not a self-regulating thing by any means. you will have to consider the weather, the time of day when ventilation should be given, frequency of watering, and other matters which cannot be touched on here because of a more or less local character. plants in the hotbed should be watered cautiously. an over-supply will often cause the seedlings to "damp off," and a lack of sufficient moisture at the roots will speedily result in injury, if not death. whenever water is applied, use a sprinkler that throws a fine spray. if thrown on the soil in a stream the water will often wash the smaller plants out of place. it may puzzle one to tell when _just enough_ has been given. this is best determined by an examination of the soil. if moderately moist there is plenty of moisture below. x small gardens many persons who would like to grow flowers and vegetables do not attempt to grow any because they do not consider that they have a place large enough to justify them in doing so. here is where they make a mistake. a garden need not be a large one to be enjoyable. a few plants are better than none. it is possible to make a bit of garden more satisfactory than a large one because it will be more likely to get more attention than would be given to the larger one, and attention is one of the important features of any successful garden. there will, in the majority of cases, be little nooks and corners here and there about the home grounds in which some plants can be grown by those disposed to make the most of existing conditions. these, if not improved, will be pretty sure to be given over to weeds, or to the accumulation of rubbish of one kind or another, and they will detract from the tidy and clean appearance which should characterize the home everywhere. if the owners of these bits of ground--these possibilities for adding to the attractiveness of home--could be made to realize the amount of pleasure they could be made to afford with very little exertion on their part, the general work of civic improvement societies would be most beneficial, and this would be done at the very place where civic improvement ought to start--the home. there can be no real and lasting improvement in civic undertaking unless the individual home takes up the matter. the civic improvement society that starts out with the idea of improving things generally, but does not begin the good work _at the home_ is working on the idea of making clean the outside of the cup and ignoring the condition inside it. just as the home is the foundation of society, so must it be made the pivotal point at which any substantial and lasting improvement finds its beginning. because the scattered places about the small home in which few plants could be grown will not admit of bed-making, or the "designs" which many persons seem to think indispensable in gardening, is no good reason why we should not take advantage of and make the most of them. if one lives in a community where there are german families he will be surprised at the amount of vegetables they grow in each home-lot. not an inch of soil is allowed to go to waste. a large amount of the food of the family is grown in places which most americans would overlook, simply because of the prevailing idea that unless one can do things on a large scale it is not worth while to attempt doing anything. the german has been brought up to not "despise the day of small things," and he profits by the advice. as we might, if we would, and, i am glad to say, as more and more are profiting by year by year as they become aware of the fact that much can be done where conditions are limited. i would not advise much mixing of varieties. on the contrary, i would prefer to give over each little piece of ground to one plant. those of low habit i would have near the path, giving the places back of them to taller-growing kinds. of course, in the majority of small homes, there is not much chance for exercising a choice in the location of one's flowering or vegetable plants; still, it is well to study the possibilities for general effect, and do all that can be done to secure pleasing results. where plants that grow to a height of three feet are grown, the best place for them is at the rear, or along the boundary of the lot, where they will serve as a background for plants of lower habit. children should be encouraged to take an interest in the cultivation of small gardens. they will do this if the parents are willing to help them a little at the start. show them how to spade up the soil in spring, and how to work it over and over until it is fine and mellow. they will make play of this part of garden work, as it is as natural for a child to dig in the dirt as it is for a pig to wallow in a mud-puddle. add some kind of fertilizer to the soil, and explain to the boys and girls that it is food for the plants that are to be. show them how to sow seed, and tell them all you can about the processes of germination, and encourage them to watch for the appearance of the seedlings. in a short time you will have aroused in them such interest in the work they have undertaken that it will be as fascinating to them as a story, and nature will take delight in writing it out for them in daily instalments that constantly increase in interest. the ability to know plants and how to grow them ought to be a part of every child's education. don't let a bit of ground go to waste. have flowers and vegetables, even if there isn't room for more than half a dozen plants--or only _one_ plant for that matter, for that one solitary plant will be a great deal better than none at all. xi left-overs there are more ways than one to secure fertilizers and fine soil for the small garden. if sward is cut from the roadside, chopped into small pieces, and stored away in some corner of the yard that is convenient to get at, and the soapsuds from wash-day are poured over it each week, it will, in a short time, if stirred frequently, become a most excellent substitute for leaf-mold. the grassroots, when decayed, will become a vegetable fertilizer which will be found extremely valuable in the culture of such plants as require a light, rich soil, especially when small. * * * * * some quite artistic effects can be secured in the vegetable-garden by the exercise of a little thought. the large-leaved beet has foliage of a dark, rich crimson quite as ornamental as that of many plants used by gardeners to produce the "tropical effects" which many persons admire. when planted in the background, with fine-foliaged plants like carrot or parsley in front of it, the effect will be extremely pleasing because of the contrast of color, and also of habit. the red pepper, planted where it can show its brilliantly colored fruit against the green of some plant, will give a bit of brightness that will not fail to be appreciated by those who have a keen eye for color-harmony. it is well to plan for these touches of the artistic, even in the vegetable garden. * * * * * tomatoes are often grown on racks and trellises. where this is done there will be no danger of the fruit's decaying, as is often the case when the plants are given no support and their branches come in contact with the ground. it is a good idea to scatter clean, dry straw under the plants after they begin to set fruit. * * * * * it is also a good plan to pinch off the ends of some of the tomato-vines after the first liberal setting of fruit. this throws the strength of the plant into the development of the fruit that has set, instead of into the production of new branches which are not needed. it also hastens the maturity of it. if the tomato is allowed to do so it will keep on growing and blooming and setting fruit throughout the entire season, and as a natural consequence much of it will be immature when frost comes. it is well to prevent this wasting of the plant's forces by shortening the main branches of it in august and september. * * * * * in the chapter devoted to the mention of the best varieties of vegetables to plant, i neglected to say a good word for sage and summer savory, both of which the housewife will find very useful in seasoning soups, sausage, and other articles of food. if cut when in their prime and hung in the shade to dry, all their flavor will be retained. when perfectly dry, rub the leaves from the stalks, pulverize them well, and store in paper bags to prevent the loss of their flavor. * * * * * dill and caraway seed are often used in cookery, and, as "variety is the spice of life," it may be well for the housewife to grow a few plants of each. the writer has a very vivid recollection of grandmother's caraway cookies, and many of the present generation declare a liking for pickles flavored with dill. * * * * * to add to the attractive appearance of the table in winter i would advise growing a few plants of the red or purple cabbage to work up in slaws and salads. beets are capable of giving a bit of color to the table that will be as pleasing to the eye as the taste of this vegetable is delightful to the palate. a root of parsley, potted in fall, will not only afford much material for the garnishing of the various dishes to which the housewife likes to add a touch of this kind, but it can be made the basis of a really beautiful table decoration. a few bright flowers thrust in among its crinkly foliage will be quite as effective as many more pretentious decorative schemes. * * * * * the amateur gardener may begin work with the belief that one crop in a season is all he can expect from his garden. he will soon discover his mistake. the early radishes and the first crop of lettuce will mature before midsummer, and the ground they occupied can be planted to later varieties from which a fully developed second crop can be expected. or other vegetables, like beets and onions, can be planted where they grew, to furnish material for the pickling season. after the early potatoes have been dug the ground they occupied should not be allowed to lie idle. something can be planted there for fall use. to make the garden the greatest possible source of profit, not a foot of it should be suffered to go to waste at any time during the growing season. * * * * * radishes would be well worth growing for their beauty alone. a plate of them, nested in their own green foliage gives the breakfast-table a touch of bright color that adds the charm of beauty to the food with which it is associated. the writer believes in making the table as attractive in appearance as the food on it is toothsome whenever it is possible to do so. * * * * * i notice that i have overlooked the pumpkin. the oversight was unintentional, and i beg the pardon of the vegetable without which the housewife would be "lost" along about thanksgiving-time. the pumpkin is out of place in the small garden because of its rampant growth, but a few plants of the new england pie variety should be grown wherever there is room for it, to supply material for the delicious pumpkin pies most of us enjoy so much in winter. well-ripened specimens keep well when stored in cool, dry cellars, if placed on racks or shelves that will prevent them from coming in contact with the cold, damp cellar-bottom. * * * * * if frost nips the tomato-vines before all their fruit is fully ripened, pull them up and hang them against a wall where the sun can get at them. hang blankets over them if the nights are cold. here they will ripen as perfectly as on the vines in the garden, and one can enjoy fresh fruit from them until the coming of very cold weather. * * * * * before cold weather sets in go over the garden, be it large or small, and gather up every bit of rubbish that can be found. pull up the dead plants and burn them. store racks and trellises under cover for use another season. if these are properly taken care of they will last for several years, but if left exposed to the storms of winter they will be short-lived. * * * * * dig a quantity of parsnips and salsify to be stored in the cellar for winter use. cover the strawberry-bed with leaves or straw, spreading lightly. coarse litter from the barn-yard is often used for this purpose, but it is objectionable because of its containing so many weed-seeds. * * * * * many experienced gardeners advocate plowing or spading the garden in fall. this, they claim, helps to kill the larvæ which insects have deposited in the soil, and it puts the ground in good working condition earlier in spring. but it will have to be gone over in spring to incorporate with it whatever fertilizer is made use of. * * * * * fresh barn-yard manure should never be used. it ought to lie for at least a season before applying it to the vegetable-garden. give it a chance to ferment and kill many of the seeds that are in it. * * * * * if the soil of the garden contains considerable clay, and is rather stiff in consequence, the application of coarse sand, old mortar, and coal-ashes will lighten and greatly improve it. * * * * * do not allow grass or weeds to grow on any of the unused soil in or about the garden, for insects will congregate there and make it the base from which to make their raids upon the plants you set out to grow. * * * * * we are often advised to apply a dressing of salt to the asparagus-bed. i have never been able to see that the plants received any direct benefit from it, but if it is scattered quite thickly over the ground it will prevent weeds from growing, thus benefiting the plants indirectly. * * * * * asparagus is often attacked by a sporadic growth which causes the foliage to look rusty, hence the term, asparagus-rust. as soon as it is discovered, cut the tops and burn them. if allowed to remain the plants will likely be attacked next season, as the spores are not killed by cold. * * * * * if the bugs and beetles that attack young plants of cucumber, squash, and melon do not yield promptly to the application of dry road-dust, fine coal-ashes, or land-plaster, it may be well to cover frames with fine wire netting, such as door- and window-screens are made from, and put over the plants. care should be taken to see that these frames fit the ground snugly, or have earth banked up about them, to prevent the enemy from crawling under. after the plants have made their third or fourth leaves the beetle will not be likely to injure them. * * * * * i am often asked why writers on gardening matters never advise the use of home-grown seed. one answer to this query is this: in the ordinary garden plants stand close to one another, and the varieties we grow are almost sure to mix, by one variety being pollenized by another. the seed from these plants will seldom produce plants like either parent variety. sometimes they may be equal to them in most respects, but we cannot depend on their being so. therefore, if we desire to grow superior varieties that are of pure blood, it becomes necessary for us to procure fresh seed each season from dealers who take pains to see that there shall be no "mixing" among their plants. * * * * * every season some enterprising seedsman comes out with an announcement that he has developed or discovered a remarkable new variety of some standard vegetable so far superior to any other variety on the market that, as soon as its merits become fully known, it will drive all competitors out of the field. of course this new candidate for favor is offered at a fancy price, "because the supply is limited, and the demand for it is increasing to such an extent that the entire stock will soon be sold out. order at once, to avoid disappointment." don't be in a hurry to take this advice. wait until next season. the chances are that you will hear nothing more about it. we have so many very excellent varieties now that there is no reason why we should ask for anything better. if the "novelty" is the possessor of real merit you will be sure to hear about it later, but it is hardly likely to prove an improvement on what we already have, for it is hard to imagine anything superior to the standard varieties of vegetables that we have at present. * * * * * i would not advise purchasing seed at the general store. some of this may be reliable, but so much of it is inferior that one cannot afford to run the risk of experimenting with it. it is the part of wisdom to purchase where you can feel sure of getting just the variety you want. * * * * * we are likely to have a few frosty nights along about the middle of september. tender vegetables may be injured if not protected. but if covered with blankets or papers the danger may be tided over, and during the long period of pleasant weather that generally follows these early frosts we can get as much pleasure out of the garden as it afforded during the early fall. it pays to protect. * * * * * the housewife will take a great deal of delight in the preparation of piccalilli, chow-chow, and the various other condiments which have such a stimulating effect on the appetite in early spring, when "that tired feeling" is likely to make a good deal of the food that is placed before us unattractive. in the making of these good things unripe tomatoes and peppers will play an important part. so will onions that are too small to store away for winter use. she will find use for all of these things which a man would consider worthless. really, there is but little chance for waste of garden productions if there is an appreciative and prudent woman in the kitchen. * * * * * a few roots of horseradish should find a place in all gardens, preferably in some out-of-the-way corner where it can be allowed to spread without interfering with other plants. spread it will, every little piece of root that is broken off in the ground in digging the large roots becoming an independent plant as soon as thrown upon its own resources. because of this tendency to "take possession of the land" many persons who have undertaken its culture refuse to give it a place in their gardens. but it is really an easy matter to keep it within the limits assigned it by promptly uprooting any plant that may make its appearance outside the space given over to it. those who are fond of something pungent and peppery to eat with meats, either hot or cold, will not consent to be without it. it is at its best as soon as the frost is out of the ground sufficiently to admit of its being dug. it should be used as soon as possible after digging, as it loses much of its piquant quality if left exposed to the air for a short time. roots can be dug in late fall for winter use, and packed in boxes of soil, which should be stored in the cellar or some other place where they can be kept as cool as possible without actually freezing. but in order to have it in perfection roots freshly dug in spring must be depended on. * * * * * leaves of horseradish make excellent greens if used when green and tender. a few of them cooked with young beets will give the latter a flavor that will make their sweetness all the more appreciable. * * * * * speaking of greens reminds me to say that the dandelion can be cultivated to advantage in the home garden. under cultivation it improves in size, and becomes a plant quite unlike the tiny, hundred-leaved specimens we dig from the roadside in spring, of which a bushel will be required in order to secure a good "mess" for a greens-loving family, as most of such a picking will have to be discarded when it is "looked over" preparatory to cooking. in order to prevent the garden-grown dandelion from becoming a nuisance it must not be allowed to bloom and develop seed. * * * * * a most delightful salad can be made from the new growth of the dandelion, in spring, if properly bleached. this can be done by covering the plants with dry leaves as soon as they begin to grow, thus excluding light and inducing rapid development. or, if most convenient, flower-pots can be inverted over the plants. the small amount of light that comes to them through the drainage-hole in the bottom of the pot will materially assist in hastening the growth of the leaves in such a manner as to give them a crisp tenderness and deprive them of that bitter tang which characterizes the foliage when fully grown under exposure to the light and air. just enough of this spicy quality to make the salad delightfully appetizing will be found in them when grown in this way. * * * * * mention has several times been made in the preceding pages of bordeaux mixture. this is a preparation used by small-fruit growers everywhere to combat diseases of a fungous character which prevail to an alarming extent in almost all sections of the country in early spring. it is a standard remedy for many of the ills that this class of plants is heir to, and no up-to-date orchardist would think for a moment of neglecting its use if he would grow a fine crop of apples. it has not heretofore come into common use among those who grow small fruit on a small scale, because it is rather difficult to prepare it properly, but now a preparation of it that is ready for use by simply mixing it with water can be obtained from all seedsmen. the use of it in spring when fruit is setting, to prevent injury from the curculio and other enemies of small fruits, is to be encouraged. * * * * * every gardener should be provided with pruning-shears with which to prune whatever plants he or she may grow that require frequent attention of that kind. a jack-knife answers the purpose very well in the hands of a man, but up to the present time no woman is known to have made a success of its use. * * * * * currant-bushes grow readily from cuttings. insert a piece of half-ripened wood five or six inches long into the ground and it will almost invariably take root. in order to keep this plant in healthy bearing condition it should be pruned rather severely each season. cut away all weak wood, and encourage the production of strong new shoots, from which fruit will be borne next season. remove a good share of the old branches after they have ripened the present season's crop. if this is not done the bush will after a little become crowded with branches, and as all branches, old and new, will attempt to bear, you will be pretty sure to have a production of very inferior fruit, since it will be impossible for the bush to perfect all the berries that set and have them come up to the standard of superiority that should govern the grower. small currants are good, as far as they go, but the trouble is--they don't go far enough. many of them will have to be discarded when the housewife makes her selection. * * * * * if the amateur gardener desires to give some of his vegetables an early start, i would advise him to try what may be called the "sod-method" in preference to any other. sod is cut from roadside or pasture in fall and stacked up in the cellar for use in early spring. when seed is to be sown, invert the piece of sod, and scatter the seed over the surface, which, it will be understood, was _not_ the surface originally. in other words, what _was_ the surface is now the bottom of the piece which receives the seed. when it comes time to put the seedlings out of doors the sod can be cut apart in such a manner that each has its bit of soil, and this can be transferred to the garden without interfering in any way with the roots of the young plant. * * * * * while barn-yard manure--especially that which contains a good deal of cow manure--is one of the very best of all fertilizers, it is not always obtainable, and this makes it necessary to resort to some kind of commercial fertilizer. if one is not familiar with any of these fertilizers he ought not to select at random, as he may get a kind not at all adapted to his requirements. i would advise finding some one who understands the peculiarity of the soil in his locality, and who has had some experience in the use of commercial fertilizers, and being governed by his advice. experimental knowledge is often expensive, and the use of a fertilizer that is not adapted to the soil in one's garden often ruins a season's crops. * * * * * the ideal support for pea-vines is brush, but not every gardener is able to obtain it. some persons substitute binder-twine stretched from stake to stake. this answers very well as long as the weather remains dry, but as soon as a rain-storm comes along the twine absorbs so much moisture that it relaxes its tension and sags in such a manner as to endanger the vines which have taken hold of it. coarse-meshed wire netting will be found much more satisfactory, as it will not sag and cannot be blown down by winds. care must be taken to see that it _is_ coarse-meshed, as the fine-meshed sorts will not admit of the vine's working its way out and in among the meshes. if a supply of brush can be obtained, use it by all means, and at the end of the pea-season pull it up and store it away in a dry place. if this is done, it can be made to do duty for several seasons. if netting is used, do not allow it to remain out of doors in winter. by untacking it from the stakes which are set for its support, and rolling it up carefully, and storing it away from the storms of winter, it can be made to last a lifetime. * * * * * don't depend upon home-grown seed. some of it may be just as good as that which can be bought from reliable seedsmen, but the probabilities are that it is not, because of the tendencies of most plants to "mix." plants grown from seed saved from the home garden often--and generally--show some of the characteristics of several varieties of the same family, and frequently these characteristics are not the ones we would like to perpetuate. seedlings from varieties pollenized by other varieties show a decided inclination to revert to original types, and these are in most instances the very characteristics we would like to get away from. it is always advisable to procure fresh seed each season, and to procure it from men who make seed-growing a specialty. * * * * * the housewife who likes to make her table and the food she places upon it as attractive as possible, will do well to pot a few plants of parsley in early fall. choose for this purpose the smaller plants. three or four can be put into one pot if the latter is of good size. these can be kept in the kitchen window, where they will be quite as ornamental as most house plants, or they can be kept in the cellar window if frost is prevented from getting to them. from them one can always obtain material for the decoration of roasts and other dishes which require garnishment. * * * * * squashes and pumpkins will not keep well if stored in very warm places. a room that is just a little above the frost-point is the best place for them. it will be found far superior to a cellar, as the latter is generally more or less damp, and dampness is one of the worst enemies of these vegetables. a cool, dry atmosphere is what they need, and if it can be given them they can be kept in fine condition throughout the entire winter. care should be taken, in gathering them, to not break their stems. if this is done they frequently decay at the place where stem and vegetable unite, and this condition spreads rapidly to all portions of them. * * * * * the question is frequently asked: would you advise plowing or spading the garden in fall? if it could have but one season's attention, i would advise giving it in spring. but if the owner of a garden has ample time to devote to it, i would advise plowing or spading in both seasons. turning up the soil in fall exposes to the elements that portion of it which is most likely to contain worms and insects which have burrowed away for the winter, and it is desirable to make way with as many of these as possible. stirring the soil in spring will do them very little harm, as the weather will be in their favor. fall stirring of the soil is also conducive to a greater degree of mellowness than is likely to result from one operation, and that in spring, as the clods of earth that are thrown up disintegrate under the influence of frost and will be in a condition to pulverize easily when spring comes. * * * * * the average gardener doesn't seem to associate the growing of vegetables with an idea of beauty, but he will find, if he looks into the matter, that the vegetable-garden can be made really ornamental. a row of carrots with its feathery green foliage is quite as attractive as many of our decorative plants; and beets, with crimson foliage, are really tropical in their rich coloring. parsley and lettuce make excellent and ornamental edgings for beds containing other vegetables. tomatoes, trained to upright trellises, are quite as showy as many kinds of flowers, when their fruit begins to ripen. peppers work in charmingly with the colorscheme of the vegetable-garden. a little study of garden possibilities will soon convince one that it is an easy matter to make the vegetable-garden as attractive, so far as color is concerned, as the flower-garden is. and while we are at work at gardening, why not make it as attractive as possible? the pleasing appearance of it will lend additional qualities to the fine flavor of its vegetables if we believe that beauty and practicality ought to work in harmony with each other. * * * * * sage, summer savory, and other garden-grown plants used for seasoning or medicinal purposes should be gathered when in their prime. if one waits until late in the season before cutting them, much of their virtue will have been expended in the ripening process which all plants undergo after they complete their growth. cut them close to the ground, and tie them in loose bunches, and hang them in a shady place until their moisture has evaporated. then put them in paper bags and hang away in a store-room or closet for the winter. plants treated in this way will retain nearly all their original flavor, and be found far superior to the kinds you buy at the store. cucumbers that have grown to full size should be gathered if not wanted for use, as to allow them to remain on the vines after reaching maturity, and while ripening, materially affects the productiveness of the plants. * * * * * endive is the basis of one of our best and most wholesome fall and winter salads. when nearly full-grown it must be bleached, like celery. gather the leaves together and tie them in such a manner as to exclude the light. do this when they are perfectly dry. if wet or damp they are likely to rot. * * * * * some gardeners use what is called onion "sets" instead of seed. these "sets" are the result of sowing seed very thickly in spring the season before they are wanted for planting. as soon as their tops die off in summer--as they will if seed was sown thickly enough--store in a dry and airy place, and the following spring replant. by this method large onions are obtained very early in the season. most market-gardeners depend on "sets" instead of seed. * * * * * mention has been made of a few of our pot and medicinal plants. here is a larger list for those who are interested in plants of this kind: balm, sweet basil, caraway, catnip, camomile, coriander, dill, pennyroyal, peppermint, saffron, tansy, and wormwood. our grandmothers had unlimited faith in the medicinal qualities of some of these plants, and many a mother will be glad to know that she has a stock of some of them stored away for winter use when colds and coughs are prevalent among children or grown people. some of the old home remedies are far preferable to those we are accustomed to using, as they are harmless, if they do no good, which is something that cannot be said of most drugs that are taken into the system. * * * * * don't wait for the currant-worm to show itself on your bushes. you can safely count on its coming. act on the defensive in advance by spraying your plants thoroughly with an infusion of nicoticide, keeping in mind the fact that it is easier to prevent an insect from establishing itself on your plants than it is to get rid of it when it has secured a foothold there. in spraying, be sure that the infusion gets to all parts of the bush. throw it up well among the branches. simply spraying it over the plant isn't what is needed. it must reach the under side of the foliage, and all parts where insects and other enemies might hide away and escape contact with the infusion used. * * * * * when the small-fruit plants in your garden show evidence of having outlived their usefulness, don't try to renew them, but dig them up and plant new ones. you cannot make a satisfactory plant out of one that has begun to show age. it is a good plan to set a few new plants each season. if this is done there need be no gap in the fruit-supply, as there will always be some coming on to take the places of those whose days of usefulness are over. too often we neglect our gardens until they are in such a debilitated condition that we get but slight returns from them, and then we set to work to make them all over, and in this way we fail to get as much out of them as we ought to. by planting something each season we keep them up to bearing-point, and have no "off seasons." * * * * * i wonder how many housewives who may read this little book have ever dried sweet-corn for winter use. not many, i think. but if they were to do so one season i am quite confident that thereafter they would not willingly be without a generous supply of it, for it will be found far more delicious than the ordinary canned article. in drying it, some cook it for a few minutes, and then cut it from the cob and spread it out on plates to dry. others do not think it worth while to cook it, but cut it from the cob as soon as gathered, and dry it by first putting it in the oven for a few minutes before exposing it to the sun to dry. the little time in the oven is equivalent to the partial cooking spoken of. turn it on the plates on which it is spread every day, and do not consider it dry enough to store away until it appears to have parted with all its moisture. then put it into paper bags or glass jars, and set away in a cool, dark place to remain until you desire to use it. soak it for two or three hours before putting it on the stove to cook. when properly cooked it will be tender and have a more delicious flavor than canned corn. the generous use of butter and cream will make it a dish that is fit to set before a king. * * * * * those who happen to live in places where it is not possible to have cellars, because of low ground, can have places in which to store vegetables for winter use that are really preferable to the ordinary cellar, by constructing what might be called above-ground pits, for want of a better name. build up a wall four or five feet high, and bank up about it with so much earth that frost cannot penetrate it. cover with a roof that will keep out cold and rain. have a doorway opening into it from an entry built after the fashion of the little storm-vestibules we put over the front doors of our dwellings in winter. in other words, an entry into which we can step and close one door behind us before we open the one that lets us into the place where our vegetables are. such a room can be constructed with but little expense. because of its being above ground it will be drier than a cellar, and in the majority of cases it will be more convenient to get at. it should be boarded up with a good quality of matched boarding, and its walls should be lined with two or three thicknesses of sheathing paper put on in such a manner as to show no cracks or openings. * * * * * the best place for a vegetable-garden is where the soil is naturally well drained and where there is a slope to the south. such a slope enables it to get the full benefit of sunshine, and sunshine, it will be found, is an important factor in successful gardening. if such an exposure is out of the question, aim to make conditions as favorable as possible. a closely boarded fence on the north side of a garden affords excellent protection from cold winds early in the season, and helps greatly in keeping away frost in fall, when many plants are maturing. mention is made in the above paragraph of good drainage. this is quite important. if the soil of a garden is _not_ well drained, many kinds of vegetables cannot be grown in it, and few will attain to even a partial degree of success. therefore see to it that by ditching, or the use of tile, all surplus water is properly disposed of. much good can be done to a heavy soil by adding to it sharp, coarse sand, old mortar--anything that will have a tendency to counteract the heaviness resulting from undue retention of water or a naturally too close character of soil. if sand is obtainable, and your garden is one in which clay predominates, use it in generous quantities. you will find it as beneficial as manure. spread it over the surface before plowing or spading, and work it in thoroughly. a few seasons' application will bring about a very marked change for the better in any garden whose soil cannot be made fine and mellow without the addition of some disintegrating matter. good drainage must be secured in order to grow good vegetables, and the use of tile will be found a most effective remedy for the evil of a soil unduly retentive of moisture. * * * * * in almost all localities there will be families who have no garden, but who would make liberal use of vegetables if they were easily procurable. there is a chance for boys and girls to earn an "honest penny." if it is found that there is likely to be more in the home garden than the family can make use of, canvass the neighborhood for customers for the probable surplus. it will be found an easy matter to dispose of it. i know several amateur child gardeners who secure enough in this way to pay for all the seed they need. some of them have regular customers each season, and gardening begins to look to them like a profitable occupation. i don't know that they will become professional gardeners, but they will be learning something as well as earning something while they are fitting themselves for whatever occupation in life they may decide on, and what they learn in the garden will be of benefit in after-life in more ways than one. don't neglect to save everything that can be made use of for fertilizing purposes. in many a home the "suds" of washing-day are disposed of as worthless. if applied to growing things in the garden they will often prove as beneficial as the application of a fertilizer that costs quite a little sum of money. especially is this the case if the season happens to be a dry one. if there does not seem to be a need of more moisture in the soil on wash-day, save the soapy water against a time of need. it will be sure to "come handy" during the season. some families are so unfortunate as to have no cellar. few vegetables can be kept well, or for a great length of time, in ordinary rooms, unless something is done to modify the conditions usually existing there. if a large box is filled with dry sand, potatoes, parsnips, salsify, beets, and carrots can be buried in it and made to retain their freshness for an indefinite period. of course this storage-box should be kept as far as possible from artificial heat, and no dampness should be allowed to come in contact with it, as sand absorbs moisture almost as readily as a sponge, and the satisfactory keeping of the vegetables named depends upon dryness more than anything else. the lower the temperature of the place in which vegetables are stored the better, provided it never gets below the freezing-point. where boxes of sand are used, slight freezings are not likely to seriously injure vegetables, as the sand extracts the frost so gradually that but little harm is done. but hard freezing must be guarded against or premature decay will result. it is an excellent plan to bury some of the vegetables named above in a dry place in the garden, for use in spring. they will be found as fresh and crisp as when put into the ground, if covered deep enough to protect them from frost. xii health in the garden. a chapter expressly for women readers the writer of this book often finds women who seem "all run down," without being able to tell of any positive physical ailment. inquiry generally develops the fact that they have overworked; that they have been confined to the house the greater part of the time, busy with household matters, and that in caring for others they have neglected to care for themselves. though i am not an m.d. i take the liberty of prescribing for patients of this class. my prescription is a course of treatment in the garden. i insist on their getting out of doors, where the air is pure, and the sunshine bright and warm, and nature is waiting to give her pleasant companionship to whoever signifies a desire to make her acquaintance. there is health in the garden. but because one has to dig for it some persons prefer to keep on enjoying their old miserableness day after day and year after year. these are the incurables--the "chronic" cases that one cannot expect to do much with or for. but those who are willing to exert themselves in an effort to get back the tone that life has lost to a considerable extent will find that work in the garden is a better tonic than our doctors have a record of in their pharmacopoeia. the earth fairly tingles with life in spring, and by putting ourselves in contact with it we absorb some of this vitality. we breathe in the wine of a _new_ life, and we thrill with a thousand sensations that can come only from putting ourselves in close touch with nature. you can tell a woman who needs a change from indoors to outdoors that she ought to take more exercise, but if you advise walking the chances are that she won't walk much. that kind of exercise doesn't appeal to her, and to make whatever kind of exercise she takes effective it must be something that affords her pleasure--something that she enjoys more than she does doing things from a "_sense of duty_," or simply because she has been _told_ to do it. what is needed is some form of exercise that has _an object in it_--a definite object, rather than the more or less abstract one of "regaining health." give her a few packages of seeds and arouse in her the enthusiasm to have a garden and she will get the very best kind of exercise out of her attempt to carry out the plan, and the "definite object"--in other words, the garden--that she has in mind will keep her so delightfully busy that she will forget all about the health-features of the undertaking until it dawns upon her with startling suddenness some fine day that she "has got her health back." how or when it came she cannot tell you. all she knows is that she feels like a new woman. after that there will be no necessity to repeat the prescription, for one year's half-way successful work in the garden fixes "the garden habit" for all time. nothing else can afford so much pleasure and exercise in happy combination as gardening, or exert a greater fascination over the person who allows herself to come under its influence. i cannot begin to tell you what wonderful and delightful things i have learned in the garden. it is like having the book of nature opened before you and being taught its lore by the book's own author. you see magical things taking place about you every day, and every day there are more of them, to set you thinking and wondering. you may work until you are tired, but you do not realize physical wear and tear because your mind has something else that it considers of greater importance to busy itself over. only after the work of the day is done will you become conscious of physical weariness, and then it is that you find out what the luxury of rest is; to fully appreciate rest we must first understand what it is to be really tired. lassitude, ennui--these do not give us a knowledge of genuine tiredness, therefore we are not in a condition to receive the full benefit of that rest which means a reaction of the physical system until we have done some kind of work that makes reaction necessary in order to establish a normal equilibrium. the rest that comes after getting really tired is so full of delightful sensations that we admit to ourselves that it is richly worth the price we have to pay for it. there is a subtle charm about garden work from its very beginning. the seed we sow has a mystery wrapped up in it. the processes of germination are as fascinating as a fairytale. the development of the tiny seedling is a source of constant wonder to us. we watch for the first bud with eager impatience, and it has to be on the alert if it succeeds in opening without our being on hand to observe the performance. spring begins the story, summer carries it forward, and autumn seems to complete it, but there is always the promise of the retelling of the story another year to keep us interested from the end of one season to the coming of another. garden work is a sort of thousand and one days' entertainment, in which the interest is continually kept up--always something to look forward to--always something new. the woman who grows weary over the monotony of household duties, but cannot put them entirely aside, will find relaxation in the garden. the change will rest her. and the woman who has no household duties to claim her attention needs something to get interested in. both will find the necessary stimulus in growing flowers. but in order to do this it must not be "played at." set about it because you mean to accomplish something. a week after you have begun in earnest you will find yourself looking forward impatiently to the hour that takes you out of doors. you will forget about the gloves that you probably provided yourself with at the outset. you won't be bothered with veils. tan will have no terrors for you. you will look upon dirt as something pleasing because you begin to see the possibilities in it. you will go back to the house with an appetite that makes plain bread and butter delicious. have a garden. and do all the work in it yourself. that's the secret of the benefit you are to get out of it. the end transcriber's note -plain print and punctuation errors fixed.